A brief history of epidemic and pestilential diseases; with the principal phenomena of the physical world, which precede and accompany them, and observations deduced from the facts stated. : In two volumes. / By Noah Webster, author of Dissertations on the English language and several other works--member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences--of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, in the state of New-York--of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and corresponding member of the Historical Society in Massachusetts. ; Vol. I[-II].

SECTION III. Historical view of pestilential epidemics from the Christian era, to the year 1347.

AT the close of the reign of Augustus, about the year 14 or according to some authors 16 of the Christian era, there was a great famin in Rome, and a comet is mentioned, near the same time, by Dion Cassius. This was followed by a most terrible pestilence in the east, during which twelve cities of Asia Minor were overthrown by earthquakes. Of these ca|lamitous events, the following is the account recorded by Taci|tus, An. lib. 2. 47. "Eodem anno, duodecem celebres Asiae urb••s conlapsae nocturno motu terrae, quo improvisior gravior|que pestis fuit. Neque solitum in tali casu effugium subveniebat in aperta prorumpendi, quia diductis terris hauriebantur: Sedis|se immensos montes, visa in arduo quae plana fuerint, effulsisse inter ruinam ignis memorant."

It is a circumstance not to be overlooked that the plague was prevalent, anterior to this dreadful earthquake, as the historian remarks that this catastrophe rendered the sickness more severe and less tolerable. Such is the usual course of these calamities; the pestilence appears, before the most destructive shocks of the earth, which rarely fail to occur, during its prevalence. It is to be observed also that men obtained no security, in this in|stance, by flying to open places, for the earth opened and swal|lowed them up—fire also issued from the earth. Large moun|tains subsided to plains, and plains were thrown into mountains.

Tacitus An. lib. 2. 47. Plin. lib. 2. 84. Euseb. Chron. 201. Usher's Annals, 811.

In the year 40 of the Christian era, there was an eruption of Etna, which frightened Caligula out of Sicily and which was

followed by universal famin in Rome and the east.* 1.1 This was the famin foretold by Agabus in Acts xi. 28, in the reign of Claudius Cesar. A pe••tilence, at the same time raged in Bab|ylonia, and multitudes of Jews, on account of it, withdrew to Seleucia.

Suetonius in Calig. Univ. Hist. vol. 14. Usher's An. 864, 868.

During this famin and pestilence, a comet was visible in the year 42.

Short on Air, vol. 2. 170.

The close of the reign of Claudius and the beginning of the reign of Nero, A. D. 53 and 4, were marked by a similar train of phenomena and calamities. A comet is noted by Sue|tonius and Pliny about the year 54, the year in which Claudius was poisoned. Tacitus relates that people were alarmed by fre|quent shocks of earthquakes, which demolished many buildings, and great dearth of corn prevailed in Rome and Greece. Pliny records that thr•••• suns, by which are doubtless intended, halos or mock suns, appeared the same year. These were considered by the ancients as prodigies; but tho common phenomena, they are remarkably luminous, and frequent in the periods of pesti|lence.

Tacitus Annals, lib 12. 43. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. 2. 31. Suet. in Claud. Functius Chronol.

This period was sickly, tho not recorded as pestilential. Su|etonius remarks, "Ex omnium Magistratum generi, plerique mortem obierant." Many of all kinds of public officers died; by which we infer that the year was sickly.

In the reign of Nero occurred the next pestilential period. Two comets are noted, one A. D. 62 and a second in 66. In the year 62, Laodicea was overwhelmed by an earthquake. In the year 68, occurred a most violent tempest in Campania which destroyed villages, trees and grain; and a violent earthquake. At the same time, raged a mortal plague in Rome, which is said to have carried off 30,000 people; but by the description of its

ravages, it is probable the number was much greater. Tacitus remarks that the "houses were filled with dead bodies and the streets with funerals; neither age nor sex was exempt; slaves and ingenuous plebeians were suddenly taken off, amidst the la|mentations of their wives and children, who, while they assisted the sick, or mourned over the dead, were seized with the disease, and perishing, were burnt on the same funeral pile. To the knights and senators, the disease was less mortal, tho these also suffered in the common calamity."

As Rome, at the time under consideration, contained more than a million of inhabitants, so mortal a plague must have ex|tinguished a much larger number than 30,000 people—it is not improbable, a numeral or figure has been omitted by the trans|cribers of the original history.

The earthquakes of this period were experienced in Asia Mi|nor, at Laodicea and Hierapolis.

Seneca mentions that a flock of 600 sheep were killed by the pestiferous vapor, discharged during the earthquake in Italy.

Dion Cassius relates, that at this period, a most formidable in|undation laid waste the Egyptian coast.

It must not be omitted that the violent tempest in which St. Paul was shipwrecked on the island of Melita, now Malta, was in the year 61 or 62, during the approach of the first comet.

Tacitus remarks, that no visible cause could be assigned for the pestilence of this period; "Nulla Coeli intemperie quae occur|reret occulis." No remarkable season had occurred, to which this distemper could be ascribed. We shall find, in subsequent periods, distinguished writers making similar remarks. The rea|son is, these authors did not take a view sufficiently comprehen|sive of the operations of nature; and if the cause of plague could not be found, very near in time and place, they did not observe it. It is true, that an extraordinary season does not always precede or attend pestilence, in a particular place; but by extending our view of the subject, to general causes, operating over whole quar|ters of the globe, and perhaps over the whole globe; and con|sidering the causes, as invisible, and acting for a series of years,

the whole mystery is unfolded.—Such may be the result of this investigation.

For authorities respecting the last period of pestilence here noticed, see Tacitus▪ An. lib. 15. 47. lib. 16. 13. Suet. in Nero. Seneca, Nat. Quest. 6 and 7. Baronuis, vol. 1. 620. Plin. Nat. Hist. lib. 2. 83. Usher's Annals, 892. Funct. Chron. Oros. lib. 7. Universal Hist. vol. 14. 439. Magd. Ec. Hist. lib. 2. 13.

Seneca places the great earthquake in Campania under the Consulship of Regulus and Virginius, which, according to com|mon chronology, was in the 65th year of the Christian era.

The next pestilential period is one of the most remarkable in all the circumstances, that is recorded in History.

In the year 79 [some authors say a year later, but the diffe|rence is of no moment, as they agree in the order of the events related] just before the death of Vespasian, appeared a comet with a long coma in the month of June. On the first of Novem|ber following, a most tremendous ebullition of fire and lava issu|ed from Vesuvius and laid waste the neighboring country. At the same time, happened a violent earthquake, which buried the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeium; and so sudden was the shock, that the people, who were attending a play, had not time to quit the theater, and were all buried in a mass.

This dreadful catastrophe was preceded by rumbling noises in the earth, and the earth was heated to a great degree. Violent agitations of the sea, thunder and lightning also announced the approach of some dreadful event.

The eruption lasted three days, during which time such im|mense quantities of ashes and smoke were discharged, that day was turned into night, and the ashes were driven by different winds to Rome, Syria and Africa.

The agitations of the earth and the elements were tremendous and frighful. Baronius remarks, that some persons supposed the world would be reduced to chaos, or consumed with fire. The fish in the neighboring seas were destroyed.

This explosion of subterranean fire was preceded by a severe drouth in Italy. The next year, 80, was remarkable for a terri|ble inundation in England; the Severn overflowing a large tract of country, and destroying multitudes of cattle.

These violent effects of subterranean fire were attended by one of the most fatal plagues recorded in history. A remark of Dion is here very important. He says that the "Ashes from Vesuvi|us caused, at the time, only slight indispositions or diseases; but afterwards produced an Epidemic distemper," The remark is incorrect, in ascribing even slight diseases to ashes; but it leads to a conclusion, which is of moment. The slight complaints which prevailed in the autumn of the year of the eruption, com|pared with modern observations, appear to have been the precur|sors of the plague, which broke out the next year, and as au|thors assert, destroyed, for some time, 10,000 citizens of Rome in a day.—The same year, while the Emperor Titus was view|ing the ruins in Campania, a fire broke out in the city, which laid in ashes a great number of buildings.

The order of the events in this period was, a comet, drouth, slight diseases, and an eruption of Vesuvius, with the earth|quakes, the first year.—In the second, appeared the pestilence with its most malignant effects.

In this eruption of Vesuvius, the first recorded in history, per|ished the elder Pliny; and the Emperor Titus fell a victim to his paternal care of his subjects.

Suetonius, 23. Aurel. Victor. Epit. Dion Cassius. Pliny Epis. Baronius An. vol. 1. 713. Magd. lib. 2. 14.

In the year 90 appeared a comet. The plague is said to have appeared in the north of England in 88, and in 92, to have de|stroyed 150,000 lives in Scotland.

Short, vol. 2. 207.

In 102 a plague is said to have arisen from dead fish driven on shore, but I have no other particulars.

In the year 107 four cities of Asia, two in Greece and three in Galatia, were overwhelmed by an earthquake. A comet is mentioned by Short in 109▪ but as I have not found the original authority, I cannot depend on the accuracy of the chronology. It is probable that these phenomena occurred within the same year; and there is the more reason to believe this, as different and respectable authors differ two or three years in the chronology of Roman history. The next event to be related, is a re|markable instance of the truth of this observation.

Short mentions a plague in Wales in 114 which destroyed 45,000 lives; but I have not the history of the facts.

In the reign of Trajan, the city of Antioch was almost to|tally demolished by an earthquake. This emperor was in the city at the time, and narrowly escaped with his life. Some au|thors place this event in the year 114; others in 115; but Ba|ronius has proved by an ancient inscription, that it happened under the consulate of P. Vipstanus Messala and M. Virgilianus Pedo; which brings the event to the year 117. A comet was visible the same year.

The earthquakes of this period were extremely violent—ma|ny cities were overthrown, mountains sunk, rivers were dried up and new fountains appeared.

Aurelius Victor adds to these calamities a great inundation of the Tyber, violent pestilence and famin; but to which of the periods, the year 107 or 117, he alludes, is not quite certain, tho probably to the latter. "Terrae motus gravis per provin|cias multas, atroxque pestilentia, famesque et inundia facta sunt."

To remedy the danger from fire and earthquakes, Trajan limited the height of houses in Rome to 60 feet; and for that regulation obtained the title of "Father of the Country."

The great earthquake at Antioch was accompanied with fierce winds, a circumstance not very common; it being more usual that shocks of the earth happen during a perfect serenity and tranquillity of the atmosphere, unless in the vicinity of volca|noes.

Aurel. Victor. Epit. Trajan. Dion Cassius. Baronius vol. 2. 55. Echard's Rom. Hist. vol. 2. 276.

During the time that Trajan was making war on the Agarini, a people of Arabia, which had revolted from the Roman gov|ernment, flies in myriads appeared and covered every vessel and utensil, so that the Emperor was compelled to abandon the ex|pedition. This was near the time of the earthquake which de|stroyed Antioch.

Baron. 2. 54. Magd. Cent. 2. 13.

This fact ought not to be omitted; as the generation of innu|merable insects is one of the phenomena which generally attend a great pestilence—The same season was marked by terrible storms of wind, rain and hail-stones of unusual size. The win|ter

succeeding that in which Antioch was destroyed, was so tempestuous, and the Tigris so swelled by deluges of rain, that Trajan's army suffered extreme hardships and great losses, in his expedition into Assyria.

Under the year 115, I find mentioned a sudden and violent inundation of the Severn in England, which drowned people in their beds, and destroyed 5000 head of cattle. Perhaps phi|losophy will place this event, under the year of the earthquake at Antioch; whichever may be the true year, 115 or 117.

In the chronological tables, a great earthquake in China is mentioned under the year 114—the year of the plague in Wales.

Under the Emperor Adrian, say the compilers of the Mag|deburgh history, from Eusebius, the greatest part of Nicomedia and Nicea was overthrown by earthquakes; and not long after, Nicopolis and Cesarea were totally overwhelmed. Functius as|signs the fate of Nicomedia to the year 121, and that of Nicop|olis to 129. By another writer is noted a comet in 127, and a plague in Scotland.

Short, vol. 2. 207.

In 137 appeared a comet, followed by the plague.—In this year or the subsequent one, the Thames was almost dry.

The plague again made great havoc in Scotland in 146.—An eruption of fire from Lipari happened in 144.

In the year 153 happened a severe winter of three months, which covered the Thames and all rivers with ice.

In the reign of Antoninus Pius, A. D. 154, occurred an earthquake which prostrated some towns in Asia and Rhodes. A comet appeared nearly at the same time, and a pestilence in Arabia, together with an inundation of the Tyber.

Julius Capitolinus. Magdeb. Cent. 2. 13. Baronius vol. 2. 130.

Of the general and fatal pestilence in the reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Verus, we have many accounts. It appeared in Rome in 167, but its origin was in Asia, a year or two earlier. Ammianus Marcellinus, the philosophic soldier, relates that this plague originated from the foul air of a small box or chest, which a Roman soldier had opened, in search of plunder, after the taking of Seleucia. Julius Capitolinus men|tions

the same fact on the authority of mere vulgar report or tradition. "Et nata fertur pestilentia in Babylonia, ubi de templo Apollonis ex arcula aurea, quam milis forte inciderat, spiritus pestilens evasit, atque inde Parthos orbemque complesse."

A. Marcellinus gives a more particular account of this event. "Milites fanum scrutantes, invenere foramen angustum, quo re|serato, ut pretiosum aliquid invenirent, ex adyto quodam con|cluso a Chaldoeorum arcanis, labes primordalis exsilivit, quae in|sanabilium vi concepta morborum, ejusdem Veri et Marci Anto|nini temporibus, ab ipsis Persarum ••inibus, adusque Rhenum, et Gallias Cuneta contagiis polluebat et mortibus."

That a close box or other confined place, which might have been shut for ages, should contain a pestiferous vapor which might destroy the life of the man that first opened it, is not only possible, but very probable. But that this trifling quantity of nox|ious air should be sufficient to generate a universal pestilence from the confines of Persia to Gaul, is a vulgar notion, precisely re|sembling the modern opinion that the plague is conveyed from country to country, in bales of goods.

The historian adds, that the Emperor returned to Rome, and "luem secum deferre videreter," seemed to carry the plague with him. But the Romans passed only from Seleucia to Rome; whereas the plague raged over the whole earth; so that the dis|ease must have originated in other countries, through which the Emperor did not pass, and from other causes than the noxious air of a little box. It raged in Gaul and in Scotland.

By attending to the phenomena of the physical world, during this period, we shall find causes fully adequate to the effect, with|out resorting to the temple of Apollo in Seleucia. The state of the elements was deranged, and nature was every where agitated. An inundation of the Tyber at Rome laid all the low grounds, and a part of the city under water, sweeping away people, build|ings and cattle, and desolating the fields. Famin and earth|quakes marked th•• same period. The air became insalubrious, and myriads of caterpillars and other insects overran the earth and devoured vegetation.

The pestilence was violent and mortal, corresponding with these symptoms of derangement in the elements. In Rome, at one time, it is related, that the mortality extended to ten thou|sand persons in a day. Its precise duration, I do not find to be specified by the historians; but it continued for a number of years; in the midst of which appeared a comet, about the year 169.

See Am. Marcellinus, lib. 23, and Julius Capitolinus, in Vero. Aug. Hist. 580. Hist. of Emperors by Pedro Mexiae, p. 172. Echard's Rom. Hist. vol. 2. 315 to 322, who is more correct than Gibbon.

Of the symptoms of this desolating plague, I find no account, except that the patients had a light fever, and a gangrene appear|ed on the extremities of the feet.

It is proper here to notice a passage in Gibbon's Hist. vol. 1. chap. 3, which describes, as halcyon days, the period of the world in which this calamity occurred. The following are his words. "If a man were called upon to fix the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesita|tion, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus;" that is, from the year 96 to 180.

It is certain that, at this time, the Roman Empire was in its glory, and governed by a series of able and virtuous princes, who made the happiness of their subjects their principal object. But the coloring given to the happiness of this period, is far too brilliant. The success of armies and the extent of empire do not constitute exclusively the happiness of nations; and no histo|rian has a title to the character of fidelity, who does not com|prehend, in his general descriptions of the state of mankind, moral and physical, as well as political, evils.

During the period mentioned by Gibbon, not only Antioch, with the loss of most of its inhabitants, amounting probably to more than 100,000, but thirteen other cities were demolished by earthquakes. In the famous revolt of the Jews under Tra|jan, historians relate that 450,000 Romans were massacred in Syria, Cyprus and other countries; and in the wars undertaken by Adrian to subdue them, it is estimated that 50 cities and 985

towns were destroyed, and 580,000 men lost their lives by famin, disease and the sword. The reign of the Antonines was distinguished for multifarious and severe calamities. The de|scription of them, by Aurelius Victor, ought to be given in his own words. Speaking of the Emperor M. Antonine, he says, "Nisi ad illa tempora natus esset, profecto quasi uno lapsu ruissent omnia status Romani. Quippe ab armis nusquam quies erat: perque omnem orientem, Illyricum, Italiam, Galliamque bella fervebant. Terrae motus non sine interitu civitatum, inunda|tiones fluminum, lues crebrae, locustarum species agris infestae, prorsus ut prope nihil, quo summis angoribus atteri mortales so|lent, dici seu cogitari queat, quod non illo imperante saevierit."

Epit. of the lives of the Emperors.

"Unless he, M. Antonine, had been born at that juncture, the affairs of the empire would have fallen into speedy ruin: for there was no respite from military operations. War raged in the east, in Illyricum, in Italy and in Gaul. Earthquakes, with the destruction of cities, inundations of rivers, frequent plagues, a species of locusts ravaging the fields; in short every calamity that can be conceived to afflict and torment men, scourged the human race, during his administration."

How can that be a "happy and prosperous condition of men," in which they were subject to continual wars, to massacres, to the ravages of insects, and to a series of plagues, which destroy|ed probably one fourth of the inhabitants of the globe; and when the Roman empire was upon the brink of ruin? And how can a writer be esteemed as a historian, who substitutes the flow|ers of rhetoric for sober truth, and sarifices fact to embellishment?

In the year 173 a pestilence raged in the Roman armies, which threatened them with extermination.—This appears to have been a continuation of the plague before described. It prevailed in Rome in 175 and 178.

Funct. Chronol. Short, vol. 2.

A severe winter in 173 produced famin in England, where the snow covered the earth for 13 weeks.

In 181 a comet was visible, and in 182 Smyrna was almost ruined by an earthquake. The plague prevailed in Rome in 183.

Ibid.

In the reign of Commodus, about the year 187, Rome was again afflicted with a severe plague, which was felt also in all parts of Italy, tho with less mortality than in the city. Hero|dian, lib. ••, gives the following account of it. "A great pes|tilence raged throughout Italy at that time, but with most vio|lence in the city, by reason of the great concourse of people assembled from all parts of the earth. The mortality among men and cattle was great. The Emperor, by advice of certain physicians retired to Laurentum, on account of the coolness of the place which was shaded with laurels, from which circum|stance it derived its name. It was supposed also the effluvia from the laurels acted as an antidote against the contagion of the distemper. The people in the city also, by advice of phy|sicians, filled their noses and ears with sweet ointments, and constantly used perfumes, for in popular opinion, they occupy the passages of the senses, with these odors, and shut out the corrupt air; or if they do not wholly exclude it, they over|power its influence by superior force. But these things did not check the progress of the disease, and men and cattle continued to perish."

The deaths amounted, in Rome, to 5000 in a day, for a considerable time. A famin prevailed at the same time, and historians ascribe it to Cleander, the minister of Commodus, who had monopolized the corn, to compel people to purchase of him at an advanced price. Dion Cassius however says, the year had been unfruitful. The pestilence continued three years. Indeed we may here remark once for all, that when we read of a plague of great extent and violence in any part of the world, under the date of a particular year, we may always consider that or other pestilential diseases, as prevailing at least three years. Rarely are great plagues of less duration, but often of greater. Historians seldom mention the pestilence, except in the year of its greatest violence, but no plague, I will assert, ever yet in|fested a particular city or country, without precursors of a very malignant type. When therefore we speak of pestilence, as prevailing in a particular year, we are to consider the epidemic as extending to a period of three, four or five years, perhaps

to a much longer period, either in the form of ••••ague, a deadly petechial fever, or other fatal disease.

In the foregoing description of the disease under Commodus, we notice the vulgar modes of guarding against contagion, by stuffing the nose and ears with aromatics—a practice that in part subsists at this day, altho constant experience proves it to be ut|terly ineffectual.

It appears from Herodian that a comet appeared at this peri|od, or other singular heavenly phenomena. He says, "Ea tempestate stellae per diem perpetuo apparuerant, quaedamque ex iis in longum productae medio quasi aere suspensae videbantur." Comets are sometimes visible in the day time, and it is well known that many of the ancients considered them as meteors, floating in the earth's atmosphere, as we see in Aristotle, Seneca and Pliny, who have discussed and refuted those opinions. See also Sampridius who mentions the comet and unusual darkness, at this period.

Another circumstance mentioned by Herodian deserves no|tice. He says, that animals at this time grew out of their usual size, assuming an extraordinary figure and disproportioned in their parts. "Preterea animalia, genus omne, minime suam naturam servantia, cum figura corporis prodigiosa, tum membris haudquaquam congruentibus edebantur." This fact the writer arranges under the head of prodigies; but numerous modern ob|servations confirm the veracity of the historian. In many plagues, to be hereafter mentioned, myriads of unusual animals have ap|peared, and many common animals and insects have grown to an unusual size. With this fact almost invariably attending pes|tilence, and before the eyes of every man of science in well at|tested accounts; a fact that demonstrates a prodigiously pesti|lential state of the elements, modern philosophers, physicians and rulers have been tracing all the plagues of the earth to one or two little spots in Egypt and the Levant—This circumstance is hardly credible; yet is true, and indicates 〈◊〉〈◊〉 lamentable de|cline of sound philosophy.

A slight shock of an earthquake is mentioned incidentally by Herodian, after the plague. Speaking of the burning 〈◊〉〈◊〉 a

temple in Rome, he says "there had been no storm or clouds, but a small earthquake preceded the conflagration:" and he in|sinuates that the building might have been set on fire by a flash of lightning in the night, or by an eruption of fire in the earth|quake.

In 193, Canterbury in England was severely shaken by an earthquake.

The plague prevailed in London in 211, and a comet ap|peared in the same year. In 214, there was a most dreadful inundation of the river Trent in England, which spread over 20 miles of country, and destroyed many lives. Here is prob|ably a mistake in chronology of at least two years—or rather a difference between different authorities. Eusebius, the learned Bishop of Caesaria, places the birth of Christ two years earlier, than the common or Dionysian Chronology. Many authors fol|low one mode of computing time and many the other; and without the original authors, and a close attention to their modes of reckoning time, it is not possible to reconcile these differ|ences. The uniform influence of comets in producing violent tempests and unusual swelling of the ocean, within a year of their appearance and after their departure, may assist in correct|ing ancient chronology.

In the year 218 two comets appeared, and a severe frost of five months is related to have happened in England in 220.

There was a great inundation of the Tweed in 218, and a pestilence in Scotland in 222 which destroyed 100,000 lives.

In 235 a comet is noted, but I find no other phenomena men|tioned about this time, except a great death of fish in 231, mul|titudes of which were washed ashore on Britain; and an earth|quake in Wales in 232.

In the reign of the Emperor Gordian, about the year 243, the earth was agitated by most violent earthquakes; and in 245 there was a prodigious inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire, England, which laid under water many thousand acres of land, which are said not yet to be recovered. A severe winter is men|tioned in 242.

We have now arrived to one of the most calamitous periods recorded in history—a period of mortal plagues, which com|menced about the year 250, or 252 in the reign of the Emperor Decius and continued fifteen or twenty years, through the ad|ministration of Gallus and Volusian, Valerian and Gallienus. This period was ushered in by a comet in 250, the winter of which in England was so severe, that the Thames was frozen for nine weeks.—An eruption of Etna is noted under the year 253, and an earthquake in Cornwall in 251.

The plague appears to have been most fatal in Rome at two different times, during this period; viz. in the years 252 and 262 or 3, including the year preceding and succeeding each of these periods. It reached the northern parts of Europe, and in 266, Scotland had scarcely living people enough to bury the dead.

It first appeared in Ethiopia, on the confines of Egypt, and spread over all the provinces of the Roman Empire, which, says Zonaras, were excessively exhausted by its destructive ravages. Zosimus, after describing the devastation occasioned by the ir|ruption of the Scythians, says "Lues etiam pestilens in oppidis atque vicis subsecuta, quicquid erat humani generis reliquum, absumpsit." The plague in towns and villages followed the Scythians and devoured that part of the human race which the barbarians had spared.

Jornandes says, the pestilence "faciem totius orbis foedavit" —desolated or disfigured the face of the whole earth.—In the reign of Gallienus, 5000 citizens of Rome perished daily, in 262, or the following year, a portion of this period most distin|guished for convulsions of the earth.

This latter period was marked by destructive earthquakes in Rome, Syria and other countries. In some places the earth opened and salt water issued. Trebellius Pollio says, "Fright|ful earthquakes shook Italy, Asia and Africa. For many days, [some authors say, three days] there was an unusual or preter|natural darkness and a hollow rumbling noise in the earth, which opened in many places. Many cities in Asia were overwhelmed,

and others lost in the ocean. Pestilence followed and desolated the Roman Empire."

In the Universal History, it is said that this plague ravaged Capadocia and all Asia Minor, and was followed by famin, earthquakes and a great comet or meteor.

Orosius remarks that "Nulla fere provincia Romana, nulla civitas, nulla domus fuit, quae non illa generali pestilentia cor|repta atque vastata." Scarcely was there a province of the Em|pire, a city or a house, which was not attacked and desolated.

This passage is worthy of notice, for it will hereafter appear, that altho the plague is usually limited to cities, where powerful artificial or local causes aid the general contagion, yet in some in|stances, the general state of the atmosphere has been so pestilen|tial, as to produce plague on the most elevated hills and salubri|ous places, in detached villages and houses, without the least communication with the sick and infected.

Gibbon chap. 10, has calculated that "a moiety of the hu|man species" fell a prey to this frightful epidemic.

Cedrenus page 211 says this disease began in autumn and ended at the rising of the dog-star; or beginning of August.

The state of the air, during this pestilence, was uncommonly impure. The description of it by Eusebius, in a philosophical view, deserves notice. "Quando, inquit, aer iste pravis undi|que evaporationibus turbatus, serenus reddetur? Tales enim ex terra fumigationibus, e mari venti, e fluminibus aurae, e portubus exhalationes spirant, ut veluti ros quidam tabidus e cadaveribus putridis, cunetis subjacientibus elementis inferatur."

Magdeburgh. Cent. 3. p. 31.

This is a remarkable instance of a state of air so highly cor|rupt, as to form on objects a mould or coat, like a turbid dew, from dead bodies ros tabidus—a state of air which the author as|cribes to vapor from the rivers and the earth.—The account is analogous to what is related of other pestilential periods, and the fact denotes an utter derangement in the healthful qualities of air and water.—Cedrenus compares this dew to the gore of dead persons. "Ros saniei mortuorum similis apparebat."

Page 211.

In the Traitè de la Peste, I find the following description of the symptoms of this malady, from St. Cyprian—dejection of mind, exhaustion of strength, incessant involuntary evacuations, as in certain paralises, violent fever of the bowels, mouth infla|med, stomach swelled, eyes sparkling. The disease destroyed the feet, the hands, the sight, the hearing and organs of gen|eration.

Aurelius Victor says of this plague "Simulque Romam pes|tilentia grassabatur, quae saepe curis gravioribus atque animi des|peratione oritur." The plague spread, which often arises from the more distressing cares and despair. This describes the mise|rable state of mankind, at that period; but anxiety and despair do not produce the plague, except during the prevalence of a pesti|lential state of air. There must be a strong predisposition in the body, or an imbecillity in the powers of animal life previously induced; or the utmost pressure of grief will never occasion a plague. But at the time when general causes have impaired the vigor of the animal principles, slight causes will often induce fever and destroy life. The practical inferences from this fact are extremely important to mankind.

The articles in this account of pestilence which deserve par|ticular notice, are the introduction of the period by a comet and an eruption of Etna—the agitations of the earth by subterranean fire—the preternatural darkness of three days, a phenomenon not unusual at such times and easily accounted for, on the supposition of the extrication of a great quantity of subterranean vapor— the pestiferous state of air which covered objects with mould and corruption—and which generated plague in every village and al|most every house.

See Zosimus in Gall. lib. 1. sec 26. 37, 46. Zonoras lib. 12. Trebellius Pollio in Gall. Jornandes. Hist. August. 1098. Eliop. lib. 9. Baron. vol. 2. 496. Aurel. Victor. Epit. Magdeburgh. Cent. 3. 31.

Near the close of this period, about the year 272, there was an eruption of Vesuvius. At the same time, a severe famin raged in England. Five or six years later, a severe famin prevailed over the world. "Fames ingens per totum orbem grassata est."

Zosimus.

It is proper here to notice an inaccuracy of the celebrated New|ton, in his Dissertations on the prophecies, on the 6th chapter of Revelations, in which he says, "In the reign of Probus also there was a great famin throughout the world—an usual conse|quence of famin is pestilence.—This pestilence according to Zo|noras, arising from Ethiopia, while Gallus and Volusian were Emperors, pervaded all the Roman provinces for fifteen years." But Probus began to reign in the year 276, whereas the pesti|lence broke out in Ethiopia under Decius or Gallus and Volu|sian, about A. D. 252 according to Zonoras, but according to other authors, two or three years earlier. Therefore the pesti|lence under Gallus, could not be a consequence of a famin under Probus, which was 25 years later than the plague ascribed to it. These remarks are necessary to correct that passage of Newton, and they are useful in correcting the common notion, that the plague is usually occasioned by famin. The idea is probably un|philosophical; but is certainly contrary to fact. Famin often goes before the plague, and as often follows it. But some of the most disastrous periods of the plague, have originated during the greatest abundance of provisions.—Such was the fact in England, in 448, and in 1347, as will be hereafter related. The great er|ror of historians and physicians has been, that observing famin and pestilence often cotemporary, and the cause of the plague not being obvious to the senses, they have taken famin to be the cause. Whereas it will appear on careful investigation, that fam|in is an effect of the same cause which produces the plague among men. The dearth of provisions, during this formidable epidemic, is the effect of a pestilence in vegetation; that is, a failure in the principles of vegetable life, which proceeds from the same de|rangement of the seasons, or defect in the properties of air and water, which causes the plague among men.—Famin often aug|ments pestilence, and modifies the symptoms of the disease; but in a healthy state of the elements of life, air and water, famin will not produce the plague. This may be demonstrated by mul|tiplied instances of seamen, starving on the ocean, who often per|ish by hunger, without disease, or if they had diseases in conse|quence

of mere hunger, nothing like the plague has ever been of the number.

I cannot help noticing also the observations of Mr. Gibbon on the calamities of this period. He says, "Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the universe with the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history has been decora|ted with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon meteors, preter|natural darkness, and a crowd of prodigies fictitious or exagge|rated."

See vol. 1. ch. 10.

If the original writers who have related the facts above men|tioned, had been as fond of decorations, as this author, we might well have distrusted their accounts of unusual occurrences. Had this elegant writer taken due pains to inform himself of the truth, before he had indulged such reflections on the most cred|ible historians, he would have found similar phenomena to have attended the same calamity, pestilence, in every age from that period to the present, and many of them if not all, during his own life, if not within his own observation.

He goes on to observe that "famin is almost always followed by epidemical diseases." This point will be afterwards considered.

He says also that the plague at this period "raged from 250 to 265, without interruption, in every province, every city and almost every family of the Roman Empire."

The words without interruption, were probably inserted for the sake of decoration. They are not authorized by the original writers; and cannot possibly be true, for an uninterrupted plague in a city or country, would soon leave it without an inhabitant. The truth is, it seldom raged, more than six or eight months, in the same place, at one time. It seized this town, one year, and that, the next, as we observe in modern times, through the whole period.* 1.2

The more I examin the original writers, from whom Gibbon derived his materials, the less confidence I place in his represent|ations of events. He appears to be a partial historian and a superficial philosopher.

In 280 a comet, and in 282 an earthquake in England.

In the year 289 was visible a large comet, and in 290 the winter in England was very severe, all the rivers being closed for six weeks. Busiris and Coptis, two cities of Egypt, were overthrown by an earthquake. In 292 famin, pestilence and drouth prevailed—the bodies of men were covered with carbun|cles and ulcers.

Cedrenus.

Worcester in England was almost ruined by an earthquake in 287.

Short, vol. 2.

In 298 also appeared a comet and earthquakes soon followed, which in Syria, destroyed several thousand lives.

Magdeburgh, Cent. 4. p. 1434.

Earthquakes were experienced in Constantinople in 309 & 310.

In the year 311, the usual rains of winter failed in Italy, famin followed and then pestilence. Baronius, vol. 3. p. 69, describes it as a new disease of foreign origin, which, in con|sequence of excessive heat, produced the anthrax or carbun|cle over the whole body, which exposed the patient to mortifi|cation. It fell upon the eyes with great severity, rendered ma|ny persons blind, and destroyed the lives of great multitudes of all ages. The reader will remark that this distemper was not of domestic origin! This is a stale custom of ascribing all evils to foreign sources.

It is related that Cyprus, about this period, suffered a drouth of thirty-six years in consequence of which it was nearly dispeopled.

Under the chronological tables, I find a famin mentioned to have destroyed in England and Wales, forty thousand lives in the year 310; and in the following year a violent earthquake injured London.

A comet is noted in 321, and a universal famin in Britain in 325.

In the year 335, appeared a comet of great magnitude, and as it was about two years before the death of Constantine the Great, superstition held it to be the omen of that event.

In 336 Syria and Celicia were laid waste by pestilential dis|eases.

There was an inundation of the Tweed, the same year.

Etrop. lib. 10. Orosius, lib. 7. Magdeb. Cent. 4. 1442.

I have not found any particular account of the duration or extent of this calamity. But it appears that this period, like that in the time of Thucydides, was followed by most destruc|tive earthquakes in 340, which overwhelmed or injured many cities of the east. A comet marked this period in 339.

Baron vol. 3, p. 536.

A snow of 15 feet depth in England is recorded under the year 341.

In 358 happened a most tremendous shock of an earthquake, which buried in ruins the greatest part of Nicomedia. The shock happened soon after day-break in the morning, 11th Kal. Sept. and was preceded by a collection of vapor or clouds, that covered the city with impenetrable darkness, so that the eye could not discern the nearest objects. This was soon succeeded by flashes of lightning and most violent winds and tornadoes, which carried buildings to the adjacent hills. The scene was closed by a shock of the earth which demolished a large portion of the city.

Authors relate that this earthquake levelled 150 cities.

Short indeed was the respite which Asia Minor enjoyed. In 362, the remains of Nicomedia were destroyed, part of Nice was overturned, Jerusalem was shaken and other parts of the world did not escape. This was the year also in which Julian attempted to rebuild Jerusalem, when fire bursting from the earth, destroyed the works and rendered the place inaccessible. This event has been ascribed to a preternatural influence; but is a common phenomenon in Italy, Asia Minor, and in all countries subject to earthquakes; and as it happened when the neighboring countries were laid waste by the explosion of subter|ranean fire, there is no necessity for resorting to supernatural causes, to account for the phenomenon.

During these agitations of the earth, the sea receding left its bed, a highway for passengers. Inundations succeeded, and drouth, famin and pestilence walked in the train of public ca|lamities.

In the following years, the earthquakes were repeated and Baronius asserts that the whole world was shaken; the shores of the sea were in some places changed; some places sunk, and in others the waters rose and carried vessels over the tops of houses. Authors place the destruction of Nice in 367, and of other cities in 368 or 372.

The destruction of Nicomedia was preceded by a severe drouth—a common event, that a violent explosion of fire from the bowels of the earth, is preceded, some weeks or months, by a total exhaustion of water by evaporation.

In the midst of these convulsions, appeared a comet in 363 or 4, and a meteor or globe of fire in 363.

A hard winter of 14 weeks duration in England is mention|ed under the year 359, the year following the destruction of Nicomedia, and the severe drouth. This is a usual event. A singular light of great extent appeared in the heavens, in the year preceeding.

The whole reign of Constantius was distinguished for destruc|tive earthquakes, and the early writers of ecclesiastical history "make no doubt that God, by these judgments, manifested his displeasure at the prevalence of the Arian blasphemies." A dreadful famin closed this period.

It was during the early part of this period, in 359, that the plague broke out in Amida, a city of Persia, when besieged by Sapor, and from which, when taken, Am. Marcellinus very narrowly escaped.

See Baron. vol. 4. 121, 188, 209; vol. 3. 776. Am. Marcel. lib. 22 and 25. P. Mexia Hist. Emp. p. 339. Eutrop. lib. 11. Niceph. lib. 9 and 10. Magdeb. Cent. 4. c. 13. Ech. Rom. Hist. vol. 3. 116. Aurelius Victor, Epit. Julian.

Just before the death of Valentinian I. appeared a comet, in the year 375. Zosimus mentions a hard winter at that time, extending to an unusual length. Another author mentions a se|vere drouth about the same time. Crete, Peloponnesus and Greece in general were agitated by earthquakes and some towns were demolished.* 1.3 In Wales 43,000 died of the plague.

Echa••d's Rom. Hist. vol. 3. 156. Zosimus lib. 4. Magdeburgh Cent. 4. ca. 13. Am. Marcel.

The following year was marked with famin, and universal pestilence among men and cattle. So severe was the famin in Phrygia that the inhabitants abandoned the country.

Baron. vol. 4. 380.

A comet appeared in 383, and the plague raged in Rome and in Syria in 383 and 4.—This star however is described by Ni|cephorus and others, as of a singular figure, resembling a burn|ing column; its motions differed from those of other stars—it was visible 30 days.

Niceph. lib. 12. Magdeb. Cent. 4. ca. 13.

About the same time, the Nile rose to such an alarming height as to threaten Alexandria and Lybia with an inundation.

Sozomen, lib. 7. 20. Magd. Ibm.

Just before the death of Theodosius, about the year 394 or 5, happened dreadful earthquakes, storms, rain and unusual dark+ness.

The appearance of the fiery column and the inundation are placed by some authors under the year 394. The Magdebu••g•• History from Prosper's Chronicon, places it under the sixth ye••r of Gratian, which is alledged to be the year of Chri••t ••••. But Gratian was killed about the year 383. There is therefore a mistake as to the era of this phenomenon, which, as described by authors of credit, was one of the most singular that was ever ex|hibited to the people of this globe.

Niceph. lib. 12. 37. Magd. vol. 2. 1452 and ••.

About this period, swarms of locusts covered the land of Ju|dea; and being driven by the winds into the sea and washed on the shore of Palestine, by Gaza, Ascalon and Azotus, they fil|led the atmosphere with a fetid effluvia, which occasioned pesti|lence among men and cattle.

Magdeburgh from Hieronymus, vol. 2. p. 1455.

In 396 Constantinople sustained a violent shock of an earth|quake, during which the heavens appeared to be in a flame. Functius places these events under the year 400, and he is prob|ably correct.

Baron. vol 4. 20. P. Diac. lib. 13.

We are now arrived at another singular and distressing period of the history of man. In the year 400, under the administra|tion of Arcadius and Honorius, a comet appeared of a prodi|gious size and horrible aspect. Its immense coma seemed to sweep the earth, and Baronius, the pious author of Ecclesiastical An|nals, remarks, that many of the Gentiles were terrified into christian baptism and 〈◊〉〈◊〉.

Durin•• 〈◊〉〈◊〉 or ••ppearance, happened one of the most 〈…〉〈…〉 on ••ord. The 〈◊〉〈◊〉 Sea was covered with 〈◊〉〈◊〉 10 days. A drouth is mentioned under the same period, which was so se••ere that the heavens were like 〈◊〉〈◊〉. Unfortu|nately historians have often neglected to arrange these phenomena in due order, throwing them into a general description.

The same period was marked by deluges of rain, and from the 〈◊〉〈◊〉 of narration, it appears that the rains preceded the hard win|ter of the year 400. The rivers were so sorelled as to prevent the imperial generals from passing into the east to attack Sardis.— Severe earthquakes occurred in the same year.

About the year 407 or 8, near the close of the reign of Arca|dius, a celestial phenomenon of a singular species presented itself to the view of an astonished world. It was called a comet, but did not resemble one of the ordinary figure. It resembled a cone or pillar, but had not the appearance of a star, so much as of the flame of a lamp. Its motion was not regular—it began to move from the point of the heavens where the sun rises at the equinox|es, and passing the tail of Ursa, proceeded to the west.

It measured the heavens—its vertex, at some times, extended to a great length; at others, was contracted into the figure of a cone. After being visible for four months, it disappeared. This is the description of it, nearly in the words of Nicephorus. Me|teors were observed at the same period.

Accompanying an•• following these phenomena, were some of the most distressing calamities. Violent earthquakes levelled cit|ies—inundations of rivers and the sea, followed by intolerable cold storms of hail, and a drouth that blasted vegetation, by which means multitudes of people perished. Pestilence raged in every quarter, and famin so severe, that the populace deman|ded

that human flesh should be sold in market. Palestine was de|voured by locusts.

Nicephorus has employed a chapter to describe the physical evils, and the miseries of man, in this singular period. He de|clares that almost all Europe perished.—"pasa de ōleto ē Eurōpē." and no small part of Asia and Africa.

Niceph. lib. 13. ca. 6 and 36. Baron. vol. 5. 20, 114, 176, 294. Zosimus lib. 5. Magd. Cent. 5. ca. 13. Ech. vol 3. 254.

In 418 appeared a comet; in 419 several cities of Asia were overturned by an earthquake, and in 420 there was an eruption of Etna. There was also an inundation of the sea in Hampshire, in England, in 419. Famin and pestilence prevailed also in this period.—A great storm of hail is mentioned under the year 418, and deep snow.

The next period of general pestilence commenced in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about the year 445—or a year or two earlier. A comet in 442, ushered in a severe winter, in 443, the snow fell to such a depth and continued so long in Illyri|cum, that multitudes of men, women and children perished. The year preceding, the Huns had ravaged the country and destroyed the provisions, which added to the public calamities. An irrup|tion of the Sea in North and South Wales, 441, preceded the first comet, a second comet appeared in 444. In 445, severe famin and plague distressed Constantinople, and pestilence appear|ed in all parts of the world. In 446, Sept. 17, occured a tre|mendous earthquake, which demolished the greatest part of the walls of Constantinople, with fifty seven towers. The shocks continued unremittingly for six months, and extended to a great part of the globe. Many cities were overthrown, the earth, in some places, was thrown into large hills; in others, it opened and swallowed up whole towns. Islands disappeared and were lost in the ocean: the sea receding, left ships on dry land, springs of water were dried up and new fountains appeared, and in this violent concussion of the elements perished innumerable multi|tudes of fish.

The pestilence attending, and which rarely fails to attend such agitations of the earth, was universal and of several years dura|tion. In this period, the plague in England was correspond|ent

to the terrible operations of subterranean fire. In 448 or 9, it carried off incredible numbers of people, so that the living could scarcely bury the dead.—And it must not be omitted that the plague was preceded by the greatest abundance of provisions. This was in the reign of Vortigern, and in time of peace.

Niceph. lib. 14. ca. 46. Beda. Ec. Hist. 51, 52. Baro|nius, vol. 6. p. 30, 36, 37, 38. Echard. vol. 3. 331. Magdeb. Cent. 5. ca. 13.

An important fact here occurs. In 446, the Picts and Scots had overrun and desolated England, so as to occasion a dearth of provisions. But this famin produced no pestilential disease. It is particularly noticed by the historian, that the plague did not occur, till a year of great plenty had intervened. This is one strong proof among others, that famin is not the cause of plague; but often accompanies, and sometimes increases the disease. It often happens that, during extraordinary agitations of the earth, the elements of vegetable life appear to be defective. The same cause which affects human health, seems to prevent the growth or vitiate the pabulum of vegetables.* 1.4

The close of this period was peculiarly distressing in Italy, Phrygia, Cappadocia and Galatia, where the famin compelled parents to devour their own children. The pestilence made great havoc, at the same time, and no remedy or alleviation could be found. The body was universally inflamed and cover|ed with tumors. The disease destroyed the eyes. A cough suc|ceeded the eruption, and ended life on the third day.

Niceph. lib. 15 ca. 10.

This was in the beginning of the administration of the Em|peror Marcian, which commenced in 450, in which year anoth|er comet was displayed in the heavens and a singular light or

flame, a severe drouth "ingens siccitas," afflicted the earth, and the calamities of this period continued for several years.

It must be remarked here that Functius has placed this comet and the beginning of Marcian's reign, in 454. Such differ|ences in chronology cannot fail to embarrass an inquiry like the present, the results of which depend much on correctness of dates.

Nicephorus and Evagrius give a particular account of an earthquake which laid great part of Antioch in ruins in the sec|ond year of the Emperor Leo, which was A. D. 458. A comet is noted under the preceding year. But they say further, that this event took place 347 complete years after the destruc|tion of the city in the reign of Trajan, which was in 117. Now 347 years added to this number, give 464, for the year of the last catastrophe.

Niceph. lib. 15. 20. Evag. lib. 2. 12 and 14.

In the 311th Olympiad, which comprehends the years from 465 to 468 inclusive, appeared a comet. Whether the de|struction of Antioch was in 458 or 464, the extent of the shock, through Thrace, Hellespont and the Grecian isles, to|gether with the deluges of rain which are said to have swept away whole towns in Bithynia, leave no room to question the ap|proximation of a comet at or near the time.

Byzantine Hist. vol. 15. Evag. lib. 2. 14.

This latter period was distinguished for pestilence which raged in Rome, about the accession of Anthemius to the empire, and according to Baronius in the year 467.

Vol. 6. 281.

In the following year, a number of houses were overthrown by an earthquake at Vienna. Of the extent and dura••ion of the pestilence, I have no particular description. A great eruption of Vesuvius is mentioned in 472, and a severe winter of four months duration, in 473 with deep snow.—The plague succeed|ed in Rome.

In the year 480 Constantinople again suffered great damage by an earthquake, which demolished a great number of buildings.

In 480 or the following year another comet was visible; or probably two years later. In 484 occurred a drouth most terri|ble

and distressing—not a vine nor an olive branch retained its verdure—the earth was pale and desolate, and the sun assumed a melancholy face. Africa was almost abandoned, in consequence of this event and an attending plague.

Baron. vol. 6. 343, 426 and 7.

Baronius places the earthquake at Constantinople in 477, but others place it in 480, which is most probably correct. The dif|ference in the chronology of different authors, who relate the events of these early ages, is seldom less than two, three and four years.—The plague infested Scotland in 480.

In 494 an earthquake overturned Laodicea, Hierapolis and Tripoli. According to Functius, this event was in 496.

Magdeb. vol. 3. Cent. 6. ca. 13.

In 499 appeared a comet, which was soon followed by an earthquake which destroyed Neo Cesarea, in Pontus, and an eruption of Vesuvius laid waste all the adjacent country.

Zonoras lib. 3. Baron. vol. 6. 541. Magd. Cent. 6. ca. 13. p. 789.

A comet is noted in 502, and a severe winter in 507, but I have no account of any public calamity, attending either of these phenomena, except a pestilence among men and cattle in Scot|land, in 502.

In 517 is recorded a five year's drouth in Palestine.

Encyclop. Chronol.

In 518 a comet; and in Dardania, now Maesia, a series of earthquakes demolished twenty-four castles, divided mountains and in one place opened a fissure of thirty paces in length and twelve in breadth.

Baronius vol. 6. 702.

In 519 two cities in Cilicia were overthrown; Edissa was in|undated and part of its buildings and inhabitants overwhelmed.

Zonoras, Tom. 3. Magd. Cent. 6. p. 791.

Evagrius places the inundation at Edissa, in the following pe|riod, after the destruction of Antioch, and as the historians do not always specify the year in which a particular event took place, I am inclined to believe the account of Evagrius.

Lib. 4. ca. 3.

In the 7th year of the Emperor Justin, A. D. 525, appeared a comet, and the same year Antioch was again overwhelmed in

ruin by an earthquake. Some authors relate that 300,000 per|sons perished in this catastrophe, and among them Euphrasius, the bishop.—This event happened on the 29th of May, about 12 o'clock. A conflagration followed and consumed what was left of the city. In the same shocks, Dyrrachium, now Durazzo, the Epidaurus of high antiquity, Corinth and other cities were greatly injured.

Baronius vol. 7. 109. 110. 111. Niceph. lib. 7. 3. Evag. lib. 4. Zonoras Tom. 3.

A severe winter happened the same year.

In 528 Antioch was again shaken and suffered considerable injury. An inundation of the Humber in England is noted about this time.

In 531 appeared the resplendent comet, whose revolution is fixed at 575 years, supposed to be the same which was visible in the year before Christ 44, after the death of Julius Cesar. This was the fifth year of the reign of Justinian. Famin and a slight plague prevailed in Wales.

At this period Gibbon commences his lively, but unphilosoph|ical description of the formidable and destructive calamities, which afflicted the whole earth in the 6th century. See his his|tory, vol. 4. ch. 43.

Not long after the approach of the comet in 531, the sun as|sumed a pale color, and shone with a feeble light. In a transla|tion of Cedrenus, this phenomenon is thus described. "Toto anno eo, sol lunae instar, sine radiis, lucem tristem praebuit, ple|rumque defectum patienti similis." During the whole year, the sun gave a gloomy light, like the moon, and appeared as if eclip|sed.

Byzantine Hist. 3. 293. Procop. de bell. Vandal. lib. 4.

It is remarkable that tradition has preserved a faint account of a similar phenomenon, during the approach of the same comet, at the time of the Ogygean inundation, before Christ 1767. It is said, that the planet Venus changed her color, size and figure. An account is preserved in tradition, of a phenomenon of the same nature, during the approach of the same star, in a subse|quent revolution. Gibbon in the chapter above cited.—Pliny, as I have already remarked, mentions a similar phenomenon,

about the time the same comet appeared, soon after the death of Julius Cesar.

The appearance, in the period under consideration, is a well authenticated fact, and witnesses a singular change in the prop|erties, and reflecting powers of the atmosphere, or denotes an essential alteration in the face of the sun, which is improbable. In either case, it seemed a prelude to the most dreadful calami|ties, famin, earthquakes, and pestilence. I am not without sus|picions that Europe might have been overspread with a vapor like that in 1783, during the eruption of Heckla.

In 534 is recorded one of the most distressing famins, that ever afflicted the earth; it continued many years, and destroyed mul|titudes of the human race. Pompeiopolis was this year over|whelmed in ruin by an earthquake, and great numbers of its inhabitants perished.

Paul. Diac. lib. 16.

About this period, Vesuvius began to utter hollow rumbling noises, the precursors of an eruption.

Baron. vol. 7. 218. Procop. de Bell. Goth. Magdeb. Cent. 6. p. 793.

Excepting a slight plague in Wales—no pestilence is mention|ed by the authors I have consulted, until the year 542. But the famin, in great severity, had raged eight or nine years be|fore —a proof that something more than famin is necessary to generate the plague.

In 539 appeared another comet, and the famin now raged with double horror. The country of Italy had been ravaged, the year before by the Goths and Burgundians, and the lands left untilled. This might have contributed towards the dearth which followed. It is recorded that many persons fed on hu|man flesh, some districts of Italy were deserted, 50,000 people perished in Picenum, and greater numbers in other districts. The bodies of the famished people became thin and pale; the skin was hardened and dry like leather, and clave to the bones; the flesh assumed a dark appearance like charcoal, the counte|nance was senseless and stern, the bile redundant.

Procop. de Bell. Goth. lib. 1.

Among these frightful effects of hunger, no plague yet ap|pears

—a circumstance that the philosopher should not pass unno|ticed.

The account which Baronius gives of this famin, is, perhaps more philosophical and deserves notice. He says, the crops failed, corn ripened prematurely, and was thin; in some places, it was not harvested, and that which was gathered, was defi|cient in nourishment. Those who subsisted upon it became pale, and were afflicted with bile. The body lost its heat and vigor, the skin was dried, the countenance stupid, distorted and ghast|ly, the liver turned black. Many perished by hunger; many betook themselves to the fields to feed on vegetables, and being too feeble to pull them, lay down and gnawed them off with their teeth.

Baronius, lib. 7. 326.

This is the most probable account of the famin. Repeated instances are on record, which evidently mark a pestilential state of the elements, as fatal to vegetable, as to animal life. In many periods of the world, there has been a universal defect in the powers of vegetation. This phenomenon in the vegetable kingdom is cotemporary, or nearly so, with pestilence among men; and superficial observers have ascribed the plague to a prior or cotemporary famin. But an accurate survey of facts, will probably convince any candid enquirer after truth, of the fallacy of this opinion. It will be made apparent that famin and pesti|lence are equally the effects of some general cause; a temporary derangement of the regular operations of nature.

In the present instance, the famin could not be exclusively and immediately the cause of the formidable plague that afterwards assailed mankind, for it was most severe in 539, and the next year the crops were good. But the plague did not break out till 542, at least I can find no account of any pestilence, during the famin.

An eruption of Vesuvius is noted under the year 532, the year after the appearance of the great comet.—It is probable that the paleness of the sun was owing to a vapor from some volcanic eruption, as in 1783; and it is remarkable that both of these periods alike produced famin from defective vegetation.

During the remaining p••rt of this century, a series of most calamitous events afflicted the earth. A mountain in Rhodes burst open, and a part of it rolled down upon the inhabitants be|low. Many places suffered by inundations, one of which over|whelmed the borders of Thrace for an extent of four miles.

In the year 543, the whole earth was shaken by earthquakes. This was the year in which the plague broke out in Constantino|ple; but it commenced in Egypt, the pre••eding year.—In 543 there was a dearth of cor•• ••ne and oil. The plague again ravaged Constantinople in 547.

In 545 there was an inundation of the Thracian sea, and a severe winter. A terrible dysentery in France in 548.

See Cedrenus, and Paulus Diac. lib. 16.

In 550 an earthquake convulsed Syria and Palestine; and Greece in 551. In 553 appeared a singular meteor in the north and west, which was preceded by a winter so severe that wild beasts and fowls might be taken by the hand. Inundations marked this period. Constantinople was shaken 40 days in 554.

Paul. Diac. Madeburgh Cent. 6. ca. 13.

In 557 Constantinople was almost laid in ruins by an earth|quake. In 558 a comet appeared, a severe winter followed and universal plague, especially in Constantinople, where the living could not bury the dead. This year the Danube was cov|ered with ice.

In 560 an earthquake destroyed Berytus and injured Cos, Tripoli, and Balbus. An excessive drouth in 562, and a plague began which spread over the whole world. There was a dark day in the same year.

The year 565 was distinguished for a calamitous plague, in France, Germany and Italy, which Baronius calls "vehemens pestis inguinaria."

Vol. 7. 547.

In 580 Antioch was again laid in ruins by an earthquake, and a shock was felt in Scotland. The plague again prevailed, from that year to 583, in Gaul and Germany and other coun|tries. In 587 it ravaged Italy. Earthquakes attended this pe|riod.

In 590 appeared a comet; an inundation, from deluges of rain, overspread Rome, covering the walls of the city, and lodging innumerable serpents on the plains. In the next summer, happened the severest drouth ever known; it lasted from Janu|ary to September; and the most deadly plague ravaged all Italy. In this pestilence, died Pope Pelagius.

This is a general sketch of the phenomena recorded of the period under consideration.

Of the universal and destructive plagues which dispeopled the world in the reign of Justinian I. and the succeeding age we have accurate accounts by cotemporary historians: From two of which, Procopius and Evagrius, I shall transcribe the particulars.

Procopius relates, "That this pestilence, which almost de|stroyed the human race, and for which no cause could be assign|ed but the will of God, did not rage in one part of the world only, nor in one season of the year. It ravaged the whole world, seizing all descriptions of people, without regard to dif|ferent constitutions, habits or ages; and without regard to their places of residence, their modes of subsistence or their different pursuits. Some were seized in winter, some in summer; others in other seasons of the year.

It first appeared in Pelusium in Egypt and thence spread west|ward to Alexandria and all parts of Egypt; eastward towards Palestine, and extended to all parts of the world, laying ••aste islands, caves, mountains, and all places where men dwelt. If it passed by a particular country at first, or slightly affected it, it soon returned upon it with the same desolating rage which other places had experienced.—It began in maritime towns and spread to the interior country. It seized Constantinople in the spring of 543.

Most persons were seized suddenly without any premonition, nor was there any change of color or sense of heat; for until evening the fever was so slight that the patient was not ill, nor did the physician, from the pulse, apprehend danger. But in some cases, the same day; in others, the next; in others, at a later period, a bubo arose, either in the groin, the arm ••its, or

near the ear, or in some other part. All patients alike had these symptoms.

Some were seized with drowsiness and slumbering; others with furious distraction. The slumberers forgot all things—some would eat if desired; others were neglected and starved.

Neither physician nor attendant caught the distemper by con|tact of the sick or dead; and many, encouraged by their won|derful escape, applied themselves with assiduity to the care of the sick and the burial of the deceased.

Many were seized, they knew not from what cause, and sud|denly died. Some who were given over by physicians unexpect|edly recovered; others who appeared to be in no danger speed|ily expired. Many died for want of relief; others recovered without assistance. No cause of the disease could be devised by human reason—no means of prevention or cure. To some, bathing was beneficial; to others, injurious. Many leaped into water and the sea—In many the bubo, without sleep or delivium, turned into a gangrene, and these died with excruciating torture.

The physicians opened the bodies of some, and found within the sores huge carbuncles. Those whose bodies were spotted with black pimples, of the size of a lentil, lived not a day. Those who had running sores escaped, and these were the most certain signs of recovery. Some had their thighs withered; others lost the use of their tongues.

To women with child, the disease was certain death.

This disease in Constantinople lasted four months, raging three months with extreme mortality. In the beginning, few died more than usual; but the disease gradually increased, till it swept off 10,000 persons in a day."

Procopius calls it arrogance to pretend to assign the natural causes of this pestilence, declaring them to be undiscoverable.

Persic. lib. 2. ca. 22.

Authors mention the early effects of this disease on the brain; the patients, on the first attack, saw phantoms of evil spirits, which made them imagine themselves smitten by some person.

Evagrius, who felt the effects of the same disease himself and

lost many of his family by it, has enumerated so many ••••ngular circumstances, that I 〈◊〉〈◊〉 offer the reader a translation ••f his account. When I say, the same disease, I refer however to a subsequent epidemic. Procopius, as an eye witness, described the pestilence of 543 in Constantinople. It did not continue incessantly to rage in every place, for this would have soon left the earth without an inhabitant; but after an interval of a few years, it returned and revisited the same places. The plague described by Evagrius was many years subsequent to that men|tioned by Procopius. He wrote about the year 594. His de|scriptions however are general.

See Hist. Eccles. lib. 4. ca. 29.

"I will now describe the plague, which has prevailed in these times, and already raged fifty-two years, a thing never before known, and has already depopulated the world. Two years after the taking of Antioch by the Persians,* 1.5 a pestilential dis|ease began to prevail, in some respects resembling that which Thucydides has described, in other respects different. It had its origin in Ethiopia, according to common report, and spread over the whole world, falling on different places by turns, and sparing none of the human race.

Some cities were so severely assailed by this disease, that they were left without an inhabitant. Some districts however were more slightly affected. The pestilence did not always begin its attacks at the same season of the year, nor cease to rage, in all places in the same manner. In some places it broke out in the midst of winter; in others, in the spring; in some, it began in summer; in others, in autumn; and in some cities, it attacked certain parts of the town, and left others untouched.

Very often we might observe, particular families all perished, in a city where the disease did not prevail, as an epidemic. In some places, one or two families only perished, while the rest of the city escaped. But we observed particularly that the families which escaped, the first year, experienced the same calamity in the year succeeding.

But what above all appeared singular and surprising was, that

the inhabitants of infected places, removing their residence to places, where the disease had not appeared, or did not prevail, were the only persons who fell victims to the plague, in the cities which were not infected. And these effects were particularly observable, both in cities and in other places, in the cycles of the Indictions.* 1.6 Especially in the second year of each indiction, was the plague extremely mortal. Of this I am myself a wit|ness, for it may not be improper, when the occasion seems to require it, to interweave into this history what concerns myself. At the commencement of this calamity, I was seized with the inguinal plague; and in the diseases, which have at different times prevailed, I have lost many of my children, my wife and great numbers of my kindred, of my servants and laborers: the cycles of indiction parcelling out my calamities among themselves.

At the time of writing this account, the disease had already invaded Antioch the fourth time; the fourth cycle of indiction had passed, after the first invasion of this disease, when I lost a daughter, and her son.

This disease was a compound of various others. For in some persons, seizing the head, it rendered the eyes sanguineous and the face tumid: Then falling upon the throat, soon put an end to life in all that were thus seized. Some were afflicted by discharges from the bowels. In others an abscess formed in the groin, a raging fever followed, and the second or third day, the patient died, with his body and his mind apparently sound, as tho they had not felt disease. Some were seized with delir|ium and expired. Carbuncles also arising on the body extin|guished the lives of many. Others recovered once and again, and afterwards died of the same disease.

The modes of contracting the disease were various and all cal|culation was baffled. Some perished by once entering infected houses, or remaining in them—some by only touching the sick. Some contracted the disease in open market. Others, who fled from the infected places, remained safe, while they commu|nicated

the disease to others who died. Many who remained with the sick, and freely handled them as well as dead bodies, wholly escaped the disease. Others who had lost their children and dependents, and in despair sought death, by attempting to throw themselves in the way of infection and assiduously attend|ing the sick, found all their efforts in vain; they could not con|tract the disease.

The distemper has already prevailed fifty-two years, to this time, exceeding all preceding plagues: For Philostratus was surprised that, in his time, that calamity had prevailed for fif|teen years. What will happen hereafter is uncertain, since all things are at the disposal of God who understands the causes of things and the events."

Thus far Evagrius. See also Nicephorus lib. 17. ca. 18.

The reader is desired to attend particularly to the foregoing relation of facts, as some important conclusions will, in the se|quel, be drawn from them, and other authorities hereafter to be cited.

It will be remarked that altho authors speak of this pestilen|tial period, as of fifty-two years duration, as Evagrius and Gib|bon have done, yet this is not accurate. Evagrius, from whom this number is copied, says, the pestilence had then prevailed fifty-two years; but it was still raging, and what was to happen afterwards, he could not determin.

The truth is, plagues were uncommonly frequent during this period; but the disease did not prevail without intervals. On the contrary, the years remarkable for mortality are specified by historians, viz. 542 and 3, 547, 558, 562 to 565, 582 and 3, 587, and finally one of the most destructive periods of all was 590 and the few following years. Altho this was a long and severe period of calamity, yet from the best accounts I can ob|tain, I see no reason to believe the mortality, in any given term of five or ten years, from 542 to 600, to have been greater, than in some other periods of the same duration. More people probably died in a short space of time, in the reign of the An|tonines —in that of Gallus and Volusian—and far more, in the dreadful plague of 1346 to 50.—It is even probable that in the

last 50 years of the 16th century, the earth sustained as great a loss of inhabitants as in the same space of time in the 6th centu|ry. General descriptions are rarely correct, and Mr. Gibbon's unphilosophical, tho eloquent flourishing description of the mise|ries of the human race, in Justinian's reign is calculated to mis|lead a careless reader.

Evagrius indeed says, this plague exceeded all preceding ones. This is natural; Thucydides said the same of the disease in his time. But we are more able to form a correct comparison between the different epidemics that have prevailed, than the co|temporaries with any particular one.

Agathius relates that in the pestilence at Constantinople in 558, many died suddenly as with an apoplexy. The most ro|bust constitutions survived only to the 5th day. The critical period in the Athenian plague was the 7th or 9th. Thucydides makes no mention of the stupor at the beginning of the distem|per, nor of the volutatio humi, whirling of the earth, or dizzi|ness, nor of buboes, nor of the effects of the disease on preg|nant women.

Freind's Hist. of Medicine 416 et seq. Baron. vol. 7. 357, 358.

Warnefred relates of this pestilence, in Liguria, where it was particularly mortal, that there appeared suddenly certain marks "quaedam signacula," upon the doors of houses, on garments, and utensils, which could not be washed out but grew brighter by washing. The next year, appeared in men's groins, or other delicate parts of the body, tumors like nuts or dates, which were soon followed by intolerable fever, which extinguished life in three days. If the patient survived the third day, he had hopes of recovery.

I should have ranked this account among the fictions of a dis|turbed imagination, had not more recent and well attested facts given me reason to credit it.

The description of the terrible effects of this disease in Italy by the same author, is melancholy and painful to the reader.

The dysentery which raged in France in 548 was accompanied with signs of the plague, and was nearly equal to it in mortality. The plague raged this year at Munster, in Ireland.

Short vol. 1. 67. Smith's Hist. Cork 10.

The desolating plague of 590 was mortal almost beyond ex|ample, and preceded or attended with extraordinary phenomena. In 588 Antioch was overwhelmed by a violent earthquake, and 60,000 people buried in its ruins. The inundation of the Tyber exceeded all that had been known, as did the drouth of the suc|ceeding summer. The intervening winter was equally remarka|ble for its severity—"qualem vix aliquis prius recolebat fuisse," says Warnefred; such as the oldest persons could scarcely recol|lect. Violent tempests overturned buildings. About the same time, swarms of locusts appeared in Trente and devoured every species of vegetable. In some parts of Italy, they continued their ravages for five years. Cedrenus adds, that fish died, and this mortality he ascribes to the freezing of the waters, page 332. —Modern observations prove the fallacy of the reason here as|signed; fish do not die beneath a cover of ice; but the death of fish by means of earthquakes, and of sickness, is a common event.

Agust. Hist. 1156, 1157. Magd. Cent. 6. ca. 13.

The order of the phenomena here related was this—the earthquake at Antioch—deluges of rain and inundations, tem|pests, a most rigorous winter, with a comet, excessive drouth, pestilence.

See also Echard's Rom. Hist. vol. 4. 246.

Africa was almost depopulated by this plague. So sudden and rapid was the disease in its action, that during a procession in Rome, instituted by St. Gregory, on account of that calamity, no less than eighty persons fell dead in the street.

Authors relate that the serpents, washed from the mountains by the flood, and lodged on the earth, putrefied, and contrib|uted to the subsequent plague.

Gregory of Tours relates, that the plague, at that time, was introduced into Gaul by a vessel and her cargo, but it did not spread regularly from house to house, but started up in distant and detached places, like fire in a field of stubble. Marseilles and Lyons were made waste by its mortality. It was most fatal to the poor.

Lib. 9.

The following facts are related of the pestilence in Rome in

581, in the collection of German writers by Pistorius, page 683. Men died suddenly, at play, at table, and in conversa|tion. Sometimes they fell dead in the act of sneezing, "dum sternutabant," so that when one heard another sneeze, he turn|ed to him and exclaimed, "God help you"—which was the origin of a custom still observed in some countries.* 1.7 Some|times persons expired in the act of nodding or gaping; which gave rise to the practice of making the sign of the cross, on such occasions—a custom not yet obliterated.

In 599, the plague in the east, in Africa and Rome, was dreadful. The death of the Emperor Mauritius, in 602, was preceded by the appearance of a comet. A severe winter, about this time, killed the vines, and grain suffered by frost and blight. The army of barbarians, marching to besiege Constantinople, was so harrassed and weakened by the plague, as to be compelled to abandon the enterprize. Cayanus their commander lost seven sons.

Niceph. lib. 18. 35. Magd. Cent. 6. 13 and 7. 13. Baron. vol. 8. 138. Paul. Diac. lib. 4.

The Magdeburgh History mentions a severe winter in 604, which was followed by excessive heat and drouth in 605. It places the first comet of 606 in April and May; the second in November and December.

Cent. 7. 13.

The year 615 was distinguished for an epidemic elephantiasis in Italy, and the shock of an earthquake. A comet appeared in 617 and pestilence in 618.

Baron. vol. 8. 243. Short vol. 2. 207.

Here is a period in which mention is made in history of com|ets, without all their attendant calamities—one in 625, another in 632. It is the first period of the kind I have been able to find; and whether this silence of history is to be ascribed to the carelessness of writers in that distracted period, when the world was overrun by barbarians, or whether men escaped ex|traordinary maladies, I am not able to decide.

An earthquake in Palestine however marked the approach of the comet in 632.

Funct. Chronol.

Short mentions an earthquake at Antioch in 637; and shocks in Palestine in 638 which continued for 30 days—a comet in 639, and the plague in Syria in 640. But I have not the ori|ginal authorities. The Universal History relates that in 639, the plague was so severe in Syria, Arabia and in Medina, that the Arabs call that year the "Year of Destruction."

Vol. 1. 485.

A general pestilence in Italy is mentioned in history under the year 651, but no particulars. A surprising meteor had passed the hemisphere, in the preceding year. A violent plague in Constantinople in 654.

Functius Chron. Magdeb. Cent. 7. ca. 13.

In 664 pestilence raged in Normandy, England and Ireland; and the historian remarks that the same disease which had af|flicted England, afterwards invaded Italy in 665. Thus it would appear that this epidemic broke out first in the north of Europe.

Beda. Eccle. Hist. p. 136. Baron. vol. 8. 496.

But the disease appeared in Egypt the same year it did in England and Ireland.

Paul. Diac. 980.

In the same year, in March, appeared a bow, iris, stretching across the heavens, and all flesh trembled, says the pious Diac|on, expecting the last day.

Ibm.* 1.8

In 669 or 70 appeared a singular meteor or flame in the heav|ens —the next year an unusual storm that destroyed men and cattle; and in 672 the plague raged in England, of which died Bishop Ceadda.

Beda, lib. 4.

Short mentions a comet in 672, and a severe frost in 670, the year of the celestial flame.

In 678 according to Beda, and in 677 according to Sigebert, in the 9th or 10th year of Constantine Pogonatus, appeared a comet in August, which was visible for three months. The year preceding was marked by most calamitous tempests which cut short the fruits of the earth, except leguminous vegetables

which were replanted and come to maturity. About the same time appeared clouds of locusts in Syria and Mesopotamia. Uni|versal pestilence followed these ph••nomena, in 679 and 680. England and Ireland were ravaged by it in 679; and in 680, during July, August and September, Rome was laid waste: "parents and children, brothers and sisters, were borne to their graves on the same bier." Multitudes of people fled to the mountains, and the streets of the city were overgrown with grass and weeds. A violent earthquake shook Mesopotamia and other countries in 680. The locusts appeared two years before the earthquake, and in the same year with the comet, ac|cording to Paulus Diaconus. A severe drouth followed the comet, which in England lasted three years.

See Paul. Diac. lib. 6. Beda, Ec. Hist. p. 116. Baron. vol. 8. 526, 544. Magd. Cent. 7. ca. 13. Muratori, vol. 6.

In 681 famin, says Beda, raged in England, and in 683, pestilence "quae ex more famien secuta est," says Paulus Dia|conus. In this latter year, if this was the sixteenth of Con|stantine, according to Baronius, there was a violent eruption of fire from Vesuvius, which laid waste all the neighborhood.

Baronius, vol. 8. 564. Magd. Cent. 7. cap. 13.

In the same year Syria and Lybia were afflicted by famin and pestilence.

Other authors place this last pestilence two years later. The disease raged in Ireland in 685, in which year, there was a great inundation of the sea and the island of Inissidda was torn into three parts. In 687, or according to others in 684, appeared a star, which was probably a comet, but without a coma.

Smith's Cork, p. 11. Magd. Cent. 7.

Warnefied relates that a singular meteor appeared in 685.* 1.9

Notwithstanding some differences among authors respecting the time of the events here related, we observe all the violent agit|ations of the elements which introduce and attend great plagues.

In 690 happened in Italy, one of the greatest inundations

from rain that was ever known—a severe pestilence followed, "Pestis inquinoria."

In 696, the same disease raged in Constantinople; but no particulars are mentioned.

Magd. Cent. 7.

A severe winter preceded this pestilence, when the Thames was covered with ice for six weeks.

In 707 a terribly severe winter is mentioned and a violent earthquake in Scotland. Short mentions pestilence in Scotland in 703 and in 713, but I have no particulars.

In 717 happened a very severe winter, so that animals died of cold; and the same year, a great overflowing of the Tyber. The Saracens, in an immense army, marching to besiege Con|stantinople, perished with cold, hunger and pestilence, and in the city, the plague extinguished the lives of 300,000 of its in|habitants. An earthquake in Syria in 718.

Paul. Diac. lib. 6. 47. Baron. vol. 9. 15. Magd. Cent. 8. ca. 13. Cedrenus.

Here is a chasm in the history of comets of 40 years—at least I can find no mention made of them from 685, to 729. The severe winter and the inundation of 717 however leave very little room to question the approximation of one at that time, and others doubtless appeared, during this period.* 1.10

There was a great plague in Constantinople in 724.

In the year 725, a vapor like smoke issued for several days, from the sea between Thera and Therasia, the two islands which, many centuries before, had arisen from the bottom of the sea. With this vapor issued dense substances, which, when exposed to the air, grew hard and formed a species of pumice, with which the neighboring sea and the coun••••ies of Asia Minor and Macedonia were covered. A small island arose at the same time.

Magd. Cent. 8. ca. 13 Murato••i, vol. 1. 151

In 729 appeared two comets in January; one preceding the sun, visible in the morning; the other following it, was seen in the evening. The same year the plague prevailed in Norwich.

A plague in Syria raged in 732, but no particulars are men|tioned. The following year, the heavens appeared all in a flame.

Magd Cent. 8. ca. 13.

The next pestilential period is remarkable for the violence of the operations of nature.

In 740 a tremendous earthquake, or rather a continuation of successive shocks for twelve months, announced the commence|ment of a series of calamities. It began on the 7th Kal. No|vember, and demolished buildings, statues and walls in Con|stantinople, with a multitude of cities in Thrace, Nicomedia and Bythinia. Sigibert places these events in 741.

In 742, or as others say in 743, a most severe drouth was followed by most terrible earthquakes. The next year appeared a comet and the year following, another; and the third year af|ter the drouth, which was either in 745 or 6, according to dif|ferent authors, a remarkable thick darkness covered the earth from August to October. At this time the plague was raging at Calabria in Naples, and it continued to spread with dreadful havock for several succeeding years, in the countries of the east. So violent was it in Constantinople in 746, that the living could not bury the dead; but the bodies were carried in cart-loads and thrown into empty cisterns, and any place that would conceal them from the sight. Fatal indeed was the disease, when "eo|dem die aliquis mortuum efferebat, et ipse mortuus afferebatur"— the man who buried a corpse, was sometimes carried, the same day, to his grave.

In the order of the events here related authors agree. Ce|drenus mentions an extraordinary light or flame in the sky in 742, and a similar flame in the north, the year following. He mentions at the same time a famin in Constantinople; and limits the darkness to five days, from the 10th to 15th of August.

Paulus Diac. Hist. August. 10. 19. Magd. Cent. 8. 13. Baron. vol. 9. 144, 185.

At the close of this period and while the plague raged in Con|stantinople, in 749 or 50, Syria was laid waste by an earthquake

—whole cities were exterminated—others removed entire from mountains to plains, for a distance of six miles. This catastro|phe corresponded with the approach of a comet. Short men|tions two.

Magd. Cent. 8. 13. Baron. vol. 9. Short. 1. 81.

Such was the waste of people in Constantinople by the pre|ceding plagues, that the emperor Constantine repaired the loss by introducing the inhabitants of neighboring countries.

In 760 or 61, for this difference occurs among good author|ities, appeared a comet, or light, called dokites, by the Greeks, from its resemblance to a beam; which was visible 10 days in the east and 21 in the west.—In 762 appeared two other comets and the following winter was the most severe probably on record. It began about the first of October, and lasted till February. The Euxine sea was frozen to the distance of one hundred miles from the shore, and the snow and ice accumulated to the depth of thirty cubits. In this frost, the animal and vegetable king|doms suffered great injury. On the breaking up of winter, the ice from the Danube and the Euxine was forced in huge masses, into the Bosphorus, and against the walls of Constantinople, which were greatly damaged.

In March, falling stars, or meteors were very frequent, and the succeeding summers were remarkable for most terrible drouth, in which all springs were exhausted. Myriads of venemous flies appeared, and a desolating mortality concluded this series of disordered seasons.

Paul. Diac. lib. 22. Baron. vol. 9. 271. Magd. Cent. 8. ca. 13. Short on Air, vol. 1. 82.

Short mentions a fatal pestilence in Wales in 762.

On the authority of Short, I have mentioned a mortality af|ter the severe and unusual seasons of 763 and 4; but the original writers I have consulted do not mention it; tho the fact may be found in others which I have not seen. It is altogether probable that such extraordinary seasons should occasion great sickness; but it is equally probable that if any destructive and general plague had followed them, the writers I have consulted would have mentioned it.

I am led to notice this circumstance, by the consideration that

no earthquake is recorded during this period. This circum|stance is of no small consequence in this inquiry; and is a con|firming proof of the justness of my suspicions, that pestilence has an intimate connection with subterranean heat or the action of fire. It appears that the plague, for the most part, is violent and extensive, in proportion to the action of the fire that exists in and about the globe. The preceding pestilential period, be|ginning in 740, is a striking instance of the truth of this remark.

A great mortality happened in 766. In 767 a severe drouth exhausted all springs and rivers and the year following was dis|tinguished by a comet. Pestilence prevailed in England in 771, and in Chichester died 34,000 people.

Short vol. 2. 208.

Short mentions plague and famin in France in 779—a comet, an earthquake at Constantinople, and pestilence in Scotland in 784; but I have no particulars.

In the reign of Charlemagne, about the beginning of the ninth century, commenced a period of great mortality. A comet in 799, was followed by an excessively cold winter in 800. These events were preceded by violent earthquakes in Si|cily and Crete and in 798, an extraordinary darkness in Eng|land of seventeen days. In 801 earthquakes shook Italy, France and Germany, and these phenomena were repeated in 802 and 3. A prodigious tempest in the year 800, levelled a multitude of buildings.

In 802 the plague prevailed in various places, "propter mo|litiem hyberni temporis," says the annalist Bartianus, by reason of a mild winter. This however could not be the true reason.

In 808 a very mild winter was followed by the plague. In 810 happened the greatest mortality among horned cattle that is on record. In some places in Germany, it destroyed almost all the species.

Lancisius 146. Annal. Fuldenses 810.

In 811 swarms of locusts from Africa invaded Italy and de|voured every green thing.

In 812 appeared a comet, and after a chasm in the accounts of Etna of nearly four hundred years, that volcano is recorded

to have discharged fire in this year. P. Diaconus places the comet in 813, and a violent earthquake.

Magd. Cent. 9. ca. 13. Muratori vol. 2. 505, 507. Pistorius' Germ. Script. vol 2. 38.

In 817 was a comet, and a pestilence soon after commenced, which authors relate to have arisen from excessive rains and a humid air. This plague raged in almost every part of France in 820, and crops failing from excess of moisture, a famin ensued. Baronius mentions earthquakes in 820 in those places where the Christians were persecuted. The following winter was so severe that the Rhine and the Danube were covered with solid ice for more than 30 days, and sustained loaded carriages.

In 823 was another most severe winter, in which the snow lay on the earth twenty nine weeks, and occasioned the death of many animals and men. An earthquake and a universal plague in France. The next year fell a shower of hail, which killed men and cattle. Severe drouth the same year.

Magd. Cent. 9. ca. 13. Muratori, vol. 2. 513, 516. Short, vol. 2.

In 827 the Thames was covered with ice for nine weeks.

In 828 appeared a comet in Libra; and in 829, another in Aries; with many meteors. The earth in France was violently shaken in 329; a violent tempest followed, but no pestilence is mentioned.

Baron. vol. 9. 809. Magdeb. Cent. 9. ca. 13.

In 839 appeared a comet and another in 842. In 840 Con|stantinople was shaken for five days, and some parts of France felt the shock. The rains were excessive, the Rhine overflow|ed, and the storms of hail and wind were unusually severe.

Magdeb. Cent. 9. ca. 13.

In 850 another comet is mentioned, and in the following year a most severe drouth, which occasioned a famin that com|pelled men to feed on human flesh.—There was a severe earth|quake in Gaul the preceding year.—A pestilence in many parts of Scotland in 853.

Baron. vol. 10. 73. Magd. Cent. 9. Muratori, vol. 2. 531.

It will be observed that no pestilence is noted under some of these last instances of comets and other phenomena. History, during the dark and barbarous ages under consideration, is ex|tremely

barren; and the smaller calamities of all kinds have been passed over in silence. Whether any considerable mortality prevailed, at these periods or not, we cannot determin from the silence of the dull annals of the dark ages.

In 855 an earthquake at Constantinople, and in other places, violent tempests. In 856 another earthquake and a tremendous inundation of the Tyber, which was followed by an epidemic disease, called a plague of the fauces, in which the throat was obstructed by defluxions, and sudden death ensued.* 1.11 In 858 a comet, and the succeeding winter was so severe that the Adriatic sea was covered with ice and people walked on it to Venice. This was followed by an earthquake in Constantinople.

Muratori relates that in 855, two unusual stars appeared for ten days, alternately, and that the next year the winter was very severe, dry and pestilential, so that a great portion of men perished. But I suspect he refers to the same years mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

Baron. vol. 10. 131. Muratori vol. 2. 534. Short vol. 1. 85.

The plague was in Scotland in 863.

The winter of 864 is recorded as very severe. In 867 there were violent tempests, and in the following year a general famin in Europe, severe earthquakes and a comet.

Magd. Cent. 9. ca. 13.

In 872 a comet, and a most excessive heat and drouth, which cut short the grain.

Ibm.

In 874 appeared in France myriads of grass-hoppers or locusts of a remarkable size, with six feet and two teeth harder than stone. They are represented as having leaders, which went be|fore them a days journey, measuring a certain space; the swarm followed about 9 o'clock and there waited for the rising of the sun, obscuring the heavens by their numbers, and with a broad mouth and large intestines, devouring every green herb and tree. Their days journey was four or five miles.

These animals were at last driven into the British channel by the winds, and being washed ashore, their putrefying bodies caus|ed

a stench, and sickness, which, with a pinching famin, de|stroyed a third of the people, on the neighboring French coast.

The succeeding winter, 875, was terribly severe and contin|ued from November to the vernal Equinox.

In this or the following year, for authors differ, appeared a comet of extraordinary brightness, and in June following, were deluges of rain, which, in Saxony, swept away a whole village, with its inhabitants and cattle.

In the year 878 a mortal pestilence raged among the cattle, especially about the Rhine. Dogs and birds which at first col|lected round the dead bodies, suddenly disappeared.

Magd. Cen. 9. ca. 13. Pistor. Germ. Hist. vol. 2. 570. vol. 1. 63.

In 879 there was an eruption of Vesuvius.

In Feb. 882 appeared a comet with a vast coma preceded in January by an earthquake. In the next year Italy was severely afflicted by famin. In 884 the plague was in Oxford.

Magd. Cent. 9. 13. Short. vol. 2.

In 887 the winter was unusually long and severe; and a pes|tilence among cattle was so mortal, that few survived it.

Muratori, vol. 2. p. 92.

A comet is noted under 896, and a famin in France and Ger|many, in the following year.—Italy was shaken by earthquakes.

Dufresnoy. Baglivus.

In May 904 appeared a comet, followed by a severe frosty winter of four months, and violent earthquakes with mortal pes|tilence in 905.

Universal Hist. vol. 17. 87. Magd. Cent. 10. ca. 13.

In 912 appeared a comet of unusual splendor and the following winter was very cold "acutissimum fuit frigus," and meteors in the air very frequent. A famin followed in Germany, and Italy experienced earthquakes.

Magd. Cent. 10. Short. vol. 1. Baglivus. p. 542.

The plague was in Scotland in 922.

Short. vol. 2.

A severe winter in which the Thames was frozen for 13 weeks in 929, followed by a dreadful famin, is mentioned by the last cited authors. An earthquake is mentioned in 935, and a pesti|lence in 937, but no details.

In 940 there was a severe winter and pestilence among cattle.

In 942 and again 944 appeared a co••••t, the latter very large with a brilliant coma; followed by se••••re famin in France and Italy. Some authorities place the latter comet in 945. The winter of 946 or 7 was long and severe, continuing to the ver|nal equinox of the next year.

Magd. Cent. 10.—Pistor. Germ. Script. vol. 1.

The same period was marked by earthquakes in France and Germany.

In 954 pestilence invaded the north of Europe, with great destruction—Scotland lost forty thousand inhabitants. The following winter was severe.

Baron. vol. 10. 739.—Magd. Cent. 10.

In 961 a flame or fiery column appeared in the heavens. In 962 a very severe winter and a famin. In 964 a dreadful plague in the Emperor Otho's army. In 968 a comet, an earthquake and violent winds which destroyed the grain and occasioned famin.

Baron. vol. 10. 771. Magd. Cent. 10. Pistorius, vol. 1. 134.

English authors mention a malignant fever in London in 961; at which time there was a large marsh on the south side of the Thames.

Maitland's Hist. London.

In 975 appeared a very large comet in harvest, and the fol|lowing winter was excessively severe. The next year England was afflicted with grievous famin. An earthquake preceded, in 974.

Magd. Cent. 10. ca. 13. Simeon Dunelmensis.

In 981 a comet and in 983 another. In this latter year was an eruption of Vesuvius. Universal famin followed and a plague among the Lacedemonians.

Baron. vol. 10. 831. Magd. Cent. 10. 13.

This period was followed by desolating earthquakes in Lacede|mon in 986:—In 987 the season was unfavorable and occasioned dearth—malignant fevers prevailed in England and the cattle died of fluxes.

Brompton, Angl•• Scrip. 878.

Meteors and a flaming sky were observed in 993, in which

year was a great eruption of Vesuvius. Then followed an ex|cessively severe winter, which lasted from November to May. The rivers were frozen dry, fish perished and a scarcity of wa|ter ensued. In July a severe frost gave to the trees the gloomy aspect of winter.

With these singular seasons prevailed a famin and a deadly plague among men and cattle.

In 995 a comet was seen. The Saxon Chronicle places the foregoing events three years earlier.

In 996 an epidemic flux prevailed with great malignity in England.

The events here related are similar to what are common at the present day; a volcanic discharge of fire being followed by unusual cold and snow. Meteors also are common near the time of such discharges.

Magd. Cent. 10. 13. Baron. vol. 10. 877.

Hitherto our accounts of the great volcanoes have been very imperfect. The first instance of an eruption in Iceland, which is recorded, was in the year 1000; and from that period we have a regular history of volcanic discharges in that island, which is one of the principal outlets of fire on the globe, and which, we shall find, has no small connection with the extensive and powerful operations of fire, both in Europe and America. There are many volcanoes in the island of which Heckla is the principal.

In the year 1000, there was an eruption in Iceland, two globes of fire or great meteors were seen, violent earthquakes in England, and a severe winter followed. In the same year ap|peared a comet with a long coma.

In the year following a flux, and fevers with a burning ague, were epidemic and mortal in England.

Magdeb. Cent. 10. 13.

The next period of general pestilence was remarkable for its extent, violence and attending phenomena.

In 1004, an eruption of Heckla in Iceland, with a violent earthquake announced the approaching calamity. In 1005 ap|peared a comet of frightful aspect, and in the winter Italy was,

for three months, convulsed by earthquakes. In the same year commenced a famin, and a plague of three years duration, which desolated the whole earth. Cotemporary authors affirm that more than half the human race perished. The living were fatigued with burying the dead—"ut sepelientium taedio, vivi ad huc spiritum trahentes, obruerenter cum mortuis." Such was the weariness of those that buried the corpses, that the living before their breath had left their bodies, were tumbled into the graves with the dead.

At the close of this horrible destruction, Vesuvius discharged prodigious quantities of lava which laid waste the neighboring country.

In 1009 was seen a comet in May. The beginning of the year the earth was deluged with rain, and a plague among the Saxons followed.

The plague is also mentioned under the year 1012, with vi|olent rains and inundations, followed by an earthquake in 1013. But the necessary materials for a detail are wanting.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13. Baron. vol. 11. 27. Muratori, Tom. 5. 55.

In 1015 appeared a comet, attended with violent tempests, and followed by famin in 1016. In 1017 another comet was seen, and the following year is noted as pestilential. But I have no particulars.

In 1020 was seen another comet, and the winter was exces|sively severe, so that men perished with cold. This was fol|lowed by pestilence, in which the bodies of the infected gene|rated "serpents," says the historian; by which he probably means some species of worms. A similar fact will be related from Thuanus in the 16th century.

In 1021 was an earthquake, and the next year, the drouth and heat were extreme.

In 1025 the summer was wet. The plague raged in England, and in other parts of Europe, pestilence with violent earthquakes.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13.

In 1029 was an eruption of Heckla, and pestilence in some parts of Europe.

A comet in 1031 was accompanied, in its passage, through

the system, with great storms of wind and rain, producing vast inundations. In France, England and the east raged famin and pestilence. Locusts were added to these calamities, which were so severe in some parts of the world, that multitudes were com|pelled to leave their country Violent earthquakes marked this year, and what is usual in the tempestuous seasons occasioned by comets distinguished by volcanic eruptions, a splendid meteor, or globe of fire.

During an eclipse of the sun in 1032 or 3, authors mention a singular phenomenon—a saffron color in the air, which gave to the human countenance a cadaverous aspect. But it might be merely the effect of a partial darkness, with a hazy atmosphers.

A severe winter in 1035, was followed by an eruption of Vesuvius in 1036. The frequent coincidences of this kind de|serve notice.

In 1037 is noted an igneous appearance in the heavens, like a beam. These phenomena were followed by pestilence in Eng|land and in the Emperor's army, and with earthquakes.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13. Univ. Hist. vol. 17. 166. Echard's Rom. Hist. vol. 5. 146.

In 1042 commenced another distressing period. A comet in this year was followed by an eruption of Vesuvius in 1043 and snow in harvest. The year 1042 was very tempestuous and rainy; the dykes in Flanders yielded to the swelling ocean, and the low grounds were overwhelmed, with infinite destruction. At this time began a general famin in England, France and Germany. The year 1043 was also distinguished for rains and storms; autumnal snows were early, and an infectious disease carried off vast numbers of cattle. In 1044 there was great mortality among men.

In 1047 fell a deep snow in the west of Europe, which over|whelmed small trees, and lay till March. In March 1048 was a violent earthquake, followed by a tempestuous season and great sickness. There was an eruption of Vesuvius the same year, and an earthquake in October. The reader will remark a very regular connection between eruptions of volcanoes and violent winds.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13.

During this period the countries about the Hellespont were, for three years, ravaged by locusts.

In 1052 a tempest is noted which demolished many buildings. In 1053 a comet which was followed by a famin. But the seasons are not described.

In 1057 severe frost and great quantities of snow ruined the vines. During the following year, a comet was seen, the year after which the winter was very long and severe, and in 1060 prevailed famin, and plague among men and cattle.

In 1062 a trembling of the earth in Constantinople, attended with thunder and lightning, was succeeded by the plague. The next year was distinguished by a comet, visible 40 days, a tem|pest of four days, deep snow, and extreme cold, which proved fatal to vines, trees, birds and cattle.

In 1065 several hundred thousand Scythians, marching to in|vade the Roman empire, perished with pestilential diseases.

In 1066 a comet was seen in May, and a cold winter suc|ceeded. Egypt and Arabia, countries not subject to earth|quakes, were violently convulsed in November, and a plague speedily followed, which, authors affirm, swept away one half the inhabitants. This was attended with famin.

The north of Europe speedily felt similar calamities. Vio|lent earthquakes in 1068, and a comet in May, of apparent di|ameter equal to that of the moon, visible 40 days, were suc|ceeded by famin. The country in England from Durham to York was depopulated. Men subsisted on dogs, cats and every unclean thing; or perished and their bodies were left to putrefy on the earth. The winters were unusually severe.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13. Murat. vol. 5. 44. Baron. vol. 11. 370.

In 1074 another comet appeared and a hard winter. The winter of 1076 was excessively cold from Nov. to March, so that the roots of vines were killed. In April 1077 appeared a comet, and famin and plague raged in Constantinople with such mortality, that the living could not bury the dead. An earth|quake was experienced in England. Shocks were also felt in 1081 and 1082.

In 1084 raged famin and pestilence; the latter cut off the

whole army of the Emperor Henry, in Rome. In 1085, Rus|sia was laid waste by locusts and the plague. The seasons were unfavorable in England, the crops bad and a great mortality among cattle. In 1086, were great inundations in Flanders, Italy and other countries; and in 1087 the fish died in the rivers.

Magd. Cent. 11. Baron. vol. 11. 564. Stowe's Annals. Knighton. Hist. Ang. Script. 2353.

Authors relate that in 1086, domestic fowls left the houses and fled to the woods. The two following years, the same ca|lamities continued—bad seasons, murrain among cattle, and a violent fever, which appeared in the former year, raged in these and affected one half the people of England. In 1089 a burn|ing plague destroyed mankind. Earthquakes distinguished these periods.

Functius Chro. vol. 1. 102.

In 1091 appeared a comet; another in 1094; a third in 1096, and a fourth in 1098.

In 1091, many violent tempests happened which levelled buildings, 600 houses were blown down in London; swarms of locusts darkened the sun, and the next year a plague raged, which the historian relates to have arisen from the putrefaction of their bodies. The place where the locusts appeared is not named.

A most severe winter in 1093, occured after a very rainy sum|mer in England. The summer of 1094 was also excessively rainy.—The plague at the same time raged in England, Gaul and Germany. A violent earthquake with a tempest in 1094. The comet in Oct. 1096 was attended with great rains, which prevented the sowing of winter grain, and famin followed. Va|rious fiery appearances and meteors were observed, during this period, and the winter of 1095 was severe.

In 1098 a pestilence invaded cattle, from the bad quality of their food, which had been injured by great rains. This was the year of the last comet above named, and in the following year, was a hard winter and a dearth. Syracuse was injured by an earthquake.

Magd. Cent. 11. 13. Matthew Paris, p. 17. Muratori, Tom. 5. 59.

To the year 1099 or the following, is to be assigned the ter|rible inundation which spread over the low lands in Kent, be|longing

to Earl Goodwin, and which, never having been recov|ered, now form the shoals, called Goodwin Sands, of dange|rous navigation.—A severe winter followed, and pestilence and famin in various places.

Pistorius, vol. 1. Anderson, Hist. Com. vol. 1. 176.

It is probable that the events related in the two last paragraphs happened in the same year. The inundation is said to have drowned in Holland one hundred thousand people.

A dark day is mentioned in the year 1099.

In the year 1100 raged a pestilence in Palestine, said to have originated from the stench of dead bodies. In Syracuse, a vio|lent earthquake demolished a tower, with the loss of many lives. In 1101 a singular meteor, and such multitudes of worms, called papiliones, from their resemblance to a pavilion, that they cover|ed two or three miles of country.

Magd. Cent. 12. ca. 13.

In 1103 a new star shone for twenty-five days, and a comet of a bright flaming color.—A great mortality happened this year.

Magd. ibim. Matthew Paris.

In 1105, there was a discharge of fire from Heckla, and in the same year, a great quantity of snow, a violent earthquake in Jerusalem, about Christmas, and about the same time, a light in the west almost equal to the sun, and two mock suns.

In Feb. of the following year, a comet* 1.12 of unusual splen|dor for three weeks was visible from three to nine o'clock, and two mock suns. A violent earthquake happened the same year. Many meteors were seen and violent tempests and inundations, with myriads of insects in the air, marked the disorder of the elements.—The year was also noted for sterility of grain, and a consequent dearth—men were attacked with plague and unusual diseases—"ignotis morbis, igne, flamma, ardore invisibili homi|nes excruciati et absque ad ustionis nota extincti."

Magd. Cent. 12. ca. 13. Muratori, Tom. 5. 485.

The reader cannot fail to remark how regularly the mention of comets is accompanied with a failure of crops, meteors, and tem|pests. We have proof in modern times that these were not the

fictions of imagination. See the years 1769-70—1783-4— 1788-9.

In 1107 appeared a comet with a long coma—another was seen in Normandy in 1108.

In the year 1109 erysipelous diseases were epidemic in England; which afflicted and destroyed many people; their limbs covered with black spots, like carbuncles.

Magd. Cent. 12. ca. 13. Sigebert. Polydore Virgil.

In December 1109 appeared a comet, and in June 1110 another, which spread its coma to the south. A severe winter, with deep snow and long continued cold, followed and sterility of grain. An unusual recess of water in the Trente, severe earthquake in Salop, and a mortality among men and cattle dis|tinguished the year 1111.—An earthquake and severe plague are mentioned under the year 1112; but the year was remarkable for abundant crops of grain.—This year there was an extraor|dinary recess of the water in the British Channel for a whole day, fish died in the water and domestic fowls took flight into the woods.

Magd. Cent. 12. ca. 13. Knighton, Hist. Ang. Script. 2379.

Here we have an account of a progression in the pestilence— from the eruptive diseases of 1109 to the plague in 1112—This is the modern order.

In 1113 or, as some authorities have it, in May 1114, a comet appeared, and in a period of distressing calamities. In this year there was an eruption from Heckla in Iceland.

In May 1113 an extraordinary snow very much injured trees and vegetables. In June a dreadful tempest laid waste whole countries, and the excessive heat of the summer produced dys|entery and other pestilential epidemics. In 1114 many cities in Syria were prostrated by an earthquake; and its effects were felt in all the oriental countries. In November 1115 many houses in Antioch were swallowed up in a chasm rent in the earth. In January 1116 various places suffered by shocks of the earth, and in 1117 all Italy was shaken for forty days.

In 1113 Flanders was overwhelmed by an inundation, which compelled many Flemmings to abandon their country, and they settled in England.

This event seems to fix the approach of the comet in the year 1113.

Severe drouth and a singular recess of the ocean left rivers dry in 1114. October 15th people walked over the Thames between London bridge and the tower. In December the sky appeared to be in a flame.

The winter of 1115 was most rigorous, and a terrible mor|tality swept away the cattle. A comet appeared this year also.

The year 1116 was rainy and fruits were destroyed. In 1117 swarms of locusts about Jerusalem devoured vegetation, and in England great damage was done by floods.

In 1118 and 1119 earthquakes were violent. In 1120 the locusts and mice overran Judea, and Trent suffered much from earthquakes. A severe winter followed in 1121, and a drouth the next year, which occasioned a scarcity of provision, and men and cattle perished.

In the foregoing period, no great pestilence is mentioned, but such diseases as were occasioned by intemperate seasons, except among cattle.

Magd. Cent. 12. Baron. vol. 12. 117. Muratori, Tom. 5. p. 60. Maitland's Hist. Lond.

In 1124 happened a very severe winter, which destroyed trees and vines—succeeded by a cold spring which retarded ve|getation. The following year was noted for a destructive plague among men and cattle, in France and Brabant. Terrible was the famin in Italy, and in England so many people perished with hunger, that dead bodies lay in the highways unburied. In 1125 the famin, accompanied with pestilence, continued in Eng|land, Germany and Italy. The season was excessively wet and all fruits were injured or destroyed. In 1126 appeared a comet in October, followed by a winter excessively severe, and in the following year, violent earthquakes occurred in Syria. Erysi|pelous distempers were fatal in England.

In the pestilence of 1125, it was computed that one third of the people perished.

Magd. Cent. 12. Baron. vol. 12. 160. Dufresnoy.

In 1130, 31 and 32, happened the most destructive murrain

among cattle and fowls ever known in England. In 1131 an excessive drouth in France.

In October 1133 appeared a comet. The same year, Eng|land was shaken by earthquakes, and inundations continued a whole month. Authors assert that the sun exhibited singular appearances, changing its figure and dimensions, and that there was a remarkable intemperature in the air. In modern times, the face of the sun is often disfigured with spots, and it is not unphilosophical to suppose that moving vapor in the air may sud|denly change its apparent diameter.

In 1134 the sea broke into Flanders, as it did in the follow|ing year. This year was rainy.

In 1135 the drouth destroyed vegetation and occasioned a dearth. The Rhine was fordable in almost any place. Terri|ble tempests and earthquakes and an eruption of Vesuvius mark|ed this period, and a dreadful plague ensued.

Short, vol. 1. 118.

The eruption of Vesuvius was in 1136 and a second in 1139. The summer of 1137 was as remarkable for drouth, as was that of 1135. The plague was universal. The disorders in the elements occasioned a long and desolating famin.

Magd. Cent. 12. Pistorius, vol. 1. 156. Matthew Paris.

Knighton mentions the sun's changing its form in 1133, and adds that a darkness happened which rendered a candle necessary in the day time.

Chronocon.

From this it is probable the sun presented appearances, like those which we observed on the 19th of May 1780, and which are usual in dark days.

The reader will remark the occurrence of such days, in years when electricity shakes the earth, or fire and lava are discharged by volcanoes. He will note also the drouth that preceded the eruption of Vesuvius in 1135 and 1138.

In 1140 was an earthquake in England. In 1141 a very severe winter. In 1143 the air, for a mile in extent, was filled with an unusual insect, with the body of a worm and the size of a fly. A general plague among men and cattle began the same year, and raged with great violence in various countries.

In 1144 or as some authors relate in May 1145 appeared a comet, illuminating the heavens, and the same year were violent earthquakes. In 1146 another comet, and the plague incredibly fatal. A famin prevailed with distressing severity, for 12 years, including the years just named.

Magd. Cent. 12. Muratori, Tom. 5. p. 65. Pistorius, Germ. Script.

If men, at this period, had any respite from natural evils, the intervals were very short. In 1150 a very severe winter and severe pestilence are recorded in the Saxon chronicle, together with famin and an eruption of fire in Iceland. Earthquakes, inundations and pestilence marked the subsequent years. The years 1151 and 2 are mentioned to have been very rainy—the winter of 1153 and 4 severe, and the summer of 1156 exces|sively dry. These phenomena follow each other so rapidly, and are related with such brevity and in general terms, that it leaves the mind at a loss to what influence to ascribe the diseases which afflicted nations for a series of years about this period. In this gloomy and barbarous age of the world, history is concise and destitute of accurate observations.

In 1157 there was an eruption in Iceland, with a very cold winter. In 1158 an eruption of Vesuvius, an earthquake in England, and an inudation of the Tyber. Pestilence appeared in Scotland in 1154.

Not long after these events, Antioch, Tripoli, and Damas|cus were convulsed by an earthquake, with the loss of 20,000 lives.

After an interval of more than 300 years, during which I find in history no account of any eruptions from Etna, this vol|cano is introduced to our notice by an almost continual eruption from 1160 to 1169. Earthquakes were violent in 1161—in Sicily an inundation drowned 5000 people—in 1163 one of the greatest inundations in Friesland ever known, preceded by a very severe winter. At this time the plague was raging in Mi|lan, Normandy and Aquitain. Unusual darkness is mentioned in 1164. In England, the sea overflowed twelve miles of country, destroying men, cattle and improvements. In 1165, a comet appeared with a long coma; 12,000 people perished by an inundation in Sicily, and Norfolk and Suffolk in England

were shaken by an earthquake. Most of Frederick Barbarossa's army perished by the plague in 1167. This period was remark|able for great wind and hail.

In 1169 the eruption of Etna was very violent; Catana was demolished by an earthquake, and 15,000 people perished —Asia Minor felt the shock. In the next year, so general and tremendous were the earthquakes, that many of the best cities in Syria, Palestine and other countries, were laid in ruins. Germany suffered by earthquakes and inundations. Pestilence marked this period, and in 1172 a malignant dysentery raged in England.

In 1174 mention is made, for the first time, of an epidemic cough or catarrh. There is however no question that influenza and measles always preceded or accompanied pestilence in the ancient and middle ages, as they do in modern times. Authors have neglected to record the prevalence of all the minor epi|demics, or nearly all, until after the invention of printing.

In 1175 history mentions an eruption of Etna, pestilential diseases in England and a famin. In 1176 a long and severe winter, and an irruption of the sea into Holland with immense destruction—a severe drouth followed with a loss of seed time. The year 1177 was distinguished for violent winds.

In 1178 a comet was succeeded by a most rigorous winter, and destructive inundations. On the 11th of September, was a dark day, with singular appearances of the sun and moon. A|nother comet is mentioned in 1179 and a great hail storm.

In 1181 appeared a comet, and earthquakes, with an eruption of Etna, marked this period.—At this time Denmark was al|most laid desolate by excessive rains, famin and pestilence, while Germany lost half of its inhabitants by the plague. Some al|lowance must be made for exaggeration in the accounts of the more destructive plagues. This was an age of superstition, and the imaginations of men were susceptible of strong impressions.

In 1185 is recorded a most violent earthquake, over Europe. Calabria was overturned, and thousands perished. On the Adriatic, a whole city was swallowed up, and the shock was felt to the Baltic.

In 1186 Russia and Poland were desolated by locusts and pestilence. The winter was so mild, that the following harvest was in May, and vintage in August. In Carinthia, the locusts devoured every green thing.

An unusual conjunction of planets happened, this year, in Libra; and so great was the alarm, in that ignorant and credu|lous age, on account of the calamities predicted by astrologers, that a solemn fast of three days was appointed by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Luckily no uncommon event happened in Eng|land, until the next year, when pestilential diseases prevailed a|mong men and cattle. In 1188 the plague was in Rome.

Magd. Cent. 12. Murat. vol. 5. p. 70—6—182. Univ. Hist. vol. 32. 110. Henry Hist. Brit. vol. 3. 380.

I have no accounts of comets in this period from 1181 to 1211; altho it is probable that several were visible.

How far may we suppose the conjunction of all the planets had any influence in producing the remarkably mild winter of 1186?

In January 1193 was a remarkable aurora borealis.

In 1193 and 4 excessive rains injured the grain and produced a dearth. In England an acute pestilential fever was epidemic and left in health scarcely a number of persons sufficient to tend the sick. The usual forms of burial were neglected, and dead bodies were thrown into graves in piles. A severe winter put a stop to this epidemic. Brompton, with a natural partiality for religious houses, informs us that the only places exempted from the destruction of this pestilence, were the monasteries—Cotem|porary with this disease was an earthquake and a singular fiery appearance in the sky. Short places this fever under the year 1196 and calls it a "burning ague." See the years 1001 and 1723.

Brompton's Hist. Ang. Script. 1271. Magd. Cent. 12. Short, vol. 1. 130.

The winter of 1200 was cold; the summer of 1201 was very rainy; and the winter succeeding was severe almost beyond example. In 1203 was a sore famin from bad seasons. In 1205 a rigorous winter and a great hail storm; in 1206 an erup|tion of Heckla; but I have no account of any epidemics that prevailed.

In 1210 was an eruption of Heckla, and a cold winter. In 1211 appeared a comet, in May, visible for 18 days. Great tempests marked this period with inundations. In 1212 Venice and Damascus were violently agitated by earthquakes, and in Sicily thousands perished by an inundation. These phenomena were the heralds of a severe pestilence, which, in 1213, was so fatal in Italy, that authors affirm scarcely one tenth of the in|habitants survived. In the year following appeared two comets.

The year 1219 was distinguished for the approach of a large comet, distressing inundations, in one of which perished 36,000 inhabitants, an earthquake and a volcanic eruption in Iceland. In 1220 the plague was so fatal in Damietta, that authors re|late three persons only survived out of 70,000. By this we are to understand the disease to have been extremely mortal; but we must reject the literal meaning of such relations. It is doubt|less true that the pestilence of this period has rarely been ex|ceeded in mortality.

This period was very calamitous in the north of Europe. In 1221 Poland was afflicted by excessive rains, and the floods which followed swept away whole villages. The winter suc|ceeding was severe, so that frozen wine was sold by weight, while famin and pestilence almost desolated Europe. In most countries, the living could hardly bury the dead; and in some cities, scarcely a person survived.

In the year 1222 appeared a comet of unusual magnitude and the summer was excessively dry. A frost, with deep snow in April, destroyed the fruits. In autumn the earth was deluged with rains and swept with violent winds. An earthquake shook Germany and Lombardy; in Cyprus two cities were demolished; the shocks were frequent and continued for two months, in Brixia, Venice, England and other countries. The plague raged, for three years, with uncontrolable fury, in Germany, Hungary, France and other countries; falling on cattle as well as man.

During this dreadful period, the discharges of fire and lava, from the volcanoes in Iceland, exceeded what had been before known in the same space of time. There were two eruptions in

1222, one from Heckla; the other from Reikenese; and the eruptions of the latter were repeated in 1223, 1225 and 1226. In 1224 was a severe drouth; in 1225 a rigorous winter, fol|lowed by a dearth, and mortal diseases among sheep.

Let any candid man observe the natural phenomena accompa|nying this desolating period, from 1219 to 1226; and decide for himself how far the fire or electricity of the system is an agent in producing them, and the attending diseases.

We observe here the progress of pestilence to be the same as in modern times. The plague appeared in Egypt almost at the same time with the comet, and first derangement of the elements in 1219 and 1220; but was two, three, four and five years later in the high northern latitudes.

No comet is mentioned in the histories of this dark period, as far as I can find, from 1222 to 1240; but that there was one, in the vicinity of the ••••rth, between 1228 and 1233, is very probable.

In 1228 an inundation in Friesland demolished whole towns, and it was estimated that 100,000 people perished. Great rains in summer and excessive heat were followed 〈◊〉〈◊〉 severe winter, with deep snow.

In 1230 the waters of the Tyber rose to the stairs of St. Peter's Church, and drowned the lower city. July and August were excessively hot. An inundation of the Danube in 1232, and in 1233 so severe a frost, that rivers were converted into highways in Italy; and earthquakes marked the year, with a dark day.

During this period from 1230 to 1233, France, Denmark and Italy were wasted by dreadful famin and plague. These ca|lamities continued in 1234 and 5, in England and France. In London alone 20,000 people were starved. Worms and locusts devoured the fruits of the earth.

The winter of 1236 was rainy—the following summer ex|tremely dry, and in England most distressing agues were ep|idemic. In 1237 was an eruption of a volcano in Iceland.

In 1239 pestilence again raged—a new star, like Lucifer appeared. Famin was so severe that persons fed on human flesh.

In 1240 a comet appeared in Feb. and was visible a month. Mortal diseases prevailed, and authors relate that the fish, on the English coast had a battle, in which eleven whales and a multitude of other fish were slain and cast ashore. The cause to which this phenomenon is assigned is laughable enough; but the fact is important; for it strengthens modern observations, that when pestilential diseases prevail on the surface of the earth, fish often perish beneath the water. Of this no doubt can re|main; and this alone demonstrates that the pestilential cause is as powerful or nearly so, at the bottom of rivers and the ocean, as on the earth—a fact that reduces the theory of propagating the fomes of epidemic diseases in vessels, clothes and similar articles, from one country to another, to a thing of very trifling consideration.

The winter of 1240 was very severe—the snow was deep and cattle perished. An eruption of fire in Iceland is noted the same year.

In 1242 the Thames rose by means of excessive rains and overwhelmed the country for six miles about Lambeth. The years 1243 and 4 were remarkable for continued drouth, mete|ors and a most fatal plague.—An eruption of fire in Iceland in 1245.

In 1247 a violent earthquake was experienced in England, and in September a fatal plague. The earthquake was in Feb|ruary and followed by a very rainy summer. The winter fol|lowing was so mild, that people wore their summer clothes; but from March to May was cold.

The summer of 1250 was rainy and tempestuous, followed by a hard winter. The summer of 1251 was intolerably hot, and epidemic diseases prevailed, with great mortality.

In 1252 late frosts in spring, and succeeding drouth destroy|ed the fruits of the earth. At the close of July came great rains, vegetation started, but great mortality prevailed among cat|tle. At Michaelmas began the plague in London, which spread o••••r England, and raged till August following. This is one instance of the plague's appearing in autumn, running through

the winter, and ceasing about the time, in the hot season, when that disease usually begins.

The winter of 1254 was rigorously cold, a murrain among sheep was very fatal, and in England and France a mortal dis|temper among horses called the evil of the tongue, but it is not described.

In 1255 appeared a comet; tides rose to an uncommon height; rivers swelled with excessive rains and tempests levelled buildings. In 1256 the rains and tempests were equally violent, and another comet appeared. In 1257 the summer was also excessively rai|ny. From these rains came a dearth of corn in England and France in 1258, which was also rainy; and famin and diseases made havoc with human life. Fifteen thousand persons perished by hunger in London; but I have no account that the plague prevailed at that time.

To this series of wet seasons succeeded severe drouth in 1259 and 1260; and the mortality continued till the summer of 1259 —after which plenty succeeded to want.

The year 1261 was rainy in England and Scotland, and a dearth was the consequence in the following year.

In 1262 an eruption of a volcano in Iceland.

In 1263 a severe frost in winter converted the Thames into a highway for men and horses. In 1264 a comet was visible from June 20th to September 28th and pestilential diseases swept away horses and cattle.

In 1266 swarms of Palmer worms devoured all vegetables in Scotland, and several villages on the Tay and Froth were swept away by floods. These were preceded by a remarkable halo.

In 1268 appeared a comet, and violent tempests and rain are noted, together with sterility of grain and dearth in Austria and Sicily.

In 1269 the winter was extremely severe; horses and car|riages passing on the ice over the Thames. A plague raged among the Crusaders, on their march to the holy land, of which died the French king and his son. Some authors mention a comet of stupendous magnitude under this date; which is prob|ably the same as that noted under the foregoing year.

In 1274 was a great earthquake and a comet of frightful as|pect —an earthquake also in 1275.

In this year, it is related, the rot among sheep was first known in England. As this was said to be an imported disease, it is proper to state how it was introduced. Short on Air, vol. 1. 155, says, "This year, a rich Frenchman brought into North|umberland a Spanish ewe, as big as a two year old calf, which sheep being rotten, soon infected the country, so that the disease overspread the whole kingdom, and lasted 25 or 28 years, till it left very few sheep alive. This was the first rot ever known in England."

The reader will judge which is the greater calf, the man who gravely tells or the man who believes such a tale as this.

Historians fix upon the year 1277 for the formation of the Dollert Sea, between Groningen and East-Friesland, by a great inundation, which overwhelmed 33 villages irrecoverably; with many farm-houses in the open country.

In 1280 a great inundation was followed by a very cold win|ter. In 1281 Poland was afflicted with famin. The winter of 1282 was the severest then remembered; an earthquake shook Italy and a plague raged in Denmark. In 1283 the same mal|ady prevailed in Scotland. In 1284 the winter was one of the mildest ever known; the year was also remakable for great tempests, an unusual darkness and an eruption of Etna. The year 1285 was noted for a similar darkness, most parching drouth and the commencement of a famin in England.

This drouth was followed in 1286, by the approach of a comet. In this year, Prussia was infested with a new species of worms, whose sting was poisonous. Swarms of flies and pesti|lential fevers in Spain nearly destroyed the army of the French king, then making war on Arragon.

In 1287 fifteen islands in Zealand were overwhelmed by an inundation, with the loss of 15,000 inhabitants.

In 1288 the summer was excessively hot and dry Grain was however abundant in this and the preceding year The drouth was followed by great mortality and a severe winter.

In 1293 a comet was visible, and a great snow storm happen|ed

in May. Italy was shaken by earthquakes. In the follow|ing year, England was distressed by severe famin, thousands of the poor perishing with hunger. A severe drouth exhausted all the springs and rivers, grass withered and cattle were fed on straw. The winter of 1293-4 was extremely cold, and an eruption of Heckla happened in 1294.

In 1295 and 6 many countries were afflicted with famin, and in 1297 the plague prevailed in Scotland.

A comet of great magnitude appeared in 1298, or as other authors say, in 1299, and others in 1300; whose approximation was attended with violent earthquakes in Germany, and other places in 1299, and with an eruption of Heckla in 1300. The year 1298 was noted for a great mortality among the Jews, and multitudes perished in the east with various diseases in 1299.

In 1305 appeared a comet, attended with fatal pestilence. A hard winter followed, and the Rhine was covered with ice.

In 1311 mount Heckla discharged its fiery contents; in 1312 appeared a comet, and a three years famin commenced in Bo|hemia and Poland, which was exceedingly distressing. Men be|came like wolves and preyed on human flesh.

In 1314 incessant rains destroyed the grain; a comet ap|peared in December following, and in 1316 raged a desola|ting dysentery in England, accompanied with an acute fever, which, like the true plague, left scarcely survivors to bury the dead. The famin continued to rage with all its horrors. Horse flesh was a delicious dish. Wheat sold at forty shillings the quar|ter; equivalent to £30 sterling in these days.

In 1318 the winter was severe, and in 1319 the plague pre|vailed in England. A murrain spread among cattle, at the same time, with fatal destruction.* 1.13

In 1321 the drouth was extreme, and there was an eruption of Etna. Eruptions of Etna are also mentioned in 1323, 1329 and ••333, and a severe winter, in the first of these years 1323, which covered the Baltic with ice. The plague raged in 1325.

The year 1330 was rainy and the crops indifferent. The year

following, Ireland was distressed by famin, but Dublin was re|lieved by plenty of fish, called Thurlhods, which had not been seen there for ages. In 1332 was an eruption in Iceland.

In 1336 grain was abundant. A violent earthquake shook Venice, and a succeeding plague laid waste the city. This was preceded by numerous abortions.† 1.14

In 1337 happened a severely cold winter, without snow. Two comets were visible, one four months, the other two. The plague prevailed in Nuremberg and other parts of Europe. The winter following was also severe. Pistorius places these comets in 1336, and mentions an inundation at Florence. At this time, Europe was, for three years, ravaged with locusts.

In 1339 or 40, appeared another comet. Great floods, an eruption of Heckla, and a severe winter followed, which cov|ered the north sea with ice.

See Short on Air, vol. 1. Pistorius, vol. 1, and 2. Dufres|noy's Chron. Henry's Hist. Eng. vol. 4. 500. Camden's Britannia. Functius' Chron. Knighton's Chron.

In travelling through the dark ages, we find but few interest|ing descriptions; and nothing could have induced me to under|take the tedious detail of detached facts respecting pestilence, but a strong desire to ascertain all that can be discovered of the operations of nature, in producing epidemic diseases. It is of infinite importance, in discussing this subject, to know whether certain phenomena of seasons, of subterranean fire, and unusual animals, uniformly attend pestilence; and to ascertain, if possi|ble, the order in which they proceed, for the purpose of dis|covering whether they are connected with each other as cause and effect. Barren as the history of the barbarous ages really is, we yet find it to contain a great number of facts, that will assist us in developing the causes of epidemics. The subsequent pe|riods of the world furnish more ample materials—we now ap|proach the morning of science, when the clearer lights of more accurate history will illuminate our path.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Short places this in the 49th year of the Christian era; altho Caligula was killed in the year 41. No dependence can be placed on the dates of events, found in Short on Air; and I cannot vouch for their correctness, where I have not other authority.
• * 1.2

  The words of Zonoras per quindecem continuos annos, are to be understood as above explained.
• * 1.3

  Gibbon chap. 26 has well described the earthquakes of 365, but by mistake quotes Zosimus lib. 4. p. 221; whereas the latter author, in this passage, describes the earthquakes of 375.
• * 1.4

  General descriptions are seldom correct. I have already taken notice of the mistakes committed by Newton and Gibbon, whose general de|scriptions lead, in the instances mentioned, to false conclusions. A similar mistake occurs in Henry's excellent History of Britain, vol. 1. ch. 1. concerning the calamities of the Britons, in the period under consideration The author says, "the neglect of agriculture naturally produced a famin, which was followed by a pestilence."—These facts are not correctly stated. The incursions of the Picts and Scots had occasioned the neglect of culture and a famin; but this famin was fol|lowed by plentiful crops, which were succeeded by pestilence.
• * 1.5

  Under Cho••roes A. D. 540
• * 1.6

  The cycle of indiction was a period of 15 years, at the end of which the Romans paid a certain tax to the Emperors.
• * 1.7

  This custom was of higher antiquity.
• * 1.8

  Livy mentions a similar bow at Rome, during a great plague.
• * 1.9

  We cannot but notice the coincidence in time between meteors a••d volcanic eruptions.
• * 1.10

  I have found no author that mentions a comet about this time; but it is worthy of remark that the splendid comet of 1401 was calcu|lated to have a period of 343 years. This was therefore the same which appeared in 1744. If this calcu••ation is just, ••he same comet must have appeared in 1058—in 715—in 372—and in 29 or 30; or near these years. Now it app••ars that there was one in 1058 and in 375 attended with all the usual calamities—it is therefore presumeable that it appeared in ••15 or 16.
• * 1.11

  A species of quinsy.
• * 1.12

  Supposed to be the same as that which appeared in 531 and in 1680.
• * 1.13

  I have no account of any comets from 1315, to 1337—which may be owing to the defect of my historical materials.
• † 1.14

  To repair the waste of population, the Senate passed a decree in|viting persons to come and reside in the city, and promising them the rights of citizenship, after two years residence. Howel's Survey.