Lectures on the materia medica, as delivered by William Cullen, M.D. professor of medicine in the University of Edinburgh. ; Now published by permission of the author, and with corrections from the collation of different of different manuscripts by the editors.

LECTURES ON THE MATERIA MEDICA, 1761.

A Knowledge of the Materia Medica comprehends a know|ledge of all the substances employed in preventing or cu|ring diseases, and therefore of all those employed either in diet or medicine. Different authors have followed different methods in delivering the knowledge of this part of science, all of them lia|ble to objections, which need not be here pointed out. I shall shew you the plan which I intend to ••ollow; and, if you shall be con|vinced of the propriety of this, you will easily see the faults of o|thers. Most of the subjects will be considered under four different heads.

• 1st, The knowledge of the subject in itself, and the distinction of it from every other.
• 2d, Its virtues in diet or in medicine.
• 3d, The foundation of these virtues, so far as it can be perceived in the sensible or chemical qualities of the subject.
• 4th, Its pharmaceutical treatment, and other circumstances neces|sary to its application in medicine or diet.

With respect to the first head. The subjects are of two kinds, as immediately produced by nature, or as farther prepared by art. The knowledge of the first is to be got by the study of Natural History; the knowledge of the second, by an acquaintance with the arts which have been employed on them. Under the second head, the virtues shall be delivered, first, according to the several general indica|tions, and then as more especially applicable to particular diseases. Here we must observe, that there is no very good foundation for many

of the virtues which are ascribed to medicines by the writers on the Ma|teria Medica. The doctrine of Signatures, the fancies of Astrology, and the mistaken application of Chemistry, have very much corrupted this part of science. Even what is pretended to be drawn from experience, as much of it has proceeded from the errors and prejudices of the ignorant, and much from the falsehood of designing men, it is very little to be trusted. The writers, however, on this subject, have commonly copied from one another; but I hope I shall be par|doned if I do not repeat after them; and indeed I shall willingly ap|pear rather pauca scire, quam multa opinari. Under the third head, we shall find still more uncertainty. The sensible qualities of substan|ces go but a little way towards discovering their medical virtues. The Colour is a very uncertain guide; the Smell goes but a little farther; and it is the Taste only that is of any extensive application. Sir John Floyer, in his Phytobasanos, was the first who prosecuted this study to any length; and the industrious Linnaeus has since be|stowed some attention upon it; but both of them, in straining to form a system, have carried the matter too far. The Chemical A|nalysis, strictly so called, has been found of very little use; but the treatment, by the application of different menstruums, has been of more service, and, by resolving vegetables into their gummy or re|sinous parts, we have been able sometimes to separate the salutary from the pernicious, and the efficacious from the inert parts of ma|ny substances. Under the fourth head, we shall mention the phar|maceutical treatment which medicines have commonly, or may pro|perly receive, and, therefore, the several compositions they enter in|to, with some other particulars relative to their administration in diet or medicine.

Of the several plans of a Materia Medica, that to be found in the treatise De viribus Medicamentorum, imputed to the celebrated Dr Boerhaave, appears to be one of the best. It treats of the several sub|jects as they occur in the order of the Methodus Medendi; and it has premised some physiological doctrines that are necessary with respect to the whole. I find it necessary to follow this part of the plan, especially, as I have some peculiar notions on the subject, which, as they are not common in our schools, it is necessary for me to ex|plain.

In the first place, we adopt the proposition very well established, Medicamentum non agit in Cadaver: That is to say, That the opera|tion

of medicines does not depend on the laws of matter and mo|tion, which take place in inanimate bodies, but on a principle which subsists in living animals only. We inquire therefore after this vital principle. It must be connected with the primary and fundamen|tal functions of the animal oeconomy; but the functions of the ani|mal oeconomy are mutually so much the causes and effects of each other, and run so much in a circle, that it is difficult to chuse where to begin. Many think the circulation of the blood may be consi|dered as the vital principle upon which all the other functions de|pend; but we must trace this to its cause in the action of the heart; and this again manifestly depends upon a certain power acting in or upon the muscular fibres of this organ. When we consider this power, we find it belongs, in common with those of the heart, to e|very muscular fibre in the whole body. At the same time, we find, that the power of muscular fibres every where depends upon the nerves; that these nerves, for what power they communicate, depend upon their connection with their common origin in the brain and me|dulla spinalis; the nerves and muscular fibres therefore form a system, whose functions may be considered as primary and fundamental in the animal oeconomy. The principal part of this nervous system is manifestly the common origin, which is properly enough considered as the sensorium commune, as the more immediate organ of the soul. It is therefore with probability supposed, that our intellectual part, or the soul, is the vital principle of the animal oeconomy. With regard to this, there is some difference of opinion, which may be supposed to influence the system of physic, and particularly the question, Whether our intellectual part depends on a certain constitution of matter, or upon an immaterial substance connected with our mate|rial part? We are of the latter opinion, and think it is fully proved, by observing, that there are laws of the animal oeconomy absolutely incompatible with the ordinary powers of matter and motion. But, on this subject, I refer you entirely to Dr Whytt, who, in his book on the vital and involuntary motions of animals, has put the mat|ter beyond all doubt. I will add only one argument, which is, That the association of ideas, a very fundamental part of all our intellec|tual operations, cannot be explained upon any supposed organiza|tion of matter. There is indeed something analogous to it in sound|ing strings, that are in a certain proportion to one another; but, if the simultaneous motions of our intellectual part depended on such a mechanism, we should find, that these simultaneous motions would

be confined to certain parts, and take place in these only; but, of the motions of living animals, any one may be associated with any o|ther; and the association depends entirely upon the impressions pro|ducing them being made, and frequently repeated, at the same time.

The existence of a Soul admitted, we must next inquire into the circumstances of its operating in the system. With respect to th••••, we find, That the notion of the soul's governing the whole animal functions is very ancient, as we meet with it in the Timaeus of Plato. It has since been revived in different shapes by Helmont, Wepfer, and Dolaeus, and especially by Stahl, who plainly main|tains, that the soul, as in a great measure independent of the body, and as in itself a rational being, presides over and directs most of the animal functions. In this he has been followed by many phy|sicians in Germany, by Dr Nichols in England, as appears from his dissertation, intitled Anima Medica; and our countryman Dr Por|terfield has also shewn a strong bias to the same opinion. We can|not, however, join in this with these respectable persons, as we nei|ther find it founded in truth, nor that it can have any good in|fluence on the system or practice of physic. Although the soul is certainly a distinct substance from the body, it appears highly pro|bable, that the soul, while connected w•••••• the body, seldom acts, but it consequence of motions first excited in the latter; and that it is ge|nerally true, that Nihil••est in intellectu, quod non prius fuerat in sen|su. Even our reflex sensations seem to depend upon certain condi|tions of the organ of our intellectual functions; and these conditions being given, the reflex sensations are always necessary consequences of first impressions. The impossibility of a perpetual motion or au|tomaton being demonstrated with respect to matter, this is consi|dered as a proof, that the seeming automaton in a living animal must depend upon a soul animating all its motions. That the soul is constant|ly necessary to the motions of the body, we readily admit; but the ar|gument is pushed too far, when it is supposed that these motions are supported by the power of the soul alone; for, it appears, that motions excited by the impulse of external bodies, are absolutely necessary to that support. Take away all impressions on the external senses, and most persons will fall asleep, and that sleep would probably continue and end in death, were it not for impressions being renewed. The power of the soul appears, especially in what are called the voluntary motions; but these, properly considered, do not shew that power exerted in

an arbitrary manner, or with any attention to the motions of the body. How the Will is determined in all cases, we do not say; but, however determined, it is merely the conception of an end or pur|pose to be executed; and, with this, certain motions of the body are necessarily connected, without the soul's being conscious, in ma|ny cases, even of the motions of the limbs produced, and in no case of the action of the muscles which produces these motions. Anger makes me Will to give a blow; I make a full inspiration; I conti|nue it; I bend back my body; I lift up my arm, and stretch it to the utmost; I close my fist, and bring down my arm with force upon the part I would strike; and, with all this, my limbs are set in a particular position, my eye-brows are knit, my eyes are fixed, and the features of the face are set in a particular manner. Of these se|veral motions, the soul is very little conscious, and not at all of the several muscles employed. The soul is indeed a necessary part of these motions, but cannot be said to direct and govern them inde|pendent of the conditions of the body. This is still more clear with respect to the internal, and what are called Involuntary Motions, with which physic is more especially concerned. The Stahlians would have us believe, that the increased action of the heart and arteries which appears in fevers, does not arise from the physical power of the cause of fevers, but from hence, that the soul, percei|ving the noxious tendency of some matter present in the system, ex|cites the action of the heart and arteries as a means of expelling such noxious matter. This cannot be proved; and it appears to us more probable, that, analogous to a general law of the system, the material cause of fevers has a physical power of exciting those mo|tions that are fitted to expel it out of the body. In short, whatever share the soul may have in supporting the motions of the body, we can have no art of physic, but in so far as we suppose, that the causes operating upon the body act by a physical necessity; and that, by a knowledge of such causes, we can produce certain changes in the state of the matter and organization of the body. We agree therefore with Dr Boerhaave, that, when a medical pro|blem is prosecuted so far as to be carried to circumstances depending upon the connection between the soul and body, it may be consider|ed as solved for all the purposes of physic. Upon the whole, there|fore, we conclude with the same celebrated physician, that the con|sideration of the soul is not necessary to the system of physic; Inst.

Med. Art. 696. And, laying aside the doctrine of the Stahlians, we return to consider the animal oeconomy under another view.

We have hinted already, that the functions of the sensorium com|mune are fundamental in the system. It is connected with the ex|tremities of the nerves every where, so that, by an impression made upon certain of these extremities, a motion is propagated from thence to the sensorium; in consequence of which, a sensation arises; and, by sensations arising in the sensorium, a motion is propaga|ted from thence to certain extremities connected with muscular fi|bres, whereby these are excited to contraction. Those parts of the body upon which impressions made give occasion to sensation, are said to be sensible; and those parts which are excited to motion by impressions made upon them, or upon the sensorium, are said to be irritable. Now, it is pretty obvious, that most of the motions of the body depend upon the action of irritable parts; and as in many cases the action of these parts is only excited in consequence of sen|sations, or other powers acting on the sensorium, it is plain, that most of the functions of the body depend upon a communication of motion by means of the nerves. This may be called the Nervous Power; and its nature has been variously judged of. It is perhaps not very necessary to determine it; but we shall venture to say, that it is pro|bably a subtile elastic fluid inherent in the whole medullary fibres of the nervous system; and that this is probably the material vital principle of animals. Somewhat analogous to it appears in ve|getables, many of which are manifestly endowed with irritability. Perhaps it is common to all nature, and only under different modi|fications by certain conditions of other matter.

The sensibility and irritability of the system, as depending upon a nervous power, being in general established, it is of importance to determine, what parts are more especially endowed with these properties. Irritability is evident wherever we can distinctly observe the presence of muscular fibres, as in the organs of voluntary motion, in the heart, the bronchiae, and alimentary canal; and in some parts, where the muscular structure is not quite evident, experiment has shown the irritability, as in the lymphatic system, and in most of the excretories. The irritability of these last appears in every ex|cretion, that of sweat excepted; for this seems especially, or only, promoted by the increased action of the heart, while every other is

by an irritation applied to the excretories themselves; and not only by applications to the excretories, but also by those applied to other parts having a sympathy with particular glands: Thus, certain sounds can occasion an increased excretion of saliva, and a fractured scull increases the evacuation of bile. The important question on this subject is, Whether the arteries are endowed with irritability? It is alledged by some anatomists, that what has been called the mus|cular coat of the arteries consists only of fibres, such as are in the tendons or ligaments, and which are no where else sensible or irri|table; that, in experiment, the arteries do not appear irrit••••••e by mechanical stimuli; and though they appear to contract upon the application of strong acids, this is no more than what happens to the veins, and even to the fibres of dead animals. But, on the o|ther hand, it is said, that, if the arteries are simple elastics, the state of the circulation in every part of the body must, for the most part, depend upon the action of the heart alone; and, if the im|petus of the blood be increased in one part only, while the action of the heart continues the same, it will be difficult to account for it upon that supposition. Thus, in blushing, the impetus of the blood is increased in the vessels of the face, and in those of the cheeks more particularly. Now if this depended upon the increased action of the heart, the redness produced should appear over the whole surface of the body; and, if it depended on certain circum|stances in the state of the respiration, the effect should appear e|qually over the whole superior parts; but neither of these happen; the effects are truly partial, and they are only to be accounted for by supposing, that the arteries are endowed with irritability and a muscular power, which can be increased in particular parts of them, while the action of the heart and other arteries continue the same as before. Dr Haller endeavoured formerly to account for these inequalities in the state of the circulation, by the contraction of the nerves surrounding several arteries; but, perceiving that truly the nerves are endued with no contractility, he has entirely given up that theory.

Having thus pointed out the extent of irritability, and of the ef|fects of a nervous power in the system, it is evident, that the laws by which the action of the nervous power is regulated require to be attended to, and studied more carefully than hitherto they have been. We shall not attempt to supply this at present; but shall en|deavour to do somewhat, as particular subjects may give occasion to

it. Just now we shall only make some general application of what has been said. First, With regard to the solids of the body, the state of laxity or rigidity in the simple solids has had a great share in our modern pathology; and we think that the consideration is not to be neglected altogether; but, at the same time, think, that the laxity or rigidity of the simple solids being given, it is not rea|dily or occasionally changed; and that all sudden and occasional changes in debility or strength, contractility or flaccidity, are more probably referred to the state of the moving fibres under the influ|ence of the nervous power: Quam facile mille res turbant.

Secondly, Every change in the state of the fluids poured out, has been considered as depending upon the state of the fluids in the ves|sels; and it may be so in some cases. But, as it is probable that the secreted fluids are chiefly formed in the secretory organs, so it is cer|tain, that the state of the secreted fluids is changed by the relaxa|tion or constriction of the secretory vessels; and, therefore, the fluids poured out are more frequently a mark of the state of the moving powers than of the general condition of the fluids. Thus, the u|rine, which has been so long considered as a mark of the state of the circulating fluids, is however, for the most part, no other than a mark of the state of the secretory organ.

The third, and only other application we shall make of the con|sideration of the influence of the nervous system, is to observe, that, as the whole of the sensible and irritable parts have a connec|tion with the sensorium, so certain parts have a more particular con|nection with certain others. This connection, sympathy, or consent, has been often taken notice of; but not so accurately and fully as is to be wished. At present I shall mention only one instance, viz. that of the stomach, as it is to be more particularly regarded in account|ing for the operation of medicines. Nothing affects the mind more than the state of the stomach, and nothing draws the stomach into sympathy more than affections of the mind. This is evident in hypochondriac people, whose disease being chiefly seated there, has often grievous effects on the sensorium commune, or the seat of it, the head. This is farther illustrated by wounds of the head. Does not, in these cases, the vomiting of bile proceed from consent between the stomach and liver? 2dly, The stomach has a considerable con|nection with the viscera of the thorax, abstracting from its contiguity or distention. In hypochondriac cases, the heart and lungs are often

variously affected by the stomach. Convulsions of the diaphragm are often occasioned by slight irritations of the cardia. Many other morbid symptoms might be adduced in proof of the same thing, were it necessary. 3dly, The stomach is connected with the ab|dominal viscera, and first with the intestines; secondly, with the other contiguous as well as more distant organs. 4thly, This viscus is connected with the extremities. This I have often experienced in myself, by transition of the gout, from the feet to the stomach, and vice versa. Cold and heat likewise applied to the extremities, affect the stomach. 5thly, It is connected with the whole surface of the body, and seemingly with the extreme vessels every where. This is demonstrable by many observations; e. g. no sooner do some aliments reach the stomach of particular persons, than spots and efflorescences are occasioned on the skin. Van Swieten gives such an instance from crabs eyes. I myself had a patient labouring under the malum hypochondriacum, who was relieved of his complaints by pimples appearing between his thumb and finger, and as immediately op|pressed by their retropulsion, or disappearing. Vomiting from con|striction of the cutaneous pores is another instance of such sympathy. Such symptoms, therefore, are falsly attributed to acrimony; and in general we conclude, that the stomach has a very general consent with the whole system.

Operation of medicines depends somewhat on their own nature, but as much on the particular modification of the system to which they are applied. Instead, therefore, of spending time, in examin|ing the different figure of the particles of medicine, their sharpness, oilyness, &c. it will be more useful to say somewhat on tempera|ments. Temperament is the general state of the system; idiosyn|cracy the peculiar state of a particular part. The variety of tempe|raments is prodigious. The ancients have confined them to four, and we, through a blind attachment to antiquity, have made few farther advancements in this distinction. It would be difficult to enumerate all the different temperaments; I shall therefore consider, rather, the several particulars in the system that are apt to be varied in

different constitutions, and whose varieties constitute diversity of temperaments. These particulars may be reduced to five. 1. The state of the simple solids. 2. The proportion of the fluids to the solids. 3. The state of the fluids. 4. The distribution of the fluids: i. e. of particular determination to this or that part of the system. 5. The state of the nervous power.

1. As to the state of the simple solids, viz. their laxity, or rigidity. Under the first is comprehended flaccidity, and debility; under the last elasticity, and strength. It may be doubted, whether these should be taken in here, as they are variable in every person, and, through the whole course of life, growing gradually from lax to rigid, as age encreases, and therefore might be supposed not to affect tempera|ments. Something, however, depends on the primitive stamina, in the formation of temperaments; e. g. two children, born at the same time, brought up exactly under the same management, will differ very considerably, as to the state of their simple fibres.

Universally, Physicians have taken their mark of the state of the simple solids from the hair. In a case of laxity the hair is soft, and in small quantity. In case of rigidity, it is copious, and liable to crispature and curling. The paler colours are, in general, an indi|cation of laxity; as the black, in all its shades, is an evidence of rigi|dity. Thus, in children, the hair is generally soft and pale, and gains, by age, hardness, and a darker colour. Another mark of distin|guishing the nature of the simple fibres, is the softness and hardness of the fleshy parts. When the body is fleshy, and the muscles and tendons distinctly marked, and along with this a considerable strength of system, we infer a rigidity of the simple fibres, with a considerable exertion of the nervous power. Succulency, for these reasons, must be a symptom of laxity.

2. The proportion between solids and fluids. There has been no|thing so much talked of as plethora, and yet it has been commonly confounded with obesity and corpulency. There is, however, a ma|nifest difference, though difficultly distinguished by particular marks,

and at the same time a connection. Plethora implies a greater quantity of fluids circulating in the vessels, distinguishable by ruddi|ness of colour, and a number of veins distended over the body. Of obesity, the greater proportion of it lies without the laws of circulation. Obesity may cause plethora; as in obesity, though a greater quantity is secreted, it is not let off from the body, and may therefore press upon the vessels and cause plethora.

3. The state of the fluids. These, in my opinion, might be dis|regarded, as they depend on the state of the solids and the nourish|ment. But we must not disregard what the Ancients have assigned as the cause of the different temperaments, which they made to de|pend on four different humours. This doctrine, however, of the Ancients, is now almost entirely neglected. The Chemists have delivered nothing clear or precise on this head, from the different proportions of oil, earth, salt, &c. in the blood. They have even added mercury and iron, as the latter is found in all human blood. But we are not assured of other principles, besides those of red globules, coagulable lymph, and serosity, which last is water impreg|nated with a saline principle. These, I make no doubt, are in dif|ferent proportions, from the nature of the aliment or diseases. But I do not know how to make use of this, at least till we be more fully acquainted with the nature and proportions of these, and the proper methods of distinguishing them, which are at present very inaccurate and imperfect; e. g. the proportion of red globules is not to be distinguished, as the less or more florid colour of the whole depends not on their quantity, but on the state of diffusion. Again, the proportion of coagulable lymph is not even evident from consistence as in per|sons where there is the same quantity of serum, the consistence is different. Ligature on the vessels, child-bearing, &c. cause a dif|ferent degree of separation of coagulable lymph, &c. so that no person can make any accurate judgment from appearance of the blood. Density is a more certain mark. The blood is denser in proportion to rigidity of the vessels, and in the same species in pro|portion to the age; e. g. it is more dense in cows than calves, &c.

The quantity of saline matter may also affect the density of the blood, and therefore we cannot positively determine whether the fluidity of the blood, in particular cases, be owing entirely to the abundance of a pure watery part, as saline matter may contribute considerably towards the production of that quality.

4. Distribution of the fluids. This is different in the same per|son, according to his age, owing to a difference in the structure and distribution of the vessels. It seems to be necessary that the brain should be brought to its size quickly; hence the head in a foetus is much greater in proportion to the other parts, and then constitutes one-fifth of the whole; whereas in an adult it does not exceed one-ninth, and, frequently, one-tenth only. After birth, a new deter|mination is given to the circulating fluids; the circulation being stopt in the umbilical vessels, is determined to the iliacs, and hence the growth afterwards of the lower extremities is more remarkable. This accounts for haemorrhages, &c. which happen in different parts of the body, at different periods of life, e. g. bleeding of the nose in young persons. Again, if a tall person have not hands and feet proportionate to the length of his body, he is liable to diseases. Thus I have seen a phthisis pulmonalis, of which this disproportion was the most probable cause. Hence if we could ascertain the pro|portions of the human body exactly, we might form a notion how diseases might arise according to the various deviations from it.

We shall now take notice of the different distribution into the arterious and venous systems. The arteries are larger in proportion to the veins in the young than in old subjects. Wintringham, jun. finds the density of the arterious coats in proportion to those of the veins less in young than in old animals. The arteries, therefore, from being laxer, grow more rigid, and are laxer as nearer to the heart. All this is wisely ordered; for the arteries being more ex|posed to the action of the heart, and the fluids, in their moving from a greater to a lesser diameter, are sooner rendered rigid, than the veins, in which the power of the heart is weaker, and the fluids

move in a contrary manner. Hence arises in young persons the arterious, in old the venous plethora, a distinction commonly unobserv|ed, though it gives a considerable difference in point of temperament. Arterious plenitude is distinguished by the florid complexion, the venous by distension of veins and paleness of the body. This change of plenitude is gradually taking place in all people, though the degree of it is considerably varied in different persons.

We consider here, very properly, the proportional capacity and force of the heart in regard to the system, at different times of life, as also the proportion of the lungs to the rest of the body: For as the same quantity of fluids, in a given time, passes through them, as through the whole body, any large proportion of fluids in the system must of necessity be very sensibly felt there, and, consequently, have an effect in the production of temperament. Thus narrow chested people are more subject than others to haemoptoë and congestion in the lungs.

5. Different state of the nervous power, with regard to sensibility, irritability, mobility, and strength. By sensibility we mean the fitness for having sensation excited by external impression; and as different forces of impression are necessary to move different persons, the sensibility is greater, as the less force of impression is necessary to sensation. By irritability, we mean the fitness for having motions excited in consequence of sensation, or other causes; and this appears different, not only with respect to the degree of force in the cause, but with respect to the extent of the effects in the system. Thus, of two persons, not only one will be vomited by a much smaller quantity of an emetic than the other, but also two persons taking the same dose will be very differently affected, while, in the one, the effects will be confined to the stomach, and the parts necessarily connected with it in vomiting, and, in the other, the effects will be extended so as to produce convulsions over the whole body. Of the difference of sensibility we are able to judge but grossly, as it does not always depend on the degree of force in impression, but in this

respect is greatly changeable by custom and practice. This is par|ticularly to be observed, that there is a great difference between the sensibility to a single impression, and the sensibility to the difference of force in the same species of impressions, or to the difference of impressions nearly akin to one another. Thus, there may be two persons equally sensible to the smallest impressions of any sapid body on the tongue; but, while the one may be able to distinguish only green from bohea tea in infusion, and hardly any difference in the qualities of each, the other shall be able to distinguish not only many different degrees in the qualities of either species, but also, in the case of their mixture, be able to discern the proportion in which they are mixed together. The same difference of sensibility occurs more frequently still with respect to sound. A person may be exquisitely sensible to the softest impression of sound, but, at the same time, may be very little sensible to any difference of tones. Irritability must commonly be connected with sensibility; for, as motion de|pends upon sensation, that, therefore, will be generally in proportion to this: But they are not absolutely connected; for, independent of the nervous power in the brain, the subject of sensations, irritability is often varied by the greater or lesser tension, and perhaps other circumstances, of the moving fibres themselves. Both sensibility and irritability are often connected with the weakness of the nervous power, never remarkably with its strength.

Another particular in which the state of the nervous power may be different, is mobility, that is, the facility and readiness with which not only motions are in general excited, but especially that also with which different motions succeed one another. In the first respect, mobility is the same with irritability; but, in the last, it is somewhat different. It is obvious, that the nervous power or senso|rium, is more tenacious of impressions in one person than in another; and the change, therefore, from one motion to another, will, in such persons, be in the same proportion; which amounts to this, that there is a difference of mobility in the nervous power of different persons. However, we observe that this mobility is commonly

greatest in the most sensible and irritable systems. Lastly, The nervous power, or energy of the brain, differs greatly in point of strength. Some have supposed that the strength of the body de|pended upon the strength of the simple solids; and I allow that it is often connected with this. But, as the state of the simple solids cannot be suddenly changed, those changes of debility and strength which are sudden and transitory, must be owing to changes in the state of the nervous power. Thus, at the invasion of fevers, we observe a considerable debility take place, more suddenly than we can suppose any change to be made in the state of the simple solids. Again, in maniacal persons, there is often an incredible increase of strength, which we cannot suppose to proceed from an increased rigidity of the simple solids so suddenly produced. This strength of the nervous power is opposed to sensibility, as appears from a much stronger dose of any medicine being required, to produce the same effects on the above-mentioned maniac than other persons. In my opinion it is also opposed to irritability, though not so remarkably, for weakly systems are, caeteris paribus, more irritable. Strength of nervous power is also opposed to mobility, for the more weakly the subject the impressions are more transitory, whereas in strong people the contrary takes place.

Having thus enumerated the different causes of temperament, we shall now consider how these causes are variously combined, in order to form different temperaments. Of particular temperaments, those are most strongly marked, which are owing to the different stages of life. As changes in the system take place very gradually, it were proper to assume a middle point, to and from which the system is gradually advancing or declining, and at the same time to mark the different gradation of decline and advance; but as this would be very difficult, I shall only handle the matter grossly, and point out those stages where the most remarkable changes occur. These may be reduced to four, Infancy, Youth, Manhood, and Old Age. To begin with these, therefore, in their order.

INFANCY.

In Infancy occur remarkably lax solids, large proportion of fluids which are watery and bland; large proportion of blood vessels in re|spect to cellular substances: Head and heart large in proportion to the system: Arteries numerous and large in respect to the veins: The secretory glands have not yet attained to their full bulk, while the conglobate, or lymphatic, are larger than at any other time of life. In the nervous system there is exquisite sensibility, without accuracy of perception; remarkable irritability with weakness, great mobi|lity, the foundation of a great deal of levity. In general, the nervous system is strong, with respect to the present time of life, but weaker than in a more advanced period.

Secondly. Let us consider now

YOUTH approaching near to its ACME.

Rigidity and strength are now greater, but still, with respect to the middle point, laxity prevails; a less proportion of fluids, with respect to the vessels, but still prevailing humidity; increased cellular substance, on which the growth of the body chiefly depends till the Acmé, and long after; heart less in proportion to the system than formerly, and more in a ballance with it; the arteries are diminished, in some measure, with respect to the veins, but still exceed them; the whole viscera are larger, and particularly the lungs, and, as the vessels are more rigid, consequently a greater determination of fluids to that organ, which explains the diseases incident to the stage of life, haemoptysis, &c. The same sensibility and irritability continue, perhaps, as before, but the former is more accurate, from the tension of the vessels, and consequently the fibres. The latter is rather encreased, and hence irascibility more frequently appears at this period. There is also great mobility, but with much less levity.

Thirdly. We come to examine the state of

MANHOOD.

It is difficult to fix this period; different persons attaining their Acmé at different times. I would take the thirty-fifth year for a standard. The solids are now tending to excess of rigidity, with re|spect to the middle point; the fluids are less, in proportion to the solids, hence dryness begins to take place; the heart is smaller, with respect to the arteries, and exerts less force than formerly; hence slower circulation, more copious secretion of oil, and obesity, with consequent succulency. Hitherto little change has happened in the state of the fluids, but now they begin to tend towards acrimony. The arteries, now become less, and the ballance is turned to the side of the veins: The secretory glands are now increased, while the lymphatic vessels are diminished, as also the conglobate glands. Sensibility, irritability, mobility, and consequently celerity and levity, gradually diminish from this time. Till this period the strength has been gradually encreasing, but is now at its height, and afterwards decays, chiefly on account of the rigidity of every part of the system. In infants the muscles consist of truly muscular fibres, or with very little tendon; but now the tendinous exceed the muscular parts, and in proportion perhaps the force is dimi|nished. This state of manhood is very variable as to its period, happening in some sooner, in others later; but from this to fifty, the changes are less remarkable than at any other state of life.

Fourthly,

OLD AGE.

When this comes on we cannot assign exactly, but when it aoes, appear, rigidity is in excess. Dryness, proceeding from the small proportion of fluids, both in the circulatory vessels and cellular membrane. Acrimony of the fluids is in excess, perhaps to com|pensate for the want of fluidity in the blood, by diminishing its

cohesion. Instead of an arterious, a venous plethora obtains. The lymphatic system almost disappears. Both from weakness of the nervous power, and rigidity of the simple solids, sensibility, irritability and mobility, formerly so remarkable, are now greatly diminished.

Thus have we pretty well distinguished the four grand stages of life, by the changes which are observed to take place in the system. These different changes do not happen so uniformly, but some pecu|liarities are remarkable through the whole of life. Thus each sex is distinguished. In the female, there is greater laxity, with humidity and thinness of the fluids, arterious plethora, more sensibility, irrita|bility, levity and weakness, so that in them the character of youth continues longer than in the male. In every person are appearances of a temperament peculiar to himself, though the Ancients only took notice of four, and some have imagined these were deduced from the theories of the four humours, or four cardinal qualities; but it is more probable that they were first founded on observation, and afterwards adapted to those theories, since we find that they have a real existence, and are explicable on the doctrine already de|livered. The two that are most distinctly marked, are the Sanguineous and Melancholic, viz. the temperaments of Youth and Age.

SANGUINEOUS.

Here there is laxity of solids, discoverable by the softness of hair and succulency; large system of arteries, redundancy of fluids, florid complexion; sensibility of the nervous power, especially to pleasing objects; irritability from the plethora, mobility and levity from lax solids. These characters are distinctly marked, and they are proved by the diseases incident to this age, as haemorrhages, fevers, &c. but these, as they proceed from a lax system, are more easily cured.

MELANCHOLIC HABIT.

Here greater rigidity of solids occurs, discoverable by the hardness and crispature of the hair, small proportion of the fluids, hence dry|ness

and leanness; smaller arteries, hence pale colour; venous plethora, hence turgescency of these, and lividity; sensibility, frequently ex|quisite, but with great accuracy; moderate irritability, with remark|able tenacity of impressions; steadiness in action and slowness of motion, with great strength; for excess of this constitution in maniacs gives the most extraordinary instance of human strength I know. This temperament is most distinctly marked in old age, and in males. The sanguineous temperament of youth makes us not distinguish the me|lancholic till the decline of life, when it is very evident, from diseases, (of the veins,) haemorrhoids, apoplexy, cachexy, obstructions of the viscera, particularly of the liver, dropsies, affections of the alimentary canal, chiefly from slower and weaker influence of the nervous power. So much for the sanguineous and melancholic tem|perament; the other two are not so easily explained. The Choleric temperament takes place between Youth and Manhood. In the CHOLERIC, the distribution of the fluids is more exactly ballanced; there is less sensibility, and less obesity, with more irritability, proceeding from greater tension; less mobility and levity, and more steadiness in the strength of the nervous power. As to the PHLEGMATIC: This temperament cannot be distinguished by any characters of age or sex: It agrees with the sanguineous in laxity and succulency; it differs from that temperament, and the melancholic, by the more exact distribution of the fluids. Again, it differs from the sanguine|ous, by having less sensibility, irritability, mobility, and perhaps strength, though sometimes, indeed, this last is found to be great.

These are the ancient temperaments, which we have brought in as instances of the combinations which might take place. The tem|peraments, indeed, are much more various, and very far from being easily marked and reduced to their genera and species, not only on account of variety of temperaments themselves, but also on account

of Idiosyncrasy. The whole of this subject might be prettily illu|strated by considering the difference of genus, &c. and even morals, to which the different temperaments are liable; but, as this dis|quisition is very subtile, and does not properly belong to this place, I shall wave it on this occasion.

To conclude; these circumstances, which we have observed to concur chiefly in production of temperaments, were the more necessary to be taken notice of, as they give indications in the cure of diseases, and so may influence what we have to say on the subject of medicines; but as we have found that the nervous power alone is capable of considerable and sudden changes, it is to this that our medicines should be chiefly directed; for the state of the simple solids, the proportion and state of the fluids, and the distribution of these, we have little in our power. To this purpose observe, 1. That medicines which act on the simple solids, cannot propagate far their effects on the system. 2. As to the state of the fluids, I shall treat this more fully afterwards, and shall only say at present, that me|dicines can have but little effect upon them, and any changes we can produce are produced by diet, and therefore must be slow. 3. The distribution of the fluids is scarcely to be altered, but by the gradual progress of life, and therefore is most of all out of the reach of medicines. 4. The state of the nervous power, is what medicines chiefly affect, and being that part of temperament which mostly modifies their operation, we shall insist upon it in particular. Haller, in 2d. vol. of the Elem. Physiol. has treated on Temperaments; I therefore beg you would compare what I have said on this subject with his observations. We now go on to consider the influence of Idiosyncrasy and the effects of Custom, as the doctrine of tem|peraments is every where perplexed and confounded with these.

IDIOSYNCRASY.

Idiosyncrasy is a peculiarity of temperament in a particular part of the system; e. g. Error on the side of laxity, or rigidity, or having a

larger or less proportion of fluids to the solids. The state of the fluids also is often affected by idiosyncrasy, being different in dif|ferent constitutions, owing, as I believe, to peculiar ferments ope|rating in the system: Thus a putrefactive ferment may occasion a greater alkalescency of the fluids even in a person who lives on vege|table diet, than in one who seeds on animal food. Idiosyncrasy chiefly shews itself, by a peculiar sensibility or irritability of a parti|cular part, which renders that part susceptible of weak impressions of one kind, and not of another; thus I have known a person faint at the smell of mutton, which we will allow to be a very singular idiosyncrasy. No part of the system is exempt from idiosyncrasy: It is needless to enumerate them all, as you may do it yourselves by examining the diseases on which they evidently depend. Nothing is more necessary than to observe, that the operation of medicines is as much or much more connected with idiosyncrasy than with temperament. In short, it has such an effect on the operation of medicines, that we should never give a dose of any efficacious one, without previously examining whether the patient has any such pe|culiarity, that contraindicates either the medicine itself, or its usual dose: And if the patient have not yet experienced this medicine, it will be proper, as idiosyncrasy is often hereditary, to enquire if any such have ever affected his parents.

We are next to observe, that both temperament and idiosyncrasy may be variously affected by Custom, insomuch that by this any tem|perament may be corrected, confirmed, obliterated, or even a new one induced.

CUSTOM.

Every body knows the effect of Custom, in the moral as well as the natural world, and therefore, without regarding these effects, we cannot be said to have fully handled the doctrines of tempera|ments and idiosyncrasy. Our time will only, however, allow to give the great outlines of this subject, which you afterwards may fill

up at your leisure. Custom is the frequent repetition of impressions on the system. Custom is often confounded with habit. Habit is only the effect of Custom, as when frequent repetition of impressions has given laws to the system. The effects of custom may be reduced to five heads. 1. On the simple solids. 2. On organs of sense. 3. On moving power. 4. On the whole nervous power. 5. On the system of blood vessels.

1.

Effects on the simple solids. Custom determines the degree of flexibility, which they are capable. By frequently repeated flexion, the several particles of which these solids consist, are ren|dered more supple and moveable on each other. A piece of catgut, e. g. when upon the stretch, and having a weight appended to it's middle, will be bended thereby perhaps half an inch; afterwards, by frequent repetitions of the same weight, or by increasing the weight, the flexibility will be rendered double. The degree of flexibility has a great effect in determining the degree of oscillation, provided that elasticity is not affected; if it go beyond this it produces flaccidity. Again, Custom determines the degree of tension; for the same elastic chord that now oscillates in a certain degree of tension, by frequent repetition of these oscillations, it will be so far relaxed, that the extension must be renewed, in order to produce the same tension, and consequently the same vibrations as at first. The ne|cessity of a certain degree of tension appears in many instances in the animal oeconomy, as when different muscles concur to give a fixed point, or tension to each other; and thus a weakly child totters as it walks, but by giving it a weight to carry, and by thus encreasing the tension of the system, it walks more steadily. In like manner the fullness of the system gives strength, by distending the vessels every where, and so giving tension; hence a man, by good nourishment, from being weak, acquires a great increase of strength in a few days; and, on the other hand, evacuations weaken by taking off the tension. These are the chief effects of tension on the system. What I have here said must not be strictly applied to the simple fibres, as, perhaps, it belongs partly to the moving fibres.

2.

Effects on the organs of sense. Repetition diminishes sensibility, and if, upon occasion, it seems to increase it, it is only in so far as it renders perception of the different degrees of impression more accurate. Repetition alone gives lasting impressions, and thus lays the founda|tion of memory; for single impressions are but retained for a short time, and are soon forgot. Thus a person, who at present has little knowledge of cloths, will, by frequently handling them, acquire a skill of discerning them, which to others seems almost impossible. Many are apt to mistake this for a nicer sensibility, but they are much mistaken; for it is an universal law, that the repetition of impression renders us less acute. This is well illustrated by the operation of medicines; for all medicines which act on the organs of sense must, after some time, be increased in their dose, to produce the same effects as at first. This affords us a rule in practice with regard to these medicines; it becoming necessary, after a certain time, to change one medicine even for a weaker of the same nature. Thus medicines, which even have no great apparent force, are found, by long use, to destroy the sensibility of the system to other impressions. But to this general rule, that, by repetition, the force of impressions is more and more diminished, there are some exceptions. Thus I have known persons, by frequent emetics, render their stomachs so irritable, that one-twentieth of the first dose was sufficient to produce the same effect. This, I believe, oftner takes place when the vomit is repeated every day, or oftner, as I have sometimes seen; for if the same vomit be given at pretty considerable intervals, the general rule is observed to hold good. Thus two contrary effects of habit are to be noted; and it is proper to observe, that the greater irritability is more readily produced when the first impression is great, as in the case first given of the strong emetic. This may be farther illustrated by the effect of fear, which is commonly observed to be diminished on repetition, which can only be attributed to custom; while, on the other hand, there are instances of persons, who, having once got a great fright, have for ever after continued slaves to fears excited by impressions of the like kind, however slight, which must be imputed entirely to excess of the

first impression, as has been already observed. The determining the force of impressions from the relation they have to each other, is necessary to be taken notice of here. In this manner the want of any particular sensation becomes uneasy. Weak sensations approach|ing to this want are therefore disagreeable. Very strong sensations are, on the other hand, disagreeable likewise, because pleasant sensa|tions are generally of a middle force of impression, though, no doubt, they sometimes depend on the nature of the impression. The reflex sensations of pleasure and pain are mutually exchangeable by repe|tition, in consequence of the force being diminished or augmented. Thus tobacco, certainly at first very unpleasant, by custom is ren|dered very soon agreeable. The pleasing middle impressions become at last insipid by repetition. Hence the love of novelty. Not only are our sensations varied in this manner, but they also, in some measure, depend on relation. Thus, according to the state of the body, the same thing feels cold at one time, and warm at another. Plea|sing objects also vary in the same manner. Much use has been made of heat and cold in philosophy, and many endeavours made to establish a positive nature in each. What I have now said con|tributes▪ among other arguments, to show they are purely relative. This leads me to an observation I formerly made, that increased density and rigidity of our fibres diminishes sensibility, which, caeteris paribus, is observable at all periods of life; so that, in this view, cold not only operates on our system by repetition, but also by con|tracting the solids and rendering them more rigid: While beat has the contrary ••ffect, of encreasing sensibility, by relaxation. To this head also belongs ••he association of ideas, which is the foundation of memory and all our intellectual faculties, and is entirely the effect of custom; its influence even on morals is very great, but the consi|deration of it does not properly belong to this place. With regard to the body also, these associations often take place. E. g. A dis|agreeable medicine will cause a nausea, or even vomiting, and ever afterwards the sight of it will produce the same effects. We shall only make one application of this in the cure of diseases, which very much depends on avoiding irritation. It is necessary, therefore in

such cases, to avoid not only the irritating or exciting cause, but also every other which have been any way connected with it. Thus when maniacs are strongly affected with the sight of any one person, we must not only keep the person out of their sight, but every other, who, being often seen with that person, might recall him to their re|membrance. Again, in producing effects on the body, associations seemingly opposite are formed, which, through custom, become ab|solutely necessary, e. g. A person long accustomed to sleep in the neighbourhood of a great noise, is so far from being incommoded on that account, that afterwards such noise becomes necessary to pro|duce sleep. It will be of use to attend to this in practice, for we ought to allow for, however opposite it may seem at the time, what|ever usually attended the purpose we designed to effect. Thus, in the instance of sleep, we must not exclude noise when we want to procure rest, or any causes which may seem opposite to such an effect, pro|vided custom has rendered them necessary.

3.

Effects of Custom on the moving fibres. A certain degree of tension is necessary to motion, which is to be determined by custom, e. g. A Fencer, accustomed to one foil, cannot have the same steadiness or activity with one heavier or lighter. It is necessary also that every motion should be performed in the same situation, or posture of the body, as the person has been accustomed to employ in that motion. Thus, in any chirurgical operation, a certain posture is recommended; but if the operator has been accustomed to another, such a one, how|ever awkward, becomes necessary afterwards to his right performance of that operation.

Custom also determines the degree of oscillation, of which the mov|ing fibres are capable. A person accustomed to strong muscular ex|ertions is quite incapable of the more delicate. Thus writing is per|formed by small muscular contractions; but if a person has been accustomed to stronger motions with these muscles, he will write with much less steadiness.

This subject of tension, formerly attributed to the simple fibres, is probably more strictly applicable to the moving; for, besides a tension from extension, there is also a tension from irritation and sym|pathy; e. g. The tension of the stomach from food, gives tension to the whole body. Wine and spirituous liquors give tension; e. g. a person that is so affected with tremor as scarcely to hold a glass of any of these liquors to his head, has no sooner swallowed it, than his whole body becomes steady, and after the system has been accustomed to such stimuli, if they are not applied at the usual time, the whole body becomes flaccid, and, of consequence, unsteady in its motions.

Again, custom gives facility of motion. This seems to proceed from the distension which the nervous power gives to the moving fibres themselves. But in what ever manner it is occasioned, the effect is obvious, for any new or unusual motion is performed with great difficulty.

We have shewn that sensation depends on a communication with the sensorium commune, by means of organs sufficiently distended with nervous influence. We have likewise found, that sensibility is diminished by repetition. I am now to observe, that i•• some cases it may be encreased by repetition, owing to the nervous power itself flowing more easily into the part, on account of custom. Attention to a particular object may also determine a greater influx into any particular part, and thus the sensibility and irritability of that parti|cular part may be increased.

But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous power, no doubt, flows most easily into those parts, to which it has been accustomed: But facility of motion does not entirely depend on this, but in part also on the concurrence of the action of a great many muscles; e. g. Winslow has observed, that in performing any motion a number of muscles concur to give a fixed point to those intended chiefly to act, as well as to others that are to vary and modify

their action. All this is assisted, not only by the influx into the several muscles becoming more free, but also by frequent repetition, as it is only by such experience that we learn the most proper atti|tude and concurrence of muscles for performing any action with facility and steadiness.

Custom gives a spontaneous motion also, which seems to recur at stated periods, even when the exciting causes are removed; and there are not wanting instances of habitual vomiting, from the in|judicious administration of emetics. It is on this account that all spasmodic affections so easily become habitual, and are so difficult of cure, as we must not only avoid all the exciting causes, even in the smallest degree, but also their associations.

Custom also gives strength of motion: Strength depends on strong oscillations, a free and copious influx of the nervous power, and on dense solids. But in what manner all these circumstances have been brought about by repetition, has been already explained. The effect of custom, in producing strength, may be thus illustrated: A man that begins with lifting a calf, by continuing the same practice every day, will be able to lift it when grown to the full size of a bull.

All this is of considerable importance in the practice of Physic, though but too little regarded; for the recovery of weak people, in great measure, depends on the use of exercise, suited to their strength, or rather within it, frequently repeated and gradually increased. Farther, it is necessary to observe, that Custom regu|lates the particular celerity with which each motion is to be per|formed; for a person accustomed, for a considerable time, to one degree of celerity, becomes incapable of a greater; e. g. A man accustomed to slow walking will be out of breath before he can run twenty paces. The train, or order, in which our motions are to be performed, is also established by Custom; for if a man hath

repeated motions, for a certain time, in any particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them in any other. Custom also very frequently associates motions and sensations: Thus, if a person has been in use of associating certain ideas with the ordinary stimulus, which in health excites urine, without these ideas the usual incli|nation will scarce excite that excretion; and, when these occur, will require it even in the absence of the primary exciting cause; e. g. It is very ordinary for a person to make urine when going to bed, and if he has been, for any length of time, accustomed to do so, he will ever afterwards make urine at that time, though other|wise he would often have no such inclination: By this means some secretions become, in a manner, subject to the will. The same may be said of going to stool: And this affords us a good rule in the case of costiveness; for by endeavouring to fix a stated time for this evacuation, it will afterwards, at such time, more readily return. It is farther remarkable, that motions are inseparably associated with other motions: This, perhaps, very often proceeds from the neces|sary degree of tension, but it also often depends merely on Custom, an instance of which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes.

On Custom depends the strength and steadiness, perhaps, of all the internal functions, as, e. g. the heart, which probably was once under the power of the will* 1.1. So much for the power of Custom on the moving fibres.

4.

Effects of Custom on the whole nervous power. We have found that, by Custom, the nervous influence may be determined more easily into one part than another, and therefore, as all the parts of

the system are strongly connected, the sensibility, irritability, and strength of any particular part, may be thus increased. Custom also has the power of altering the natural temperament, and of in|ducing a new one. It is also in the power of Custom to render motions periodical, and periodically spontaneous. An instance of this we have in sleep, which is commonly said to be owing to the nervour power being exhausted, the necessary consequence of which is sleep, i. e. a rest of the voluntary motions to favour the recruit of that power: But if this were the case, the return of sleep should be at different times, according as the causes which diminish the nervous influence operate more or less powerfully; whereas the case is quite otherwise, these returns of sleep being quite regular. This is no less remarkable in the appetites, that return at particular pe|riods, independent of every cause but Custom. Hunger, e. g. is an extremely uneasy sensation, but goes off of itself, if the person does not take food at the usual time. The excretions are farther proofs of this, e. g. going to stool, which, if it depended on any particular irritation, should be at longer or shorter intervals, according to the nature of the aliment. There are many other instances of this disposition of the nervous influence to periodical motions, as the story of the Idiot of Stafford, recorded by Dr. Plot, (Spectator, No. 447.) who, being accustomed to tell the hours of the church clock, as it struck, told them as exactly when it did not strike, by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us of some oxen that were employed in a machine for drawing water, who, after making three hundred turns, which was the usual number, could be stimulated by no whip or goad to proceed farther. Infants, also, cry for, and expect the breast, at those times in which the nurse has been accustomed to give it.

Hence it would appear, that the human oeconomy is subject to periodical revolutions, and that these happen not oftner may be imputed to variety; and this seems to be the reason why they oftner happen in the body than mind, because that is subject to greater variety. We see frequent instances of this in diseases, and in their

crisis; intermitting fevers, epilepsies, asthmas, &c. are examples of periodical affections: And that critical days are not so strongly marked in this country as in Greece, and some others may be imputed to the variety and instability of our climate, but perhaps still more to the less sensibility and irritability of our system, for the exhibition of medicine has little effect in disturbing the crisis, though it be commonly assigned as a cause.

We are likewise subject to many habits independent of our|selves, as from the revolutions of the celestial bodies, particularly the sun, which determines the body, perhaps, to other daily re|volutions besides sleeping and waking. There are also certain habits depending on the seasons. Our connections, likewise, with respect to mankind, are means of inducing habits. Thus regula|rity from associating in business, induces regular habits both of mind and body.

There are many diseases, which, though they arose at first from particular causes, at last continue merely through custom, or habit. These are chiefly of the nervous system. We should, therefore, study to counteract such habits; and accordingly Hip|pocrates, among other things for the cure of epilepsy, orders an entire change of the manner of life. We likewise imitate this in the chincough, which often resists all remedies till the air, diet, and ordinary train of life are changed.

5.

Effects of Custom on the blood-vessels. From what has been said on the nervous power, the distribution of the fluids must ne|cessarily be variously affected by Custom, and with that the distri|bution of the different excretions; for though we make an estimate of the proportion of the excretions to one another, according to the climate and seasons, they must certainly be very much varied by Custom.

On this head I may observe, that blood-letting has a manifest tendency to increase the quantity of the blood; and if this evacu|ation be repeated at stated times, such symptoms of repletion, and such motions are excited at these times as render the operation ne|cessary. The same has been observed in some spontaneous haemor|rhages. These, indeed, at first, may have some exciting causes, but afterwards they seem to depend chiefly on Custom. The best proof of this is with regard to the menstrual evacuation. There is certainly something originally in females, that determines that evacuation to monthly periods. Constant repetition of this, comes to fix it, independent of strong causes, either favouring or preventing repletion; e. g. blood-letting will not impede it, nor filling the body induce it: And, indeed, so much is this evacuation connected with periodical motions, that it is little in our power to produce any effect by medicines but at those particular times. Thus if we would relax the uterine system, and bring back this evacuation when suppressed, our attempts would be vain and fruitless, unless given at that time when the menses should have naturally returned.

MATERIA MEDICA.

HAVING now considered the subject to be operated upon, i. e. so much of the animal oeconomy as seems necessary for understanding the operation of medicine, we shall now proceed to treat of medi|cines themselves. I told you I proposed to range these according to the indications in which they are employed. However, the plan given you is not so perfect as I could wish. But in the course of my Lectures I shall observe its several errors and imperfections. These mistakes were unavoidable, considering the shortness of the time allowed to make out my catalogue, which is in most of your hands, and though not fit for the public eye, yet, with all its imperfections, I believe it may be to you of considerable use. Having distributed my medicines according to the several indications, I find myself ne|cessitated to explain that term. An indication is declaring the change to be made in the state of the body necessary for changing a diseased

state to that of health. The remedies, by which these changes are produced, are called indicat••, and the symptoms, which point out the changes to be produced, the indicantia. In distributing medi|cines according to the indications, they must be founded on a patho|logy, or doctrine of diseases. This I have done; but to shun disputes which are unavoidable on so dark a subject, I have rendered the division very general. I have, with the generality of authors, divided medicines into two classes, viz. those which act on the solids, and those which act on the fluids. Some have added a third class, viz. those which act on both solids and fluids. This I have not done, because it often happens that these actions are only secondary, pro|ceeding from their action on the solids or fluids. There are, no doubt, medicines which act on both solids and fluids at the same time, as salts; but as no medicine whatever is perfectly simple in its operation, I chuse to class such medicines as seem complex in their operation, under that head to which their principal action belongs.

Thus far I have explained my general plan of indication. There may, indeed, be started some objections, e. g. It may be said, if evacuants, instead of acting on the fluids, as I have classed them in my table, produce their effect by operating on the solids; I admit the force of this objection, though it appears allowable to take the ulti|mate effect instead of the cause, and the more so as it is consonant to the usual systems. I have made two divisions of the medicines which act on the solids. The first comprehends those which act on the simple fibres, the second those which act on the moving fibres, or, as Gaubius calls them, solida viva. I have ranged the medicines which act on the simple solids according to the diseases to which they are liable. My indications here are taken from Boerhaave, who, in his chapter de morbis fibrae debilis & laxae, begins with nutrientia, i. e. those substances which afford matter for nourishing the weakened fibres. This indication, indeed, is not strictly correct, for though in some measure it is applicable, yet it is not calculated to bring about sudden changes. I now proceed to explain those

technical terms which I employ in order that my meaning may afterwards be understood. To begin, then.

By nutrientia, I mean every thing received by mankind as food. The second indication in laxity comprehends such medicines as increase the cohesion of the particles of the simple fibres, and so render them more dense. These we have distinguished by astrin|gentia. This term has been used more loosely, for every thing that gives strength, and stops evacuations that are supposed to proceed from laxity. In the case of rigidity of the simple fibres, there are also two indications, viz. 1. To diminish the nutriment or appli|cation of new substance to the solid fibre; but of this afterward. The second that is mentioned in the table comprehends emollients, by which I understand such medicines as diminish the cohesion of the simple fibres.

We next speak of those medicines which act on the solida viva. The diseases of the moving fibres are very various, but taking a general view of them, we reduce them to three kinds; 1. Where contractility or motion are diminished. 2. Where they are too strong, or too much increased. 3. Where there is irregularity of motions. In the first case, the stimulants are indicated, viz. such medicines as excite more vigorous contractions. 2. Here are indicated the sedativa, by which term I mean those medicines, in whatever man|ner they act, which diminish too great contractility and motion. 3. In this case the antispasmodica are indicated, under which term, to avoid cavil, I mean such medicines as compose, or take off, irre|gular motions in our system.

Those medicine which act on the fluids, in compliance to general custom, I divided into alterants and evacuants. By the first, I mean medicines which produce changes in the circulating fluids, and are reckoned of two kinds, as they operate on the mixture or consistence of our fluids; though perhaps these cannot be separated, as we have already observed in the preliminary lectures. With regard to the

consistence of our fluids, they may be too thick, (which property is called lentor and viscosity,) or too thin. Remedies for the first are called attenuantia, for the last inspissantia. As to mixture we are well acquainted with its variety only in one case, viz. acrimony There may, indeed, be other faults, but these we neglect, as the doctrine of the fluids is very incomplete. Medicines adapted to acrimony are of two kinds. First, those for acrimony in general, the demulcentia. The second, are those suited to particular kinds of acrimony. Some have entered with great subtility in their enquiries into the different kinds of acrimony, but it appears to me, that we are only well acquainted with two species, which are the source of the rest, viz. the acid and alkaline. Most part of what our own fluids are formed of, either are originally or have a tendency to become acid in the stomach, and, therefore, we may suppose an acid acrimony even sometimes to enter the system, and to prevail there. Medicines which correct this acrimony I have termed antacid. Again, it is found to be the constant effect of the animal oeconomy to convert the acid into an opposite acrimony. Some affirm, that this is a perfect alkali, but all agree it is of alkalescent nature. The medi|cines against this acrimony I have named antalkalina. In the general indication for correcting acrimony, I might have made a division; first, into those medicines which correct, and, secondly, into those which obviate acrimony. Those that obviate the too great acrimonious alkalescency of our fluids I have set down under the title of antiseptica.

Having explained the different terms which occured under the head of alterantia, we are now to consider those under evacuantia. By this term we understand those medicines which encrease the excretion of fluids to be thrown out of the body. There may, indeed, be remedies which encrease the internal secretions, but we are as yet unacquainted with them; e. g. we have no medicine which will purge the pancreas alone without affecting the intestinal glands. In this explanation I shall begin a capite ad calcem. 1. Errhina, which encrease the mucus of the nose; 2. Sial••goga;

these encrease the quantity of the same mucus, and also the saliva; in short, whatever is evacuated by the mouth and nearly contiguous ••auces. 3. Expectorantia, those which encrease the mucus by the bronchia: I prefer this strict sense to the more general one of whatever is evacuated by the lungs. 4. Emetica, those which evacuate the stomach. We shall not enter nicely into what is to be evacuated; desiring it to be remembered, that we only mean by emetics whatever evacuates that which may be in the stomach. 5. Cathartica, those which in the same general way evacuate by stool. 6. Diuretica, those which encrease the evacuation of urine. 7. Diaphoretica, those which evacuate by the surface of the body, comprehending the insensible perspiration or more gross sweat. All these excretions depend on secretion. There is another evacuation in the human body which does not depend on secretion, viz. the menstrual flux in women. Medicines which promote this are called menagoga, which term is also applicable to the haemorrhoids in men, and the lochiae in women.

Besides the terms which I employ, you will find many more in the Writers on Materia Medica, which, though often used in|judiciously, are nevertheless necessary to be understood. I shall here explain them, and begin with the terms synonymous to these I have used.

I. To nutrientia are the terms restaurantia and analeptica, for they are only a species of nutrientia. Writers have extended the meaning farther, and ranked under this head, many I comprehend under medicines: For if salep, satyrion, &c. be restoratives, it is only so far as they are nutritives. Linnaeus names analeptica those medicines, quae vires instant, or which quickly give a certain vigor to the system, as wine, &c. but these properly belong to the stimulantia.

II. Adstringentia. 1. Exsiccantia; this term should be confined to external medicines; for though laxity may depend upon moisture,

they can only act in external applications, for if there be such internal remedies they must act as astringents. 2. Indurantia: This is also a complex term, for they harden, by bringing the fibres closer together, and so are no other than astringents. 3. Roborantia: This is also a complex term, comprehending medicines of different classes, as nutrientia, &c. but in so far as these medicines act on the simple fibres, they are the same as adstringentia. 4. When our fibres are endued with a power necessary to perform the functions, they are said to be in tone; medicines, therefore, which promote this state are called tonic, but they act only as astringents. 5. Sisten|tia, or medicines which stop evacuations. These are commonly astringent: But this term ought to be rejected, as it leads to an ambiguity. Opium, e. g. is a powerful sistent, though it does not act by its astringent quality, but by taking off the sensibility of the fibres, and so diminishing their oscillations.

III. Emollientia. 1. Laxantia: This is synonymous to emollientia, and perhaps the properer of the two▪ were it not ambiguous, by its being applicable likewise to purg••••ives of a more gentle kind. 2. Humectantia: This term is also synonymous, comprehending such medicines as add moisture to the fibres which is perhaps the chief effect of emollients; but some extend the meaning of humectantia farther, to encrease the fluid part of the system in general.

IV. Stimulantia. 1. Calefacientia: As there is no way of in|creasing animal heat, but by increasing motion, all the medicines comprehended under this term are really stimulants. 2. Attra|hentia: This term strictly means all those topical medicines that determine a greater flow of the humours externally; but these, in my opinion, are universally stimulants. The term attrahentia comprehends three subdivisions; first, such substances as increase the heat of the part; secondly, those which excite the heat with some degree of inflammation, called rubefacientia; thirdly, those which raise blisters, the vesicantia, and now frequently epispastica,

though this term more strictly implies attrahentia, and is synony|mous to it.

V. Sedativa. I have formerly observed, that this is a complex indication: As the substances which diminish motion in the system are very various, hence the synonimes of sedativa must be so too; e. g. Antiphlogistic is a term very generally used for substances which abate inflammation; but, as these depend on an increased motion, in this sense the term is the same as sedativa. Antiphlo|gistics are also such medicines as relax the solids, destroy contrac|tility, or attenuate the fluids; but here the term, being too loose, ought to be rejected, 2. Refrigerantia: This term is more pre|cise, meaning such substances as diminish the motion of a particular part, or of the system in general. I shall not here enquire into the manner in which these effects are produced. 3. Anodyna: This term strictly means medicines which ease pain. It would be difficult to determine whether there is an increased motion in every case of pain; if so, which I think probable, all anodynes are sedatives. Whatever be in this, anodynes, I may say, act first either by diminishing the motion, or taking off the feeling of the pained part. Of late, anodyne has been confined to medicines which act in this last way, and therefore is commonly understood to be the same with hypnotica, or such substances as induce sleep, though it would be more proper to make a distinction. Somnifera and sopori|fera are the same as hypnotica, and all synonymous to sedativa. Lastly, Paregorica, which, by the ancient Physicians, were consi|dered as sedativa, and the strict meaning of the term implies that sense.

VI. Antispasmodica. To this term, the only synonymous term I know, is carminative, which strictly implies such antispasmodics as have the power of taking off spasms depending on intercepted air in 〈◊〉〈◊〉 ••••••••estines.

VII. Attenuantia. These act either, first, by increasing the quantity of our fluids, or, secondly, by diminishing the cohesion, the quantity continuing the same. 1. Diluentia: This term is synonymous to the first signification of attenuantia, and diluents only act in proportion to the quantity of water they contain, water being the only diluent: But writers on the Materia Medica often, im|properly, use this term in the same general sense as attenuantia. 2. Incidentia: This is used in the second signification of attenuantia, and is thus called from a supposed theory, that such substances break down the fluids as with sharp edges or points. 3. Resol|ventia are properly such substances as give fluidity to portions of our fluids, that had been formerly concreted. Authors, however, use this term in the same general sense as attenuantia, and not without propriety, as the same medicines answer both intentions.

VIII. Inspissantia. 1. Incrassantia: This term is, perhaps, equally proper.

IX. Demulcentia. Such substances as cover and sheath acri|mony, are called demulcents. 1. Antacria: Materia Medica writers use this term in the same sense as I do demulcents, but improperly, as this term may imploy every medicine which destroys acrimony, as antacida, &c. and even those which obviate acrimony, as the antiseptica. 2. Lenientia: This has been used for emollientia, but it is properly synonymous to demulcentia. Other terms have been introduced from theories, e. g. Acrimony has been supposed to depend on angular pointed spiculae, hence obtundentia, and obvol|ventia, which mean such medicines as break off and sheath these spiculae: But these terms should be avoided, as this theory is neither clear nor well founded. Again, it has been supposed that acrimony depends on the two great prevalency of any of the com|ponent parts of the blood, and those medicines which brought it back to its own natural state, which they supposed always to be bland, were called temperantia.

X. Antacida. Boerhaave has divided this class into absorbentia and immutentia; by the first, supposing such substances as took the acid into their pores without changing its nature; and by the last, those which did. But we now know that nothing absorbs an acid, without a tertium quid resulting. In the first intention, absorbent earths can only be used; in the last, alkaline salts.

XI. Antalkalina. This term has no synonymes.

XII. Antiseptica. I know no synonymous term to this but con|dientia, employed by De Gorter. By antiseptics, we mean such medicines as obviate the too great putrescency of our fluids; but condientia extends farther, implying such medicines as, without obviating any particular changes, keep the fluids in their present state. But the fluid circulating in our vessels being subject only to putrescency, I cannot suppose that any such medicines, of that kind, exist, except they are antiseptics.

XIII. Errhina. Synonymous to this term is ptermica and sternu|tatoria,

XIV. Sialagoga. To this is synonymous the Apophlegmatizonta, which is likewise synonymous to errhina. It is needless to insist more upon these terms, as they are plain from the very etymology; and, for the same reason, we shall pass overthose that follow in the catalogue.

I shall next take notice of such terms as have been employed by other Materia Medica writers, and are vastly too complex to give a distinct idea of the indications they are intended to answer.

Many diseases have been supposed to proceed from obstruction, and so the cure of the diseases must be effected by removing that obstruction: Hence the terms aperientia, deobstruentia, deoppilantia. Aperientia has been used, in a more vague sense, for every medicine which, in whatever manner, resolves obstruction; and also for

such as increase secretions, though no obstruction subsists. Deoppi|lantia has a more strict allusion to the nature of the obstruction, as when it proceeds from something stuffing up the vessels. But none of these terms convey any strict meaning, as they do not explain the manner of their action. The student, therefore, ought not to be satisfied, till he has carefully evolved them, and reduced the medi|cines, which have these terms applied to them, to their most simple action.

We now proceed to the terms employed in Chirurgical indications; and first, of those in cure of tumors. Here the first indication is to discuss or resolve; hence the terms discutientia and resolventia. Although I do not deny the ultimate effect of these, yet the terms are too complex, as comprehending medicines very various in their operations, as emollientia, antispasmodica, &c. Reprimentia, reper|cutientia, repellentia, are all supposed, by many, synonymous to astringentia, but they are too various in their operation to come under any one head; for though sacch. saturni, oak bark, and opium, be all repellents, yet their manner of operation is very different. When a tumor can neither be repelled nor discussed, our next indi|cation is to attempt suppuration, which has given rise to the terms suppurantia and maturantia. These terms are too general, and we ought to consider in what manner they bring about their effects, whether by operating on the solids, or increasing the putrescency of the fluids, and then give them names according to their most simple operation.

Suppuration being brought on, our next intention is to produce, or continue, good pus: Hence the term digestiva, which is equally complex with the former, and therefore ought to be studiously evolved. Digestion often depends on keeping up a proper degree of inflammatory motion in the part, and frequently also on removing sungosities. Detergentia, abstergentia, mundificantia, depurantia, are synonymous terms. Detergentia and abstergentia have been transferred to internal remedies, and applied to such as have the

power of washing off, or destroying viscidities adhering to the vessels, and carrying them off from the body; and therefore, in this sense, if there be any such, they are no other than attenuantia. Depurantia have been defined such medicines as cleanse the body, by promoting the excretion of the degenerated fluids; therefore, in this sense, they are synonymous to aperients and at••••nuants.

The next indication commonly laid down by Chirurgical Writers, in the case of ulcers, is to renew the substance, and they called me|dicines for this intention sarcotica. This indication is entirely imaginary, unless in so far as it is applied to medicines which re|move obstacles to Nature's performing the operation, and therefore are nothing but detergents or abstergents. Another indication laid down by Surgeons, is to agglutinate or consolidate; hence aggluti|nantia and consolidantia, as though these medicines united the parts to which they are applied. But this indication is equally imaginary with the former, being entirely the work of nature; therefore bandages are the only applications which can assist here. These terms, agglutinantia, &c. have been transferred to remedies given internally, and are then called vulneraria. This indication is likewise entirely the work of nature, for I know no agglutinants, and only two medicines which promote suppuration, mercury and peruvian bark; and if writers on the Materia Medica do mean any thing by vulneraries, it is astringents, but they are unfitly called so, astrin|gents being never proper, nor are they indeed ever employed in such cases, at least in this country, and if abroad, it is rather in compliance with a rotten practice, and to amuse the patient.

The last indication in the cure of ulcers is to cicatrize, or draw a skin on the part. The medicines supposed to answer this end are called epulotics and cicatrizers, but this is entirely an operation of nature, though charpie* 1.2 or dry powders, may assist it.

I am to mention some terms arising from a supposed specific pro|perty in the medicines: These were supposed of two kinds; I. Such as were specific to a certain part of the system; II. To particular diseases. The first division has been carried to great excess, as there is scarce a part of the system which has not had a medicine adapted to it; but at first sight this division must appear false, as there is no disease of any particular part that is not common to any other part of the system. I shall now mention the terms of this first division in my usual order, a capite as calcem. 1. Cephalics: By these are meant such medicines as are suited to diseases of the head; but these are very various, and often opposite in their nature. By this term writers generally mean certain substances, which, by an agreeable odour and fragrancy, were grateful to the nerves at their origin in the head. If this were the case, the term might be admitted: But I shall afterwards show, that little virtue depends on the odour; and all those remarkable for their odour are stimulants. A term synonymous to cephalic, is, 2. Nervous; but this is still more ambiguous and extensive in its signification, as comprehending medicines suited to all nervous diseases, e. g. stimu|lants, sedatives, antispasmodics. 3. Ophthalmics are medicines supposed to act specifically in diseases of the eyes; but as medicines good for diseases of the eyes are also equally efficacious for the same disorders in any other part of the body, this term has no proper meaning. Some medicines, as euphrasia, have been extolled as specifics here, but I know they have no title to any pre-eminence. 4. Pectorals, thoracics, pulmonics, pneumonics, are all terms applied to medicines suited to diseases in the breast, but not one of them has a specific virtue; for I imagine those medicines which increase the bronchial mucus will also promote the secretion of mucus in any other part of the body. But writers in general mean, by pectorals, all those medicines which promote or correct the bronchial mucus, two very opposite effects, and therefore the terms are confounding. 5. Cardiacs. Cordials act in general on the nervous system, and not specifically on the heart. 6. Stomachics. Many of these medicines excite appetite and promote digestion, but they are of such different

kinds, and to be used in such different circumstances, that no such term ought to be admitted. With regard to the other abdominal viscera, the terms are applied with even less propriety than in the former. 7. Hepatic. This term seems to have no meaning at all, as we cannot conceive any medicine has a specific operation on the liver preferable to any other part of the system. If any medicine more directly promoted secretion of bile, it might be called hepatic. Some such indeed have been supposed, but I am not acquainted with them. 8. Splenetics. This is still more improper than the former. 9. Nephritics. It is possible there may be medicines which act more directly on the kidneys, but it is only in so far as they are diuretics. Nephritics are appropriated to diseases of the kidneys, but they are here the same with demulcents, as they act by defending the kidney from the acrimony of the urine, and sharp points of the gravel. Nephritics have not only been supposed to act as diuretics, but also to push out, and even dissolve, sand or gravel; but we know none of this kind but such as are diuretics. 10. Uterines. This term is equally exceptionable with any of the former, for I doubt even if the menagoga act directly on the uterus. 11. Aphrodisiaca: The medicines which act on the genitals, and stimulate to venery. I imagine this also a false indication; for we know no medicines which do this by their immediate action on those organs. Cantharides have been supposed to be of this kind, but they act only by being received into the blood, and stimulating the bladder, and so communicating their effects to the organs of generation. There are other aphrodisiacs, which are supposed to increase the seminal turgescency; but these are imaginary, for we know none but nutrients, which, by being long detained in the system, distend all the vessels, and the seminal vesicles also. 12. Antaphrodisiacs. I can say, with more certainty, that this is an unmeaning indication.

II. We now come to consider specifics, with regard to particular diseases. Many, dissatisfied with the reasonings of dogmatic Physi|cians, have been led into pursuits of specifics: If this could be done

with success it would certainly be very desirable; but at this day I know no medicine whose action I do not think I can explain by its answering a particular indication, which entirely destroys the notions of a specific.

I shall content myself with barely enumerating, in our usual order, the terms of such supposed specifics, what we have already said superseding a farther explanation: Anti epileptica, anti m••••••aca, anti melancholica, anti hypochondriaca, anti catarrhalia, anti phthisica, anti hectica, anti cachectica, anti dysenterica, anti icterica, anti strumatica, anti scorbutica, anti podagrica, anti venerea, anti febrilia.

We now proved to another division of terms arising from super|stition or false notions.

Anti magica, anti pharmaca, anti toxica, alexeteria, anti ga|lactophora, anti lactifera, or lactifuga, ebolica, aristolochica, abortiva, lithontriptica, catagmatica. I have put lithontriptica in this ca|talogue, though I allow there are some medicines which deserve that name, as aq. calc•••• and alkaline salts; but these have been but lately found out, and as the term is used in the Materia Medica Writers, it is improperly applied.

Thus far have I thought proper to treat of terms, in order to assist your understanding of different Authors, and to guard you against their ambiguous and inaccurate expressions.

Before proceeding to our immediate business we shall mention two indications omitted in the catalogue; the first erodentia, or medicines which destroy the simple fibres; secondly, anthel|mintica: This indication is a proper one, as there are medicines which act specifically on worms, but it could not be introduced into my plan.

NUTRIENTIA.

Perhaps the whole of our subject might be divided into food and medicine. The first is implied by the term nutrientia, which comprehends every thing used by mankind in their daily food, as well the substances which are strictly nutrient, as those which are employed to obviate and correct the degeneracy to which the nourishment is liable. But more strictly nutrientia are such sub|stances as are fitted by the vital power to be converted into our fluids and solids, in order to sustain their growth and repair their daily waste. Here a question arises, whether our solids and fluids are formed from one common aliment, or out of a mixed, i. e. one containing a principle of nourishment suited to each. The first opinion appears to me the most probable.

All aliment differs in two particulars; first, as it is already assimilated into the animal nature, or requires to be converted into it, by a particular process of the animal oeconomy. Of the first kind are all animal substances, which, if not similar, are nearly so to our nature, and require only for that assimilation solution and mixture. The second kind comprehends vegetables, which must undergo several changes before they can be assimilated. But as the nourish|ment of all animals, even of those who live on other animals, can originally be traced to the vegetable kingdom, it is plain that the principle of all nourishment is in vegetables, and that, therefore, we ought to begin with these.

VEGETABLE ALIMENT.

The first question that arises here is, What are the vegetables which are peculiarly appropriated for food? Perhaps there is no vegetable but what affords aliment to some animal. But I will venture to say, that in human aliment a choice is necessary, and a distinction ought to be made. The first distinction is, that those vegetables which are of a mild, bland, agreeable taste, are proper

nourishment; while those of an acrid, bitter, nauseous nature are improper. Every body, en gros, will allow the truth of this. There are, however, several acrid substances that we use as food, but the mild, the bland, the agreeable, are in the largest propor|tion in every vegetable; whereas the acrid, the bitter, the dis|agreeable enter in the least quantity; which last, however, may prove nourishment, provided our system is capable of subduing their nature. Thus we see that some animals live on what is poisonous to others, which seems entirely owing to the particular confor|mation of these animals. Of all these animals the human body is most delicate in the choice of its food, and the acrid, bitter, and disagreeable can never be admitted as aliment. There, however, seem some exceptions. Thus celeri and endive are used in common food, both substances of considerable acrimony; but you must observe, that when we use them, they are previously blanched, which almost entirely deprives them of that suspicious tendency. Or if we employ other acrid substances, we generally, in great measure, deprive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different countries the same plants grow with different degrees of acrimony. Thus garlic here seldom enters our food; but in the southern countries, where they grow more mild, they are frequently used for that purpose. Again, the plant which furnishes cassada, being very acrimonious, and even poisonous in its recent state, affords an instance of the necessity of preparation of acrid substances even in these countries; for by a particular management they allow the acrimonious juice to run off, and the farinaceous nutritious part of it is left behind. Upon the whole, therefore, I maintain, that we use no acrid substances in our food that are not previously deprived of their acrimony; or, if we do, they are only employed as condimenta. But if the question still remain, if it is still urged, that acrid substances are employed in our food, I alledge they are only such as the human body, by its particular conformation, is capable to subdue. Here then begins the division of plants, into food and medicine, the mild, the bland, the agreeable plants, or their parts, being fit for food; while the acrid, &c. are proper for

medicine. For this reason Linnaeus's aphorisms are well founded, insipida & inodora nutriunt, sapidiora non nutriunt. The reason is very obvious, for unless substances affect remarkably our organs of sense, they cannot be supposed to operate powerfully on our system. And this very effect of operating powerfully on our system, destroys their expediency as food. Again, as sapid and odorous substances have the power of operating changes in our system, they must act on the nervous power, the part chiefly changeable. The insipid and bland do, indeed, act on our fluids, but the changes they pro|duce must be very slow.

We shall now enquire what part of the mild and bland substances constitutes the proper aliment. In general, the more sweet sub|stances are all nutritious: These are little known here as food, but in the warmer climates make the greatest part of it. We have now facts to prove, that sugar alone is nutritious, and we shall afterwards endeavour to prove, that all fruits we use are nutritious only from their sugar. Here, the farinaceous substances are more evidently nutritious, as likewise the bland mucilaginous. These two are nearly connected with each other, and both with the saccharine substance; for all farinaceous substances, before maturity, are sweet, and, after maturity, can be restored to their sweet state by malting. Again, in fruits we observe a change from sweet to farinaceous, which last property many of them attain upon maturity; and all fari|naceous substances, when mature, abound in oil; so that it appears that the saccharine and oily part, blended together, make the mu|cilaginous and farinaceous matters, i, e. the intermediate states be|tween sugar and oil; so that I conclude, that sugar and oil blended together, and forming the farinaceous substance, is the nutritious part of vegetables. You will now see what I formerly asserted, that either oil may enter into the nutritious substance, or that the nutri|tious substance, by animal process, may afford oil.

We are next to consider on what the difference of nutritious sub|stances depend. This turns on two heads; 1. On the quantity of

nutriment each substance contains; 2. On its being more or less easily assimilated.

1.

This depends on two circumstances; 1. On their containing the proportion of sugar, or oil, or both; and that proportion even being given, it may depend also on the texture of the subject, which al|lows a quantity of nourishment more or less easily to be extracted from it. Thus, e. g. if my stomach extract from a plant, which contains a less proportion of nourishment than another, that nou|rishment more easily, it will compensate for the quantity. As to the difference, with regard to the quantity of nourishment each sub|ject affords, we refer that till we come to treat of each in particular.

2.

As to more or less easy assimilation. This difference arises not only from quality of the substance taken in, but also as often from its relation to the stomach, or state of the animal organs. Nothing is more common, or more ridiculous, than to ask whether this or that substance be wholesome. As to the quantity, indeed, the answer might be easy; but as to quality it entirely depends on peculiarity of constitution. The changes our aliments undergo, are of three kinds; 1. In respect of assimilation; 2. of solution; 3. mixture.

1. Assimilation implies a change of the nature of the subject, which spontaneously is inclined to alterations, different from those intended to be wrought by the assimilatory process; e. g. all vege|tables are spontaneously acescent, and as there is nothing of that beyond the primae viae, it is necessary, therefore, that it should be overcome. Against this it may be objected, that vegetables are both acescent and alkalescent; but I am ready to prove them all of the first nature. Do vegetables then become acid previous to their undergoing any other change? I confess this is my opinion, though it is not the common one. For it is supposed, e. g. that

in the stomach of a strong healthy man the food instead of becoming acid, tends directly to the putrefactive fermentation. The arguments adduced in favour of this opinion are, 1. That an acid fermenta|tion cannot be carried on without a considerable admission of air, and that the stomach, being a close vessel, excludes the access of that fluid; 2. That the heat of the stomach is too great for the acetous process; and, 3. That the admixture of the spontaneously pu|trescent animal fluids would besides obviate this acescency.

As to the first objection, the stomach is not the close vessel alledged, for it admits a large quantity of air along with the food, &c. Secondly, I have found, by accurate experiments, that the acetous fermentation can be carried on in a heat equal to that of the human body, I believe it even admits of the vinous; although I con|fess that it will be difficult to conduct the process in such degree of heat, yet it may be done, and indeed it always does take place, although rapidly, and soon terminating in the acetous process. Third, as to this objection, Dr. Pringle, I think, has sufficiently proved, that the admixture of animal fluids cannot hinder the acetous process, but, on the contrary, that in certain proportion they promote it. None of these three circumstances, therefore, are sufficient to prevent the spontaneous tendency of the vegetable aliment to acidity; and I am certain, from experiments, that the vegetable aliment first turns acid in the stomach; for every stomach, human or brute, is always, on examination, found to have an acid present in it. Hence that acescency is not a disease, but a step towards assimilation: And if Physicians observe diseases proceeding from this cause, they ought to be attributed to the state and degree of it. As to the state or condition of it I think, it is this: Whenever the aliment enters into a high vinous fermentation, with copious generation of fixed air, commonly called gas silvestre, as of the same nature with that produced in the ordinary vinous process, it becomes a disease, and has the power of destroying the mobility and contractility of the moving fibres, and even the tone of the stomach itself, producing there flatulency and spasm from irre|gular

motions of the nervous power, and, at last, stupor, lethargy, apoplexy, and death. This happens chiefly from fault of animal organs; for though it appears, by Pringle's experiments, that ani|mal fluids do not prevent fermentation, yet they have the power in their sound state of moderating the generation of air.

When acidity is a disease, it always depends on the above, and on the degree or quantity of it; for although I have said that acidity is necessary, yet it should only be of such a degree as afterwards to be overcome by the mixture of the animal fluids. I have yet only mentioned the organs as the cause of acidity; but it also depends on the quantity of acid naturally in the vegetable, and its tendency to undergo the vinous fermentation. For the disease consists not so much in acidity as in the vinous fermentation. For if we take in vegetable matters, after having undergone the vinous fermentation, their effects are not so much to produce flatulency, but depend on the quantity of acid taken in. Hence farinaceous substances, naturally acescent, when leavened, impede, though not prevent, the generation of flatulencies; and hence the same quantity of vinegar does not produce equally bad effects, as of vegetable unfermented juices.

Acidity, as a disease, depends on the aliment; 1. As it contains a large proportion of saccharine matter. 2. When to that is joined a fresh acidity, which renders it more liable to ferment. Instances of this in the fructus acido dulces. 3. When, by a previous acci|dent it is put into a state of active vinous fermentation, and in its fermenting state is taken into the stomach, as new wines, ales, &c. These are the qualities that are apt to be most hurtful in their consequences. On the contrary, those substances, which have under|gone fermentation, are less liable to produce bad effects, and only do so from their quantity.

In the next place, this morbid tendency in the aliment depends on the state of the body, and chiefly on a weaker action of the

stomach (for I pass over the effects of the gastric liquors, as we are yet but little acquainted with them, and as these effects depend on the state of the stomach.) To the more or less brisk action of the stomach, may likewise be referred the greater or less quantity of gastric liquor emulged, or squeezed out; and also in proportion to the weaker state of the stomach, the food is longer retained there.

These are the circumstances which should be in view, with regard to aliments, in different persons.

When the aliment is pushed into the intestines, its acescency is more certainly overcome by the addition of the bile, and a supply of pancreatic and intestinal fluids, analogous to the saliva and gastric liquor; and as the aliment never rests in the intestines, it is always exposed to mixture of new juices. Effects of the bile on the ali|ment are as yet little known. Vegetable acids change the bile in colour, consistence, and taste, which last is sweet, and this mixture probably affords a new stimulus when the acidity prevails; and in this way our vegetable aliment stimulates the intestines, produces purging, and even a greater discharge of choler itself.

It has been imagined by Physicians, that aliments differ in their effects on the bile, some encreasing its acrimony, &c. but what they have said seems to me loose and inaccurate. Whether there are substances which have different properties with regard to the bile. I dare not determine, and I think whatever is said by authors on this subject may be reduced to the greater or less acidity of the aliment.

2. This is all that is necessary to be said with regard to the assimi|lation of the aliment; we are next to treat of its solubility. Solu|bility always depends on the more or less firm texture of the subject. We are apt to mistake on this head; for animal substances, though seemingly of more cohesion, are found, to be of easier solubility. Solubility, then, is more to be noted in vegetables than animals; thus the husks of vegetables are of much more difficult solubility

than animal substances of apparently the same cohesion. In general, the soft, pulpy, &c. vegetable substances are easily soluble, and the tough, &c. the contrary, and these are also the longer retained in the stomach. Almost all vegetable substances employed in diet are specifically lighter than water, and consequently than the gastric fluids; hence they will float near the cardia, and cause eructations. For some hours these firmer substances give no uneasiness, but afterwards begin to operate on the upper orifice of the stomach. 2. The solubility of our aliment is diversified according to firmness of texture; for, in proportion to the solubility, two substances, con|taining equal quantity of nourishment, give more or less of it to the extracting powers, and in proportion to the quantity of nourishment extracted, more or less faeces are left. Vegetable aliments, caeteris paribus, give more faeces.

3. With regard to the mixture of the aliment. Whenever the oil and watery parts of our aliment are naturally mixed, the stomach does little. But commonly this is not the case, and the oil and water separate in the stomach, and must be at least in that viscus intimately confounded. This previous mixture need little to be regarded in strong stomachs, but in weak ones; in this case the oil and water separate, the former floating near the upper orifice, and causing uneasy symptoms. I have known many persons whose eructations were purely oily, and would flame in the fire, and in|deed, this is the strongest proof of a weak stomach. Oil is liable to particular changes: Out of the body it checks fermentation, but is apt in weak stomachs to turn rancid, and occasion heart-burn, a disease more frequent from this than any other cause. Not only is the aliment thus diversified, but the qualities of the food also often depend on peculiar sensibility of the stomach, or idiosyncrasy, which here oftener occur than in any other part of the system, e. g. With respect to honey, though, indeed, I think, some reason may be given for this, such persons being often affected with it who are affected with acidity, as honey consists of acid and sugar, the matter of fermentation. This seems to be confirmed by such persons eating

it with impunity, when new, mixed with the comb, or when, by boiling, its air is dissipated, and its acid more intimately mixed with the saccharine part. I am not certain whether this theory be sound, but though it be, it cannot extend to spasmodic symptoms, &c. produced by a small bit of egg, crab, &c. which symptoms can only be explained from idiosyncrasy. These extraordinary instances lead me to suspect the sensibility of the stomach extends further than is suspected, and may be reckoned the cause of different tastes, &c. The primary cause of the stomach's sensibility seems to be, that it may extend this sensibility over the system.

That the stomach is sensible to different degrees of solubility and mixture, is evident from what has been already said. Thus, a quantity of warm water and oil is almost always thrown up. A small quantity of oil itself will produce this effect. The different sensibility of the stomach will determine the stay of the food in that organ. Hence peculiar flavours affect this longer or shorter stay. To all these I have to add a peculiar effect of the sensibility of the stomach, viz. whenever the stomach is employed in digesting the aliment, it seems to be an established law of the animal oeconomy, that there is more or less fever excited during the time of digestion, necessary, indeed, in some degree, but when it proceeds to a noxious one it ought to determine a change of our aliment. These preliminaries being settled, I proceed to talk of particular substances.

With regard to the vegetable aliments, I have thrown them into three divisions. The first comprehends all the different kinds of nutriment; the second the drinks; the third the condiments. Again, I have divided the foods according to the quantity of nutri|ment they afford, setting them in the following order, viz. fruits, herbs, roots, seeds; thus giving the least nourishing first, &c. This, however, is not strictly true, as some fruits are more nourishing than certain herbs, or perhaps roots, &c. but these exceptions shall be marked as we go along. Fruits are subdivided into those we eat fresh, or those we eat dry, or more concentrated. With regard to

the whole, I have not pretended to enumerate all the different kinds of aliment, as they differ in different countries; and as of many of them I have little or no experience: I shall, therefore, confine my|self to those known in this country, and from what application may be made to such as occur elsewhere.

In the Catalogue, several blank spaces are left, which shews that all those which stand near each other are of similar virtues and qualities, and differ more or less from those which are separated from them. Among the vegetables these blank spaces indicate a natural order among the Botanists, which also points out somewhat of resemblance in virtue of substances thus ranked together. The letters a, b, c, d, &c. signify that somewhat of a general title might have been inserted; e. g. at (a) fructus acido dulces, (b) cucurbitacei, (c) herbae esculentae.

As to the first head, comprehending the fructus acido dulces; they are divided into recent and dried. Of these the first division constitutes a natural order, called by Linnaeus Drupac••ae, or the stone fruits. The virtues of these, and all other recent fruits, depend on four qualities, acerbity, acidity, sweetness, and difference of texture. By acerbity I mean acidity joined to austerity, or stypticity; acidity and sweetness are simple qualities, though some|••imes joined, as in the acido dulces. These different qualities appear in the same fruit, according to the progress of maturation.

First ACERBITY appears, then more pure acidity, and lastly, sweetness. In so far as fruits are acerb, they should be rejected from our aliment into the class of medicines, where we shall speak of them under astringentia. We ought to observe here, however, that acerb fruits are less liable to an active fermentation, and have, in some measure, the effects of acids in stimulating the stomach and encreasing appetite. Being of firmer texture they are of less easy solution, apt to be retained longer in the stomach, and, though less acid themselves, are more apt to generate a noxious one. They

have the cooling virtues of acids, but are more to be taken notice of for their astringency, by both which qualities they diminish the peristaltic motion of the intestines, retard the passage of the aliment, and occasion an accumulation and retention of hardened faeces.

2. ACIDITY. In moderate degree acids are grateful to the stomach, and excite appetite. Directly as acid they are refrigerant, i. e. they weaken the active power of the animal fibres. This is not inconsistent with stimulating, which afterwards I shall shew is often combined with a refrigerant power in one and the same subject. Again, by weakening the stomach, they weaken the whole system. The acid of vegetables is never pure, but commonly joined with a sweet, and therefore in stomachs so disposed, is apt to produce there an active noxious fermentation.

3. SWEETNESS. This is the only nutritious quality of vege|tables, and as such is perfectly innocent, but is liable also to bad effects from spontaneous changes, which depend on its accompanying acid, and the weakness of the animal organs. All these have, in the intestines, a purgative quality, from the changes they produce on the bile, acerbity as acid, and sweetness as changed into an acid.

4. TEXTURE. As of more aqueous and tender consistence they are more readily dissolved, and hence, perhaps, are more liable to fermentation. If of a very compact texture, by staying longer in the stomach, they, however, are apt to generate a stronger acid.

These are the qualities of fruits; and one may judge from the taste what nature they will be of, the state of the stomach being known. Let us then apply these general principles to the stone fruits. These are of a soft lax texture, and their juices dilute, by which means they are easily dissolved in the stomach, and for this reason they are apt to be taken in large quantities: As they are

acido dulces, they are apt to ferment, perhaps more so than any others, from the quantity swallowed; hence they produce a copious acid, which irritating the intestines, causes diarrhoeas and cholera, taking their rise more frequently from this than any other cause. Upon the whole, I endeavour to assign virtues in general, and I beg it may always be noticed, I except particular virtues: Thus there are plumbs of firmer texture, and therefore as little liable to ferment as firmer fruits.

Of the four following kinds of fruits, the PLUMB is most refrigerant, and liable to ferment and produce cholera, diarrhoea, &c. The CHER|RIES are commonly imagined less noxious, but to me there seems little difference. The APRICOT is a sweeter, richer, and less noxious fruit. As to the PEACH, I have less experience: In those countries where it comes to full maturity, it may be safe, on account of the richness of its juice; but with us, its juice is poor, crude, and wa|tery, its taste acid, and almost acerb, its consistence lax. Here, in general, we may observe, that the later fruit is always the richest.

The ancients alledged, that the stone fruits were disposed to pro|duce fevers, an effect seemingly opposite to their qualities. This they do by their refrigerating power, and preventing digestion; and, perhaps, in those countries, may be the primary exciting cause. It is imaginary, that stones of fruits, swallowed with them, prevent their bad effects, and may sometimes be noxious, as they have been the foundation of stony concretions, especially if swallowed unripe, with an acerb crust adhering to them; besides, this should not be confined to cherries, and, were it true, would extend to the other stone fruits. Although I have mentioned only a few stone fruits, viz. such as occur here, they are, if found elsewhere, of nearly the same qualities, and to be presumed of much the same virtues.

The next set of fruits in the catalogue are APPLES and PEARS, the Pomaceae of Linnaeus. These have the common properties of the other fruits, viz. being liable to acerbity, acidity, &c. They are

less dilute than the stone fruit, have a less active acid, and so are less liable to a noxious fermentation; but being of firmer texture, are longer detained in the stomach, and so produce a noxious acid. Apples are, in general, of a more firm texture, and less soluble than pears: Some pears, indeed, are firmer than apples, but commonly, when ripe, are more pulpy; while apples, swimming near the top, elude the action, and also, by irritating the cardia, produce uneasy symptoms. Again, pears have more of sweetness than apples, on account of which they are more nourishing, and, from the conjoin|ed acerbity, are less liable to active fermentation. Writers on the Materia Medica have ascribed, without foundation, cardiac and pec|toral virtues to these fruits.

I had an idea of arranging here a natural order, called by Linnaeus Hesperideae, which takes in more than are here mentioned; but their acid is so pure that they ought to be considered as condimenta. I have set down only the China oranges, which, from their sweetness, are certainly nutritive, but from their acidity they are subject to fermentation, and have, besides, the other qualities of stone fruits.

The next mentioned are STRAWBERRIES and RASBERRIES, be|longing to the Senticosae of Linnaeus. These are very tender, and therefore easily dissolved, passing off before a very active fermentation can take place, which likewise is prevented by their sweetness, which is greater than in stone fruits; on all which accounts they are very innocent.

In classing all substances, after giving those which belong to a natural order, I throw together the miscellaneous by themselves, as here; the grapes, currants, gooseberries.

CURRANTS, with us, may be always considered as an acid fruit, considerably dilute and very pulpy, when kept clear of the acerb

husk; they have very little sweetness, very little nourishment, and are liable to all the bad qualities of stone fruits.

GOOSEBERRIES are much sweeter, more nourishing, and more innocent, and without the husks are very easily dissolved, and readily evacuated, and, on account of their sweetness, are less subject to active fermentation.

GRAPES are a richer fruit, and preferred for the making of wines, as they contain a great quantity of saccharine matter; on which account they also are more nutritive than any we have mentioned, perhaps as much as the dates and figs afterwards to be taken notice of. In the unripe state they are acerb, in their middle state they are apt to ferment, when perfectly ripe, and taken in a moderate quantity, they are among the innocent fruits.

I shall conclude what I have to say on the recent fruits, with some observations of the different method of using them. We have al|ready observed their effects when used fresh. Wherever we employ heat we change their qualities, dissipate their active acid, and dis|pose them less to ferment. Thus acerb fruits, by the dissipation of their acid by boiling, &c. are rendered more so, and consequently not so liable to a noxious disposition. Hence universally, roasted or boiled fruits are safer than fresh. We commonly also join them with matters which dispose them less to an active fermentation. Thus milk, or, more properly, cream is often used, having that effect from its oily nature. We shall afterwards see what effect acids have in coagulating the milk. We also now commonly use aromatics, as pepper, which, by stimulating and invigorating the stomach, by taking off spasms, excited from gas sylvestre, and by their antiseptic virtue, enable them to resist fermentation, and prevent their bad effects. Wine is used to obviate the bad effects of fruit, but this depends on its spirituous part, and therefore pure spirit, were it not

otherwise noxious, would be most eligible. If wine be used it should be strong, and such as has undergone its fermentation, and is ripe and mellow. Another method still of using them is with sugar. This surely renders fruit more nutritive; whether it prevents fermen|tation may be doubted; but, as I have observed, that sweet fruits are safest, so must a moderate addition of sugar to acid fruits; in or|der to supply their want of native sweet, sometimes we use oily mat|ters, as butter in apple pie. This is a very proper, though less usual addition, from its antifermentative quality. But in a weak stomach, where the inquiline humours are less in quantity, and less sapona|ceous, the oil is apt to separate, and produce ill consequences, as heart-burn, &c. as we have formerly observed.

It has been a question agitated among Physicians, whether fruits are safer before or after meals. The answer of this seems to depend on a knowledge of the stomach. In a weak stomach they are more apt to be noxious when empty, than when distended with animal food. Here likewise they cannot be taken in such quantity as to hurt. In strong stomachs there is little difference; there they would seem to promote appetite. In weak stomachs, even when full, if taken in too great quantity, they may be very hurtful, by encreas|ing the active fermentation of the whole. The ancients alledged, that the mild fruits should be taken before, and the acerb after meals, as being fitter to brace up the stomach, and promote digestion. And, indeed, if taken in moderate quantity, the rule may hold true.

Upon the whole, if you observe the effect of the four qualities, acerbity, &c. you are then in a condition to judge of these and any other wherever they occur.

DRY FRUITS.

None are fit, or indeed are subjected to this process, except those which abound, in their recent state, with much saccharine juice. It is true, that fruits of every kind are preserved, but this is more

for elegance than as a part of food; any of the dried fruits I am to mention, are only such as are nutritive. I have said that sugar itself was nutritive; nay, indeed, the very principle of nourishment, of which we have various proofs: Thus the Negroes employed in the sugar manufacture live almost solely on this, and fatten exceedingly. Another chief proof is, from the fruits which I am to speak of, which are remarkably fattening, but chiefly in their dried state. Again, birds, in fruit time, when the fruits are ripe, increase in fatness; and at such time, Dr. Robinson has observed, that their livers are enlarged; whence we see how fat people are so much subject to diseases of the viscera, especially the liver.

The dried fruits I am to treat of, are the grape, date, and fig. They have the common properties of ripe fresh fruits, but are not joined with so powerful an acid, part of it being dissipated in drying. Hence they are less liable to run into active fermentation; but if taken in too great quantities, they will run into that, and the acid produced will have all the bad effects of fresh fruits, in producing diarrhoeae, cholera, &c.

DRIED GRAPES, RAISINS, CURRANTS.

Of this are two kinds, the uvae passae majores, or raisin, and the uvae passae minores, or corinthiacae, or currants; these last have more acid joined to their sugar, hence more laxative. I do not doubt but sugar itself may stimulate the intestines, and be a gentle laxative, but its stronger effects in purging are to be deduced, from its con|version into an acid. Hence currants are more purgative than rai|sins, and those than figs, on account of their acidity; and for this reason prunes and currants are nearly similar in their effects. The raisins will also have more or less of these virtues, in proportion to the quantity of acid they contain.

DATE.

This fruit is now less generally known here, but is the com|mon food of a great part of Asia. Were I to give a botanical

account of any production, it would be this, as the palm-tree, whence it is produced, is so curious in its vegetation, and so exten|sively useful in life; but as I have nothing now to offer on this subject, I shall omit it, referring you to books where such disquisi|tions are particularly treated. The date is of different kinds: In their best state they are a pure saccharine fruit, free from acidity, but with considerable acerbity. Formerly they were much em|ployed in medicine, but are now justly laid aside for those fruits which contain all their qualities in a greater degree, viz.

FIGS.

These are the most nourishing of the dried fruits; they contain a large portion of saccharine matter, united with mucilage. From their containing much sugar, and from being viscid and less readily perspired, they are more fit for nourishment. They are also, from their sugar and mucilage, used as demulcents, as their juice is most fit for covering acrimony. The date and raisin were formerly used in this intention: The first is now laid aside, but we retain the raisin as giving a grateful acidity to the too luscious taste of the fig. The fig is also nephritic from its demulcent quality. They have been said to produce lice, but there is no foundation for believing this, either from information, or from our experience of them in this country. It is true, that in their native country they make the chief food of the poorest people, who are generally dirty, and this may have given rise to the opinion.

The next class we are to mention is the cucurbitaceae, of which many more are used in food than those here mentioned, viz. cu|cumber, melon, and pompion, which are chiefly used here.

CUCUMBER.

This is taken in great cities by the lower people as nourishment, but by the better sort is chiefly employed as a refrigerant, or con|diment, to accompany animal food. They have a bland insipid juice,

without acidity or sweetness, approaching, as appears by their ri|pening, to a farinaceous matter. When used green they have little nourishment, so are they only to be used in the summer season and by the sedentary. Although cucumber is neither sweet nor acid, yet it is considerably acescent, and so produces flatulency, cholera, diarrhoea, &c. I apply all these to their acescent nature, though indeed its coldness and flatulency may be encreased by the firmness of their texture. I have seen them discharged with little change from the stomach, after being detained there for forty-eight hours. By this means, therefore, their acidity is greatly encreased. Hence oil and pepper, the condiments commonly employed, are very useful to check their fermentation. We have lately used another condi|ment, viz. the skin, which is bitter, and may, therefore, supply the place of aromatics. But let me observe, that the cucurbitaceae have, many of them, a very acrid juice in their skin; e. g. the colocynth, which is of this kind, into a bitter of which nature it is alledged that the cucumber, by particular management may be converted. Hence it would appear, that, as the bitter in the skin of cucumbers is of this kind, it should, therefore, only be used when young.

MELONS.

These have the same qualities we were just now mentioning, but being of a tenderer texture, they are, on this account, less hurtful, and, as accompanied with sugar, are consequently more easily digested from its bringing on sooner a fermentation to hasten their solution. All our watery vegetables may be considered as diuretics. Cucum|bers and melons have been reckoned remarkably, so much as to bring on bloody urine. But this seems to be without foundation. To me, indeed, they would rather appear to have a contrary effect, by encreasing the watery part of the urine▪ POMPIONS Are only used when boiled, and therefore are more safe, as their texture is much loosened; but at best they are a weak, insipid

food, except from the dressing, and therefore are now neglected. It tends to show their nature, that when well ripened, or when kept long after being cut from the stalks, they become mealy and farinaceous, and therefore more nourishing, and likewise safer with respect to the effects I spoke of.

We now come to the Herbae esculentae. (c.) Oler•• has been used for every thing put into the pot. Linnaeus has confined the term oleraceae to a particular order of plants, to which the three first in the catalogue belong orach••, beet, and spinage.

ORACHE.

This is of the coarsest texture of the three, insomuch as to be now hardly known in our gardens.

BEET and SPINACH.

Beet is more tender, but less so than spinach, to which both this and the former have almost entirely given place. They are all of a watery, insipid taste, with little saccharine or mucilaginous quality, and therefore are of weak nutriment. On account of their little acidity and loose texture they are less flatulent than some of the other olera. They are said to be laxative, but as they have little acidity or sweetness, this quality cannot be remarkable. They are, however, acescent, and hence, if taken in considerable quantity, may prove so.

Nothing is more common than the opinion that all these olera are of a nitrous quality. This was Dioscorides's opinion, and he has been followed in it by almost every succeeding Author. But from a strict examination of their essential salts, I have found no foundation for such an opinion. The effects of all the olera, as laxatives, are very dubious. In weak stomachs they rather encrease costiveness, having nothing in them to stimulate the intestines and encrease the peristaltic motion. They are, indeed, the most cooling and least irritating of the aliments. What I have said of the beet be|longs

entirely to the herb, for the root is very sweet, and, according to Margraaf's experiments, contains a larger proportion of sugar than any other root he examined. But the nature of this will be better understood when we come to speak of roots.

Brassica: These belong to an order of plants much used in food. Their general character is, that they are remarkably acrid, but not poisonous; on the contrary, their acrimony is of consi|derable use in medicine, and in their bland state, being deprived of this acrimony in boiling, they are used in food. Hence I took the general rule, that all our aliment is remarkably bland, and that the acrimonious part has little share in it: Of these we only use the brassica and turnep as food, the others only as condiment. Brassica is most frequent in use, and of this there are many varieties, as colewort, cauliflower, brocoli, &c. All these are sensibly sweet, and therefore more nutritious than most of the herbaceous kind. The distinction we make of them depends mostly on their texture. Formerly we only employed the colewort, which has given place to the more tender savoy; and perhaps this last will give way to the still tenderer cauliflower. Those of the brassica kind are more flatulent than the oleraceae, as having more of a saccharine quality, which enables them to ferment, and, by this means, to produce an acid in the stomach. I believe they produce these effects in a milder degree, in proportion to the richness of their sweet, and tenderness of texture. On this account cabbage is rendered more flatulent, and hence a confirmation of the general rule, that flatulency is most owing to firmness of texture: Thus cabbage itself, when very young, is tender, and less flatulent, than when full grown.

NASTURTIUM

Is used merely as a condiment. Were it not of scanty growth, it might enter into our food, for I know that, by boiling, it is deprived of its acrimony, and affords an agreeable green.

LACTUCA AGNINA.

This is a species of valerian: It is an insipid plant, perhaps from its being early taken up in the spring; for in its more advanced state it is somewhat bitter, and then approaches, in some degree, to the four following. In general, all early plants are either insipid or remarkably acrid: Lactuca, as we use it, has the general qualities of the oleraceous plants.

CICHOREUM, DENS LEONIS, ENDIVIA, LACTUCA.

These belong to the semi flosculosae, or plano petalae. They will afterwards be mentioned as medicines, under the subdivision of amaro frigida. These are all lactescent plants, and it is almost an universal rule, that all those which afford a milky juice are re|markably acrid, and many of them poisonous. This set has been excepted, and seemingly with reason, as we use them so much in food. But they do not infringe so much the general rule as has been imagined: For one species of them is very narcotic, and all are so, in some measure, when old; for this reason we only use them when very young, or blanch them, to free of their acrimony, which is done by depriving them of light. When young, they are acescent, cooling, flatulent; when old, less acescent, less cooling, less flatulent, which, perhaps, may be owing to taking the skin along with them. But they are never used without a condiment.

CELERI.

This is an ••pium, or petroselinum. It belongs to a set of plants often lactescent, but, independent of this, they have a poisonous acrimony, on which account it is blanched, though it is never en|tirely deprived of its acrimony in this way, but more so by boiling, when it acquires a mucilaginous sweetness, and is then used in our animal broths, especially in winter, for which season it is fittest, on account of its acrimony.

ASPARAGUS.

This is an intermediate substance between root and plant. In its adult state it is remarkably acrid, so only esculent in its first stage of growth. This serves to illustrate the different states of plants according to the time of their growth. There are many other plants, which, by age, turn acrid, whose first shoots we might use as food, as hops, thistles, bardana, &c. but asparagus is the only one employed at present. This is somewhat sweet, more re|markably mucilaginous; from both which qualities it is manifestly nutritive, and more so than any of the olera mentioned, also on account of its mucilaginous juice, though it be acescent, yet it is less flatulent than some of them. It has often been supposed, even as we eat it, of very active parts: These, however, appear to con|stitute a peculiar acrimony, quite distinct from the nutritious matter, and which seems to give the smell which is perceptible in the urine of persons who use it.

CINARA, ARTICHOAK.

The part in use is of a nature somewhat between herb and fruit, and is the receptacle of the flower and seed. Artichoaks came early into use in Europe, and came into England about Henry the Eighth's time, and then were considered as the rarest delicacy, and sold at much the same price as pine-apples now. When thus rare, many qualities were attributed to it. Among the rest it was called aphrodisiac, but without foundation. In southern climates arti|choaks are eat raw, as sallad, with oil and pepper; but this practice is only fit for warm climates. In this country we use them boiled; and, if young, they are of a tender texture, and easily dissolved. They are little acescent, so not flatulent. The taste of artichoaks is sweet, which bespeaks them remarkably nutritious.

FUNGI.

Next to the herbs, I have set down these. These are, indeed, herbs only in so far as some of them are above ground; but they differ so much from every other herb and even vegetables, and be|sides their virtues are so different, as to make it very difficult to class them. Of the fungi, three distinctions are to be noticed, Truffle Morelle, and Mushroom, which take in the other fungi.

TRUFFLE.

This is as singular in its qualities as vegetation. It never rises above ground, nor seeds, but shoots in the earth, being a single solitary ball, somewhat firmer than mushroom. In this country they are never found, scarcely in England. From Geoffroy I learn that it is not acescent, but yields at first a volatile alkali, which shows it approaches near to the animal nature. Hence its qualities may probably be deduced; and for this reason it is less flatulent, more nourishing, and more stimulating to the system than any other vegetable; and of the great variety of vegetables, commonly said to be possessed of aphrodisiac virtues, is perhaps the only one which has any title to them. In those countries where it is used it is never found noxious or poisonous as the mushrooms. It has been alledged, that on account of its firm texture it may be of slow solution, and so difficult to digest.

MORELLE.

This belongs to a genus, called by Linnaeus phallus. There are two species, viz. the one here mentioned, which is not indigenous, and another remarkably foetid, growing about hedges, the phallus foetidus penis imaginem referens. It is of a porous cellular texture, not laminated as the mushroom. The morelle has been said to approach in qualities to the truffle, but I consider it more as a fashionbale ornament to our dishes, than as any proper food.

MUSHROOMS.

Physicians have disputed much about the qualities of these, some considering them as a rich nourishment and perfectly innocent when properly chosen, others asserting them to be extremely dele|terious; most of the fungi are indeed of a hurtful quality, and with respect to the whole tribe the esculent are very few. Esculent mushrooms are very nutritive, very readily alcalescent, and more so without intermediate acescency than any other vegetable; therefore a rich nourishment, and much akin to animal food; on which account they may be indulged in considerable quantity to strong persons. It requires, however, skill to distinguish this esculent kind; and very few have studied Clusius, or other authors, who have been at the pains to distinguish them, especially those, viz. the servants who are employed to gather them. Perhaps our esculent mushrooms, if old, acquire a dangerous acrimony; where|fore, as exposed to all these accidents, I think it may be prudent for the most part to avoid them. In the warmer climates, they may be used as a light kind of food, but here it is preposterous to use them along with animal food, as they do not correct its alkaline tendency.

ESCULENT ROOTS.

Radish, Turnep. These belong to the siliquosae, which we mentioned, under nasturtium and brassica, to be an acrid class, but never poisonous, and often good in medicine. This acrimony has given rise to particular opinions, some asserting that they are cooling, while others call them alkalescent. Both, however, seem to mistake. Their acrimony is diuretic and diaphoretic, and so discharges all the parts of the blood which have degenerated to an alkaline acri|mony. On the other hand, I have said that all plants are acescent, and I except only the fungi. Perhaps, indeed, the siliquoso do run on quicker to putrefaction, but this is only a difference in degree, and not in quality. Thus far of the siliquosae in general.

RADISH.

This, as being so acrid, is used only as sallad or condiment. When boiled it becomes mild, and were it not for its slender state when young, and for the difficulty of depriving it of its acrid skin when old, and its toughness, it might be used this way in the kitchen.

TURNEP.

This is easily deprived of its acrid skin, and is also pretty large, which is the reason why it is preferred in our aliment, but is a watery weak nutriment, very flatulent, and purgative in consequence of its acescency.

SCORZONERA, TRAGOPOGON.

These belong to the semiflosculosae. The roots are remarkably free from the acrimony which appears in the plant above ground, and of what acrimony they have, they can easily be deprived, by boiling. They are sweeter than turnep, and therefore less acescent and less flatulent, but yield to the three following:

CARROT, PARSNIP, and SKIRRET.

Skirret is remarkable for being a plant from whose root Margraaf, of all the plants he tried, extracted most grained sugar, except the white beet. The carrot yields a considerable quantity of rich saccha|rine matter, in the form of syrup. From the parsnips, a small quantity of grained sugar, and a large one of syrup, is extracted, very viscid, with a copious mucilage. From the sweet mucilaginous matter contained in all, they are considerably nutritious. The quantity of nourishment is least in the skirret, and greatest in the parsnip, from different mixture in each of the saccharine and muci|laginous matter. In the skirret, the saccharine fermentable matter is most open, and therefore this, of the three, is most acescent and

flatulent. All three are taken from a class of plants which abound in a deleterious acrimony; Parsnip, from its ranker smell and taste, is most suspected and most shunned. And here I may observe, that the bland nutritious vegetables are agreeable to all, but in those of a mixed or suspicious kind we see many idiosyncrasies. It is said that parsnips, when old, turn very acrid, insomuch as to have pro|duced mania and other dreadful effects: When old, they are called madnips by the English. These effects, perhaps, might have pro|ceeded from taking hemlock, or others of the umbelliferous kind, by mistake.

LEEK, ONION, GARLICK.

These belong to the alliaceous kind, and are all species of one genus. In their recent state they are acrid, but harmless to the human body: When, by age or climate, this acrimony is too great, we do not use them as food. In Spain, the garlick being equally mild with the onion, is used as common food. By the ordinary culinary preparation, their acrimony is dissipated, and a remarkably mild substance remains, promissing much nutriment, which those who can digest them raw will certainly obtain. Though sometimes shunned as food, yet, on that account, they are em|ployed in medicine, uniting the two qualities of pectorals, viz. on the account of their acrimony, being, in their recent state, expecto|rant; in their boiled, on account of their mucilage, demulcent, provided the quantity taken be sufficient. Some of late, in this country, have found in the leek a somniferous quality; but this is not yet confirmed by a sufficient number of experiments.

Besides the three here mentioned, there are several others, be|longing to the same tribe, that we use as condiments, but only the leek and onion as diet. In its recent state the onion is most acrid, in its boiled one the leek retains its acrimony most tenaciously. On account of this, and some difference of texture, the onion is more easily digested, and more universally used than the leek, being more easily broke down, and more generally agreeable.

POTATOE.

This is an intermediate substance, between esculent roots and farinaceous seeds, and is now of frequent use, being of easy culture and plentiful product. Some have alledged it has bad qualities, but experience shows the contrary; as acescent indeed, it may be flatu|lent, but as it approaches more to the farinaceous seeds, it is less flatulent, and more nourishing, than any of the oleraceous herbs or roots I know: That they are farinaceous there are many proofs, as they can be applied to all the purposes of the farinaceous seeds, as for making starch, vinous liquors, &c. Though this plant be|long to the genus of night-shade, and though the seeds retain the acrimony of that genus, yet the root is found to have no such qua|lities, being, in my opinion, of the most innocent and safest nutri|ment. Hence then it would appear, that the rule of plants of the same genus having the same virtues, is not so general as is com|monly imagined: This, indeed, is so far from being true, that different parts of the same plant have often different virtues.

SALEP.

This is a preparation of the root of the orchis, which grows plen|tifully in Turky and Persia. The orchis of this country seems to be of much the same nature, though not so convenient, as it does not grow to the same bulk. The method of preparing salep is as follows, and given us by Geoffroy: First, they throw the roots into water, in order to free them of the skin. My author does not men|tion whether the water should be cold or hot; in my opinion the latter would be preferable; it is afterwards boiled in water, till, I fancy, it is perfectly soaked with it; the water is then drained off, and the root hung up on threads to dry, till it has acquired a gummy or resinous appearance. In England, it is said to be imported in this form; but here we commonly have it in a powder. Thrown into wa|ter it melts into a mucilage, of a smooth taste, somewhat sweet. Both from taste and mucilage, it is plainly of a farinaceous matter,

and is liable to the same inconveniencies, acescency and fermenta|tion, especially acescency. It is extremely convenient for affording an extemporaneous mucilaginous drink, but, as we use it, it is too weak a nutriment. Hence I have no faith in its aphrodisiac virtues; but it is very fit, where acrimony abounds in the primae viae, as in dysenteries, as we find confirmed by Degner, on that subject.

Many other roots, of the farinaceous kind, might be mentioned here. Several of these roots are, in their recent state, remarkably acrid, as the cassada of Surinam already mentioned. In the same manner the Laplanders use a plant of the like qualities, which af|fords a mealy matter, with the same management. In this country the arum seems to be of the same nature; being, when recent, very acrid, by drying turned mild and farinaceous; and I make no doubt but it might be used as a farinaceous substance in food. I know one purpose which it serves in common with other farinae, viz. making a fine powder for the hair

SAGO.

It is the product of a species of oriental palm, called todapanna, &c. We have long been acquainted with the substance, but often have dis|puted about its origin. We are now assured, that it is the pith of the tree above mentioned. When the tree is cut down, the pith is sepa|rated from its filamentous membrane, and afterwards farther cleaned by winnowing, and broke down into a fine meal, and dried in the sun. Some say that this meal is made into a pulmentum with water, dried, and afterwards formed into the grains in which we have it. This opinion I am apt to favour. Possibly, from some of our own farinaceous matters, some such substance might be procured. Sago appears to be a pure, mild, bland, farinaceous substance, having the oil and sugar intimately blended. Hence its qualities may be under|stood, being demulcent, as other farinae, &c. It dissolves in water into a viscid mucilage, and it is owing to its viscidity that it is less acescent, and flatulent, than other farinae, keeping longer, even for

twenty years, than other farinae, and also in its mucilaginous state a long time. Hence it is considerably nutritious, as the East Indians experience.

FARINACEOUS SEEDS.

These make the chief vegetable nutriment of all nations. They are subdivided into three kinds, 1. Cerealia; 2. Leguminoso; 3. Nuces oleosae. The first is the purest farina; the second is more oily; the third so much more so as to have their oil separate, and easily ex|tracted from them. The Cerealia are of most universal use. Thus barley, rye, and oats are the food of the North. In the Southern parts of Asia, Africa, and America, wheat, rice, and maiz. To these millet may be added. All these substances belong to a distinct family of plants, under the name of Culmifer••e, or Graminos••e. The whole of the gramina are of the same nature, and furnish aliment to men and domestic animals. All these might be used in food, but we employ those of largest growth and product. The properties of all are much in common. They are all acescent and saccharine, or by malting, convertible into a saccharine nature. Hence they are the proper subjects of fermentation, and hence they are acescent, though less so than any of the vegetables yet mentioned. And here, by the bye, I may observe, that in my Catalogue I had in view to place the substances in the order of acescency. To go on; we render them less acescent by a previous fermentation, as in the form of bread: So much for their assimilation. They are not so readily soluble in the stomach as most of the vegetables we have mentioned, especially when made into a paste; but in this form they have an advantage, becoming not only more nourishing for the robust, but, as I shall afterwards observe, for all. The first ap|pearance of their solution, is to give a mucilage; hence they are demulcent. Some call them astringent: I see no foundation for this, as any appearance of their astringency is owing to their de|mulcent property. So far of these substances in general. We now proceed to speak of each in particular, very briefly.

BARLEY.

This is a sweeter grain than most of the others, its sugar being less covered by the oil; hence it is the more common subject of fermentation. It is also less nourishing, not only because the sugar is least covered, but also because it breaks down into a very bulky meal, on which account when made into paste it is least solid food, so that barely pottage, &c. makes a less solid, and therefore a lighter nourishment. It is, however, preferable for decoctions, as it renders them less viscid than any of the farinaceous substances I know.

MILLET.

This, from its sweetness, is manifestly of the same nature as barley, and if as large a grain, would be used for the same purposes. As tender and sweet, it is sometimes used in our puddings.

RYE.

This a sweet grain, and from accidents, as well as this, it has particular qualities, being in the countries where it is used the food of the poor, and therefore not cleaned accurately from its husks. Hence, and from its sweetness, it is considerably acescent, so more liable to ferment in the stomach and produce purging, which people on their first using it commonly experience.

OATS.

This grain is a stronger nutriment than the former, as the sweet|ness is less obvious, the oil being more intimately blended with the sugar. This appears from more nourishment being actually obtain|ed than from the same quantity of barley or rye. It is of a more 〈◊〉〈◊〉 and compact texture, and from being less soluble than the wheat, appears to me the reason why it gives less nourishment. Oats have been supposed heating, and to produce itch, &c.

It is absurd to suppose any heating quality in any of the farinaceae. Heart-burn produced from its use is given as an instance of its heat|ing quality, but this is owing to the acescent quality common with other farinaceae, taken unfermented. Even wheat itself, made into unleavened cakes, as the oats are commonly here, produces the same effects.

WHEAT.

This is a more perfect grain than any yet mentioned, particularly it affords a finer farina than oats or barley, for I believe it is scarce possible to make a scarce fine enough, in order to hinder its trans|mission. It is the grain of most plentiful encrease, even in this country, and, in proportion to the quantity, gives a more plentiful nourishment. It is certainly the fittest for bread of any, I mean the European grains, for I imagine it is excelled by

RICE.

This, both for largeness of produce, quantity of nourishment, and goodness, is more excellent, being of finer farina and more tender texture, as is plain by macerating the different grains in water; for as the rice swells to largest size, so its parts are more intimately divided. Rice is said to affect the eyes, but this is purely prejudice: Thus it is alledged a particular people of Asia, who live on this grain, are blind eyed; but if the soil be sandy, and not properly covered with herbage, and as these people are much employed in the field, this affection of their eyes may be owing to the strong reflection of the rays of light from this sandy soil; and I am more inclined to this opinion, as no such effect is observed in Carolina, where it is very commonly used.

MAIZ.

Of this I have but little experience to speak positively of it. It is an American grain. It is of a firmer, more solid texture than

the rest; it may, however, be broke down into a fine meal. With water, it forms the most gluey viscid substance of any of the farinaceae, therefore should be well opened by fermentation, to make it fit for tender stomachs. In our trials we have never been able, when we imported it in times of scarcity, to make it undergo such a fermentation as to have the friability of our grains.

BUCK WHEAT.

This is a farinaceous seed, but does not belong to the same class with the former. It is employed as food in this country now very rarely. It is used for some other purposes, particularly to give a thick mucilage, of use to give tenacity to yarn in weaving, for which purpose it answers better than oats, barley, or wheat. I am led to make the same observations on it as the maiz, viz. that it is a hard, viscid, less soluble substance than any of the other grains. It cannot be reduced to a fine enough meal. If we could open it by fermentation, it might be useful in food.

Having thus treated of the principal species of the farinacea, I now come to their preparations. By much the most common of these is bread, and without somewhat of this form no nations seem to live. Thus the Laplanders, having no corn of their own, make a sort of bread of their dried fishes and of the inner rind of the pine, which seems to be used not so much for their nourishment as for supplying a dry food. For this mankind seem to have an universal appetite, rejecting bland, slippery, mucilaginous foods. This is not com|monly accounted for, but seems to depend or very simple principles. The preparation of our food depends on the mixture of the animal fluids in every stage. Among others the saliva is necessary, which requires dry food as a necessary stimulus to draw it forth, as bland, slippery fluid aliments are too inert, and make too short stay in the mouth to produce this effect, or to cause sufficient degree of man|ducation to emulge that liquor. For this reason we use commonly dry bread along with animal food, which otherwise would too

quickly be swallowed. For blending the oil and water of our food, nothing is so fit as bread, assisted by a previous manducation. For which purpose bread is of like necessity in the stomach, as it is proper, that a substance of solid consistence should be long retained there. Now I have said that the animal fluids must be mixed with our aliments, in order to change the acescency it undergoes. But liquid foods would not attain this end, whereas the solid stimulates and emulges the glands of the stomach. The bread then appears to be exceedingly proper, being bulky without too much solidity, and firm without difficulty of solution. Although the bread I here men|tion only of our own farinacea, yet in different countries others are used, as sago, &c.

Bread is of two kinds, leavened or unleavened, i. e. subjected to fermentation, or only simple dough made or water. Leavened bread is of two kinds; first, as made of dough set to ferment naturally, and afterwards employed as a ferment to other dough; secondly, where we employ a ferment of vinous liquors. The first is a pre|carious uncertain operation in itself, and more especially so in its application to a fresh mass of unfermented dough. This is the method used in the southern countries of Europe. The yeast used in the second more preferable method is a more active ferment, and less liable to accident than the leaven, even although it is subject to be used too old, &c. and so we find British bread better raised than the French and more spungy; but it has a disadvantage, espe|cially to strangers, from the disagreeable bitterness of hops often tainting our yeast, and so the bread as formed with it. The ad|vantages of leavened bread are to promote assimilation and solution.

As to the first, all vegetable food becomes naturally more or less acescent, and it is the mode of this that forms a disease, viz. when the vinous fermentation takes place. Indeed, I also own, that disease may sometimes depend on the quantity of acid produced. One way of obviating the vinous fermentation is, by giving our food somewhat of the acetous tendency, or throwing into the stomach

somewhat to have this effect. Unfermented, or too little fermented bread, will cause heart-burn; when too acid from over fermenta|tion it will purge. This then explains the use of bread, and the degree of leavening necessary, viz. that it should not be so much leavened as to purge, but sufficiently so, in order to check the noxious vinous fermentation. The more acescent grains, as barley and rye, are more especially purgative, and the husks of all grain are somewhat of this nature, while the pure farina has loss of it. Thus then the finest bread will be least purgative, and the coarsest most certainly so. So far as to the assimilation, now with regard to the solution.

In all bodies there is blended a certain quantity of air, and nothing promotes solution more than the extrication of this air, which is particularly effected by fermentation. Application of heat, of a menstruum applied, &c. would be of little avail, unless assisted by a fermentation going on in the stomach, which is particularly assisted by bread, which, besides the advantages of solidity, &c. is of use, as having its own texture already opened, to prove a ferment to other food. Bread is necessarily in a solid and dry form, and hence is less soluble. To prevent this, and at the same time preserve the solid form, is the purpose of baking. To make the bread cohere, water is used, and there is no greater secret in the art of baking than the quantity of this used, which, if too great, makes the whole concrete into a firm insoluble mass. Here we are apt to be deceived, as meal, like clay, will absorb a considerable quantity, and still retain its mealy form. This mixture must be made not with gentle stirring, but accurate kneading, in order to make a small quantity of water suffice; for if gentle mixture were used, it, like the clay before-mentioned, would take in too much water, before it would cohere. After the mixture is made, we proceed to drying, which must be performed suddenly, all slow drying giving to sub|stances a tough compact form, while sudden drying gives a spongy porous texture. This is illustrated in making of paper, which, slowly dried, is of fine compact texture; whereas, if taken sud|denly

from the mill, it is porous, sinking, and spungy. Hence we can apprehend what are the qualities of bread properly dried; for the water, interposed as a gluten, is dissipated, and leaves the bread in a considerable degree of friability. Its friability depends also on the fineness of the meal, and quality of the ferment applied, ren|dering it fit for manducation and solution in the stomach: Hence the difference between new bread and stale; the latter being more friable, and more easily soluble, is preferable, provided it has got none of the putrefactive taint: However, in strong stomachs, this may too easily be dissolved and digested, and therefore, in such cases, the other is to be chosen.

As to unleavened bread, which is used both here and in many other parts of Europe; this necessarily comes into a firm and tough cake, not having the advantage of fermentation to extricate the air. On account of this closeness of texture, it will retain the water more tenaciously: Hence the reason of the different form of un|leavened bread being made out into thin cakes to favour their dry|ing, which the more expeditiously it is done, for reasons already assigned, without burning, it is the more soluble, friable, and po|rous. People obliged to use unleavened bread, have thought of adding butter, to render it more friable; but from this, perhaps, it is less miscible with the watery fluids, and those in the stomach; and hence, as we have said, it is more acescent, and apt to produce heart-burn. We also sometimes use bread leavened to a very great degree, under the name of ••our cakes. These are made by adding a good deal of water to give them viscidity, that they may be thinly extended. To obviate the effects of this viscidity, they are ren|dered proportionably more ••our, on which account, when taken in considerable quantities, they are purgative. So far with regard to bread.

We now proceed to the other preparations of farinacea. These, when made into paste with water, and exposed to a heat capable of coagulating our fluids, are hardened into indissoluble masses; but

when they are mixed with cold water, and afterwards exposed to a gradual heat, their solution is effected. This is illustrated by the preparation of hasty-pudding and water-gruel. The first practice is the most common, probably from being more solid and longer retained in the stomach, till it undergoes the proper acescent changes, while the water-gruel is little considered as a food, but rather as a drink, because it passes quickly off. All the puddings are analogous in their preparation to the hasty-pudding. The farinacea prepared by coagulation are of three kinds, pudding, pancake, and baken paste; pudding is of two kinds as made of flour or bread. The first is coagulated into a firm mass, which we should not be able to dissolve unless mixed with other matters, as suet; on the contrary, that made of bread, still remains, after being drenched with water, easily soluble. These are the common forms of pudding, though sometimes they are made of grain, as rice, millet, &c. In this case the grain is first boiled, and then dried to a proper consistence, and mixed with variety of substances. In all of these forms milk is commonly used rather than plain water, as giving a less tough consistence. Eggs are also used to obviate acescency, as being of animal nature. 2. Pancakes. Here somewhat of a firm texture is required, and they are made out into thin plates for the same reason as the unleavened cakes. More water is necessary to give them tenacity, and butter is added to pre|vent fermentation. 3. Paste. This is sometimes made of fer|mented bread, but ordinarily of flour. As it is to be converted into various forms, it is made considerably tenacious. This is done by adding a large quantity of water, by ••low drying, and other means. It would, therefore, be very hard without the addition of butter, and, after all, it is very indigestible, and apt to produce heart|burn and acescency. Perhaps this is increased by the burned butter, from a certain sensibility in the stomach, which occasions all empyreumatic oils to be long retained, and so turn rancescent and acid.

LEGUMINA.

These are unctuous and oily, and have the oil intimately blended with a saccharine matter, so that they afford a pure and strong nourishment; and that they do so appear from experiments made on domestic animals. It is observed too that servants, caeteris paribus, living on low grounds, where the legumina grow in great plenty, and are their chief food, fatten remarkably, and then when trans|ported to the higher ground, they turn weak and lean, living mostly on the culmiferous farinacea, and sometimes cannot recover them without having recourse to the former diet. That the legumina are intended for food, a curious reason may be assigned. The culmiferous, indeed, are intended for food, but the same ground cannot produce them above one or two years without being exhausted; whereas the legumina have no such effect, and interposed between the culmiferous crops, make these be borne more easily: And thus I have known a field, by alternate crops of the culmiferae and legumina, after twenty-four years, without any particular manure, capable to produce the same crop of culmiferae as at first. This practice is very ancient, and therefore legumina very early must have made a part of food.

Legumina are of a more firm texture and less soluble, therefore their use in food should be confined to the hardy robust farmer. They are more flatulent than most vegetables, at least than the farinacea. This depends not merely on that quantity of saccharine matter (which appears to be considerable, as appears from the rich sweet procurable from them) as the bad effects of this are obviated by its intimate mixture with their oil, but on the great quantity of air there is lodged in that texture, and which, during their fermenta|tion, is copiously extricated; and hence they are improper aliment for weak stomachs. They are used in two different states, not only when fully ripe, (their effects in which case I have just now mentioned,) but also when very tender and green, at which time

they have not attained the oil they afterwards gain, approach in their qualities to other olera, and are hardly more sensibly flatulent than these; but after all, in compensation for these properties, their nutriment is proportionably diminished.

In the Catalogue I have only set down of the legumina, peas, beans, and French beans, though many more of the same kind might have been added, as lentils, &c. but they are purposely omitted, as all of the same qualities, and I have only mentioned the three most com|monly used.

The phaseoli, or French beans, are here little known in their mature state, but are used with their cod in the manner of olera, than which they are somewhat more firm and more nutritious. The phaseoli, in their ripe state, have a bitter disagreeable husk, deprived of which they are more tender, more soluble, and less flatulent than other legumina, even the peas, and for the purposes of peas, by the better sort they are, for this reason, sometimes imported, as for puddings.

Peas, both raw and ripe, are of a more tender and soluble texture than beans, and hence the better sort seldom employ the bean, but use the pea for culinary purposes, as puddings, &c.

NUCES OLEOSAE.

This term is not strictly proper in a botanical sense, but common language has authorized it. All these consist of a farinaceous sub|stance by itself, and have an oil in their composition, not mixed as in the legumina, but separate, and easily obtained by proper expres|sion. Though this oil be separate, yet, by triture with water, it may be united with the farinaceous substance into an homogeneous emulsion; and most of the preparations of nuces oleosae in food should be made on this foundation. Nuces oleosae are less flatulent than the legumina, and even than the farinacea, and, on account of their

copious oil, more nutritive, but hence more difficultly assimilated, and its effects appear by stuffing the lungs, especially such as were formerly affected with any disorder of the asthmatic kind.

Let us now proceed to treat of the Nuces oleosae in particular. I have ranked them in the Catalogue according to alphabetical order, but according to the proportion of oil they may stand thus: AVELLANA, CASTANEAE, JUGLANDES, PISTACEAE, AMYGDALAE, CACAO.

HAZEL NUT.

This is less oily, and has its oil more intimately blended with the farinaceous substance than in the rest, but all this is to be taken with distinction, of those nuts in different countries, climates, and seasons. Thus in the southern, drier and hotter climates, the oil is more copious and separate. Before these arrive at maturity, they are more watery than the other nuts.

CHESNUT.

This I suppose was the food of the ancients, and not the acorn of the oak, which is scarcely reducible to food. The later Botanists have very justly reduced the chesnut tree to the genus of the fagus, and this was probably the ancient esculent one. Chesnuts still, in some countries, make the chief parts of food to the lower kind of people, as in the fertile plains of Lombardy. They afford a copious nourishment, as somewhat of the nature of the legumina, having their oil intimately blended, and much air being fixed in their substance, and they are the most flatulent of the nuces oleosae.

WALNUTS.

These are more oily than the former, and have that oil more separate.

PISTACHIO.

This still more abounds in oil, and may give a more copious nou|rishment, but it is scarcely possible to separate from them the ter|binthinal acrimony of the tree.

ALMONDS.

These are the most agreeable of the nuts, but are no where pro|duced in such quantity as to afford a food. They are divided into bitter and sweet, and the oil is said to be obtained equally sweet from both. And, indeed, it appears, that bitter and sweet almonds are only varieties, but it is a doubt whether the bitter almond ought to be used in food. The farina and oil of it are ex|actly the same, but its bitter makes it suspicious, as the laurel bitter, afterwards to be mentioned, may be procured from it, and as it is a poison to many animals. Some men, indeed, use them with impu|nity, but I think it a dangerous practice. They are, however, de|prived of this acrimony by heat, and hence are used in baking; but we should not from this infer, that the use of them, when fresh, is allowable.

CACAO NUTS.

These contain the largest proportion of oil, and thence are hardly used without preparation, by mixing the oily with the farinaceous part, and on the accuracy of this mixture the quantity of their nourishment depends, as well as its easiness of digestion. The cho|colate made in Portugal and Spain is not near so well prepared as the English, depending, perhaps, on the machine employed here, viz. the double cylinder, which seems very well calculated for exact triture. If perfectly prepared, no oil appears on the solution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the foreign, and it also may, in some measure, depend on the thickness of the preparation. The solution requires more care than is commonly imagined. It is proper

to break it down, and dissolve it thoroughly in cold water, by mill|ing with the chocolate stick. If heat be applied, it should be done slowly; for if suddenly, the heat will not only coagulate it, but separate the oil, and therefore much boiling after it is dissolved is hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required by people of weak stomachs, but often rejected for want of proper preparation. When properly prepared it is easily dissolved, and an excellent food where a liquid nutrient vegetable one is required, and is less flatulent than any of the farinacea.

OLIVES.

These might be referred to the head of Condiment, and they are even used only picked in those countries where they are native, and their disagreeable bitter is by this means corrected. I only mention them here, on account of the oil they afford so copiously.

I formerly started a question about the use of oil, viz. Whether oil was necessary for nourishment, or only for supplying the great quantity of oil in the system? Though the latter opinion be granted, yet I imagine oils are also directly nutritive, being copi|ously mixed and intimately blended with the other parts of our aliment, and thus constituting a part of the proper nutritious fluid. They are also necessary for assimulation; for the acescency of the fructus acido dulces would be difficultly subdued without these. Hence the use of oil and butter is almost as universal, and as neces|sary, as that of the farinacea. They give an aliment which approaches most to that obtained from animal food. They give a more dense elastic blood, and probably, too, a more putrescent one than vegetables. Their viscidity also remains in some degree in the blood vessels, on which account we shall mention them under the class of medicines. Dr. Russel, in his Natural History of Aleppo, tells us,

that in certain seasons, when they use a great quantity of oil there, they are then disposed to somewhat of fever, with remarkable infarction of the lungs, which symptoms wear off on

retrenching the use of oil.

Considered as aliment, oil is diffi|cultly perspired, the meaning of which shall be afterwards explained. These are the properties in general of our oily nourishment, whether oil or butter. Here a question arises, Whether the Northern or Southern countries are supplied with the most agreable substance of this kind? With regard to butter, it has always a quantity of animal mucllage mixed with it, and hence is easier miscible with water. But hence, although from the muscilage it receive con|sistence and somewhat of miscibility with water, and hence more easily digested, yet from this very mixture it is more rancescent, and does not keep so long fresh as oil, and hence produces disorders in the primae viae. In the Southern countries oil is procured little disposed to rancescency, and therefore, where it can be used per|fectly fresh, it is not so apt to produce rancescent disorders as butter. But here it is not so equal advantage, and I never saw any in this country but had some degree of rancidity, and therefore, we ought not in any case, to prefer the imported oils to good fresh butter. However, as fresh oil is certainly eligible, and as almonds, whose oil is better than that of olives, afford it but in inconsiderable quan|tity, I think we ought, as we have native seeds which will afford a pure oil in pretty large quantity, to endeavour to procure it from them.

DRINK.

The general use of drink is to supply fluid, facilitate solution, in consequence of that to expede the evacuation of the stomach, and promote the progress of the aliment through the intestines; for, by the contraction of the longitudinal fibres of the stomach, the pylorus is drawn up, and nothing but fluid can pass, which, by its bulk, makes a hurried progress through the intestines, and so determines a greater excretion by stool, as less than can be absorbed by the lacteals. Hence a large quantity of common water has been found purgative, and, caeteris paribus, that aliment which is accompanied with the largest proportion of drink, makes the largest evacuation by

stool. Here a question has arisen, about where the feculent part of the aliment is first remarkably collected? It is commonly thought to be in the great guts, but undoubtedly it often begins in the lower part of the ileum, especially when the drink is in small proportion, and when the progress of the aliment is slow; for when the con|tents of the guts are very fluid, they are quickly pushed on, and reach the great guts before they deposit any feculency. Another effect of drink is, to facilitate the mixture of the lymph, refluent from every part of the system, with the chyle. In the blood-vessels, where all must be kept fluid, in order to proper mixture, drink increases the fluidity, and gives tension, by its bulk, without concomitant acrimony or too much elasticity, and so strength and oscillatory motion; Hence drink contributes to sanguification, as sometimes food gives too dense a nutriment to be acted upon by the solids; and hence also we can see how drink promotes the secretions. These are the effects of drink in general; but what I have said must be taken with some limitations, for the more liquid the food, it is sooner evacuated, and less nourishment is extracted: Hence drink is, in some degree, opposed to nourishment, and so, caeteris paribus, those who use least drink are most nourished.

All the effects of drink above-mentioned are produced by simple water, and it may be said, that other liquors are fit for drink in proportion to the water they contain. Water, when used as drink, is often impregnated with vegetable and farinaceous substances, but, as drinks, these impregnations are of little consequence; they add, indeed, a little nourishment, but this is not to be regarded in a healthy state. Sometimes we impregnate water with the fructus acido dulces, and then, indeed, it acquires other qualities of consi|derable use in the animal oeconomy. All drinks, however, may be reduced to two heads, first, pure water, or where the additional substance gives no additional virtue; secondly, into the fermentatae. Of the first we have already treated, and the latter have not only the qualities of the first, but also qualities peculiar to themselves.

Fermented liquors are more or less poignant to the taste, and better calculated to quench thirst. Thirst may be owing to various causes; first, to defect of fluid in the system, which occasions a scanty secretion in the mouth, fauces, and stomach; the dryness of the mouth and fauces will also, in this case, be increased, by their continual exposure to perpetual flux and reflux of the evaporating air; secondly, thirst depends on a large proportion of solid viscid food; thirdly, on an alkalescent aliment, especially if it has attained any thing of the putrefactive taint; fourthly, on the heat of the system; but this seems to operate in the same manner as the first cause, giving a sense of dryness from its dissipation of the fluids. The fermented liquors are peculiarly adapted for obviating all these causes, stimulating the mouth, fauces, and stomach, to throw out the saliva and gastric liquor by their poignancy; by their acescency they are fitted to destroy alkalescent acrimony, to quench thirst from that cause; by their fluidity they dilute viscid food; though here, indeed, they answer no better than common water. In two ways they promote the evacuation by stool, and progress through the intestines; first, by their fluidity and bulk; secondly, by their acescency, which, uniting with the bile, forms the peculiar stimulus formerly mentioned. Carried into the blood vessels, in so far as they retain any of the saline nature, they stimulate the excretories and promote urine and sweat, correcting thus alkalescency not only by mixture, but dissipation of the degenerated fluids.

Many Physicians, in treating of fermented liquors, have only mentioned these qualities, rejecting their nutritious virtue, which certainly ought to be taken in; though by expeding the evacuation by stool they make less of the nutritious parts of the aliment to be taken up, and by stimulating the excretories make these nutritious parts to be for shorter time in the system. All these, and many more effects, arise from fermented liquors. Their acescency sometimes promotes the disease of acescency, by increasing that of vegetables, acting as a ferment, and so producing flatulency, purging, cholera, &c. so that, with vegetable aliment, as little drink

is necessary, the most innocent is pure water; and it is only with animal food that fermented liquors are necessary. In warmer climates fermentata would seem necessary to obviate alkalescency and heat. But it should be considered, that though fermented liquors contain an acid, yet they also contain alcohol, which, though it adds stimulus to the stomach, yet is extremely hurtful in the warmer climates, and wherever alkalescency prevails in the system. Na|ture, in these climates, has given men an appetite for water im|pregnated with acid fruits, e. g. sherbet, but the use of this needs caution, as in these countries they are apt to shun animal food, using too much of the vegetable, and often thus causing dangerous refri|gerations, choleras, diarrhoeas, &c.

Of varieties of fermented liquors, I shall only mention here the chief heads on which these varieties depend; first, they are owing to the quality of the subject, as more or less viscid, upon its capa|city also of undergoing an active fermentation, although, perhaps, the more viscid be more nutritious. Hence the difference between ales and wines, by the first meaning fermented liquors from fari|nacea, by the second from the fruits of plants. It depends, secondly, on the acerbity, acidity, nature, and maturation of the fruit. Thirdly, the variety depends on the conduct of the fermentation. In gene|ral, fermentation is progressive, being at first active and rapid, de|taching the fixed air, or gas sylvestre, at the same time acquiring more acid than before. These qualities of flatulency and acidity remain for some time, but as the fermentation goes on, the liquor becomes more perfect, no air is detached, and alcohol is produced, so that fermented liquors differ according to the progress of the fer|mentation, and have different effects on the system. When fer|mentation is stopped before it comes to maturity, though naturally it proceeds in this way, yet by addition of new ferment it may again be renewed with a turbid intestine motion.

CONDIMENTA.

Condimenta are such substances as are taken in with our food, to correct its bad tendencies, or to give it more agreeableness to the stomach. They are of different kinds.

1. AROMATA.

These are certain acrid substances that we take in to give more taste to our aliment; for though I said our aliment should be bland, yet the system requires it should be sapid. This we obtain from the aromata, which strictly are such as are pungent with some degree of fragrancy, as cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, mace, pimento, &c. which are the produce of the warmer climates. Analogous to these, in Europe are the umbelliferous seeds, anise, carraway, coriander, and the sweet herbs. All these stimulate the stomach, and promote the peristaltic motion, are antispasmodic, taking off the spasms arising from the flatulency of our food, and antiseptic, moderating the putrid tendency of our aliment in the intestines. From these qualities they are fitly conjoined with our vegetable food, stimulating the stomach, promoting the mixture and afflux, in proper quantity, of the animal fluids, and obviating the effects of flatulency. They ought properly only to be used in those countries where they are produced, because from the heat people there live chiefly on vege|table diet. They are introduced here unfitly, and as a part of luxury, as any antiseptic virtue they have would be overcome by their stimulus, &c.

There are certain acrid plants, the produce of our Northern cli|mates, where animal food is indulged most freely and safely, and where that being insipid, is fitly conjoined with these acrid sub|stances, as condiments, &c.

The cress kind, radish, i. e. horse-radish, mustard, cresses them|selves, and indeed all the siliquosae. These give taste to insipid

aliment, stimulate the stomach, and encrease the peristaltic mo|tion; they have no considerable antispasmodic virtue, are manifestly powerful diuretics and diaphoretics, stimulating the excretories to throw out alkalescent matters. Hence they are fitly conjoined with animal food. The garlic tribe have the same virtues, stimulate the stomach, are diuretic and diaphoretic, and are used in our animal food as condiments. These are the condiments taken from recent vegetables; there are also others, salt, vinegar, and sugar.

SALT.

This is the most useful substance as a sapid, is most universally used, and least apt to pall, but beyond that quality I am at a loss what to say, as its effects are not yet well explained by Physicians. It is said to be antiseptic; but this seems contradicted by observing, that it is often used with vegetables, and that carnivorous animals are poisoned by it, where its antiseptic quality would be most necessary; while the graminivorous seem fond of it, and the husbandman often gives it to his cattle; and sure here it cannot act by its antiseptic quality. Dr. Pringle says, that a small quantity of salt is septic, and a large one antiseptic: But here I think the ex|periment was not accurate, as the salt he employed was the common table salt, which is far from being a pure common salt. How this impure salt acted in promoting putrefaction may be easily conceived, viz. by the superabundant alkali, or earth of the salt absorbing the acid, which would, in some measure, have prevented putrefaction. Till once it be ascertained that pure common salt is, in small quan|tity, a septic, we forbear accounting for this phaenomenon. Com|mon salt stimulates the stomach, excites appetite, and promotes excretion of gastric liquor. The nature of this body, as we take it with our a••••ment, is little understood. As it has been found to be septic, we, apt to run into extremes, have concluded it produces scurvy from that power. Although scurvy is apt to be produced from salted means, yet experiments evince that the same effects will result from animal foods alone, long continued, and salt alone has not yet been seen to produce that disease.

VINEGAR.

This contains various substances, and among the rest a nutritious or a saccharine one, which, however, in accounting for its effects, may be entirely neglected, ••••d we only consider it here as a con|diment. As such, it gives a grateful taste to the aliment, stimulates the stomach, and excites appetite. As an acetous ferment, it de|termines the acetous fermentation in foods, and hence in degree is of use even with vegetables themselves.

It is enquired whether it is hurtful as an acid, and avoided by those who are affected with recent acescent vegetables? In large proportions, like other acids, it may have bad effects, and therefore in such quantity ought to be avoided by these—Will it produce spasms, flatulencies, &c. like recent acescent vegetables? It may; for the acetous fermentation is never conducted with such care as the vinous, and there is commonly in vinegar a saccharine matter re|maining, which has not yet undergone its first fermentation, which may be excited in the stomach, and produce all its bad effects. Its antiseptic virtue is proved by experiment, and therefore is properly used with animal food. Its antiseptic property, however, is not very powerful.

Other acids are used as condiments with animal food, as juice of lemons, which, as acerb, is therefore less liable to active fermenta|tion▪ but as their acerbity differs much in different lemons, the same quantity of vinegar is more seldom found to have bad effects than of lemon juice, which, however, is more universally preferred to the vinegar, which, besides its qualities formerly mentioned, is often ropy, foul, and disagreeable. But in my opinion, if due atten|tion is given to the quality of the vinegar, it is a much safer condiment.

Glauber proposed the muriatic acid as a proper condiment, and has proved its use in several alimentary purposes, and says, That it

is incapable of fermentation itself, and preventing acescency in vegetable as well as putrescency in animal aliment. This, however, has not been tried, and as it is a substance unconquerable by our assimilatory organs, it would seem rather to be considered as a me|dicine, and never introduced as a condiment.

SUGAR.

This is one of the principal ingredients in vegetable aliment, and affords a pure and copious nourishment; it is frequently em|ployed as a condiment also, but cannot be used for the same length of time, and in such quantity, as common salt, as its taste soon palls on repetition. It may likewise be considered as an antiseptic, and, as a vegetable substance, is capable of all the effects of acescent vegetables. With vegetables it increases their quantity of nutri|ment, but does not, I believe, correct their bad qualities, or hinder fermentation. It is less actively fermentable than the acido dulces or olera, more so than the dried juice of fruits, as figs, &c. it ought, therefore, to be used sparingly with vegetables, and most with ani|mal food: If not over expensive, it might be used with the latter as an antiseptic, being more viscid, and less liable to be decomposed by solution, than common salt.

Since sugar came to be commonly used, disputes have arisen about its wholesomness. I have already laid the foundation of judgment on this subject; and many faults, without justice, have been ascribed to it: It may indeed, by its acescency, be trouble|some in the primae viae, but no experiments prove its bad conse|quences in the blood vessels. It has been said to spoil the teeth: Its effects in spoiling the teeth may indeed, in some cases, be just, as where they have a more than ordinary degree of sensibility; or it may perhaps, by what adheres of it about them, turning acid, cor|rode them: But faults of this kind are oftener imputed to it than it deserves, for raisins are more acescent, and yet whole nations use them with impunity; and the mischiefs of what is called in Scotland eating of sweeties, are wrongly imputed to sugar. When arts were

in a languishing state in Europe, men lived much on animal food, and then scurvy was frequent; but now, when vegetables are more used, its is a rare disease, appearing only in long voyages or long winters, where vegetable food is not to be had. Putrid fevers, and epidemics, are also less frequent, as may appear from Sydenham's and Pringle's Observations, which I impute to the more frequent use of sugar. Having now spoke of sugar in general, we come to particular sugars.

Coarsest sugar is most acescent, most actively and readily fer|mentable, which is also increased by its ••••scidity; and other sugars, the finer and purer they are, have less and less of these qualities. From the qualities above-mentioned, coarsest sugar is most laxative, and most productive of the disorders arising from an active fermen|tation. Fine sugar never turns drier, nor ceases to be nutricious, but is, however, always somewhat acescent. The lime employed never enters into the composition of the sugar; and only renders it less acescent, and less actively fermentable.

Having mentioned the Condimenta, we now come to aliments pre|served by common salt &c. But as animal food only is commonly preserved by common salt, I pass it over till we come to these.

VEGETABLE ALIMENT preserved by SUGAR.

This preparation is so performed, that the saccharine matter i•• intimately and every where introduced into the pores of the vege|table substance; so that preparations of this kind may be considered as entirely sugar, participating of none of the qualities of the vege|table, excepting those of the acrid kind, as ginger. The same may be said of

VINEGAR PRESERVES,

As vinegar is applied only to insipid substances, or which, by boil|ing or soaking with it, become so; and so preparations of this kind

may be considered as so many sponges containing vinegar, and may indeed be employed to increase the flavour of food, and, as antisep|tics, will go as far as vinegar itself only. With regard to the small quantity of aromata joined to these, their effects may be known from what we have said before.

ANIMAL FOOD.

We formerly distinguished animal from vegetable food, by saying, that it required no assimilation, but only solution and mixture. But this is not so clear as has been commonly imagined. What gives rise to this doubt is, that carnivorous animals live on that without any vegetable mixture, or even salt, by which they are even poisoned, living long without putrid accumulations, which, though for a short time might produce little inconvenience, yet, in the course of life, would certainly produce bad consequences. This accumulation is obviated by particulars in their oeconomy, as short intestines; whereas in the phytovorous, long intestines are given to give rise to putrescency. Again, the carnivorous animals are exposed to putri|dity, from their irregularity, taking in water in small quantity, &c. They are said to be of quick excretions; but this is contradicted from their being capable to bear long abstinence, being glutted to|day with a full meal, and starved perhaps for several weeks after, which would be in other animals as the surest means of pushing pu|trefaction to the greatest degree. From all this we must suspect something in carnivorous animals to prevent putrefaction.

Here let me offer a conjecture, viz. that the food in the stomach of carnivorous animals suffers a decomposition in some degree, and becomes 〈◊〉〈◊〉. This appears probable, from the change which de|cocted or ••lixated animal substances undergo, these broths becoming in time acescent: Besides, it has been said, that an acid is always found in the stomach of these animals: If it be really so, it can proceed from no other source but decomposition. However, in accounting for the effects of animal food on the human body, we may neglect this, and consider the diseases thence arising to proceed from

putridity; for no man, as has been proved from experiment, can bear animal food alone, without nausea, for even a few days. Putrescency takes place in the stomach and intestines, in the first producing nausea and thirst, which would oftener occur unless obviated by the acid of vegetables conjoined with it; in the second, violent purging, cholera, and dysentery, from putrid exhalations.

Next, as to the solution of animal food. This, though seemingly of greater cohesion, is of more easy solubility than vegetables. How|ever, I do not mean by this a quicker but a more entire solubility; for very firm animal substances are extracted and dissolved in the human body, and the firmest, as bones, in stomachs similar to the human, though, at the same time, I am convinced, that vegetables, which are not dissolved at all, have yet their juices more quickly extracted than animal food, and pass sooner off. For easiness of solubility does not depend so much on the firmness of texture, as on the viscidity of the juice. Thus the more young and succulent animal food is less soluble than the old, veal than beef, lamb than mutton, &c. And Dr. Robinson relates, that a Gentleman who used to take an evening puke, would throw up chicken unchanged, while of beef there were no remains. Animal food excites the fever mentioned as consequent on digestion 〈◊〉〈◊〉 greater degree than ve|getable, giving a greater stimulus to the stomach, and so to the whole system; and the difference of animal foods depends on the putrescency and viscidity taken together. Thus young food, being more viscid than old, though less putrescent, is yet less soluble. Ani|mal food differs also as to its perspirability, or passing of the last con|coction. Sanctorius found mutton the most perspirable, and Keil and he call oysters least so, so animal foods differ in their perspira|bility, according as in their nature they approach nearer or recede farther from these.

COMPARISON of ANIMAL and VEGETABLE FOOD.

First, With regard to their difference in the stomach. What we have said of decomposition, or acescency of animal food, never comes to a morbid degree, but the disease is always on the side of putre|scency, which degree, however seldom occurs, except when animal food has been repeated in too great proportion, or too frequently, either from necessity, or too delicate luxury. The acescency, then, of vegetable aliment is more frequent, and ought more to be attended to than the alkalescency of animal, which last, even in weak stomachs, is seldom felt; while acescency affects much both the stomach and system.

(2.) With regard to their difference of solution. Heaviness, as it is called, is seldom felt from vegetables, except from tough fari|naceous paste, or the most viscid substances; while the heaviness of animal food is more frequently noticed, especially when in any great quantity. Difficulty of solution does not depend so much on firmness of texture, (as a man, from fish of all kinds, is more op|pressed than from firmer substances) but on viscidity, and hence is more frequent in animal food, and especially in the younger ani|mals; all which makes it evident, that both slow solution, and the passage of the food from the stomach, is more owing to viscidity than firmness.

(3.) With regard to mixture. There is no instance of difficult mixture in vegetables, except in vegetable oils, while animal foods, from both viscidity and oiliness, especially the fatter meats, are re|fractory in this respect. I do not know whether the difference of animal and vegetable foods might not be referred to this head, of di|fficult mixture, for though the vegetable food may continue long in the stomach, it gives little stimulus to the system. Now the system is 〈◊〉〈◊〉 in proportion to the extent of this stimulus, which is in|comparably greater from the animal viscid oily food, than from the vegetable, sinner, and more aqueous. However, let me observe

here, that there are certain applications to the stomach, which have a tendency to bring on the cold fit of fever, independent of stimu|lus, merely by their refrigeration; and this often arises from vege|tables; as we see, in those hot countries where intermittents prevail, they are oftner induced from a surfeit of vegetable food than ani|mal. A proof of this is, that when one is recovering of an inter|mittent, there is nothing more apt to cause a relapse than cold food, especially if taken on those days when the fit should return, and particularly acescent, fermentable vegetables, as sallad, melons, cucumbers, fructus, acido dulces, &c. which are in my opinion, those foods which are the most frequent occasional cause of epide|mics; therefore, when an intermittent is to be avoided, we shun vegetable diet, and give animal foods, although their stimulus be greater; and this, among others, is a proof that fever depends very much on the cold fit. Upon the whole, in attending to these four heads, viz. Assimilation, Solution, Mixture, and Stimu|lus, we shall be able to judge of the choice of food with regard to the stomach.

Next, as to the intestines. When the putrescency of animal food has gone too far, it produces, as I have said, an active stimulus, causing diarrhoea, disentery, &c. But these effects are but rare; whereas from vegetable food and its acid, which, united with the bile, proves a pretty strong stimulus, they more frequently occur, but luckily, however, are of less consequence, if the refrigeration is not very great. In the autumnal season, when there is a tendency to dysentery, if it is observed that eating of fruits bring it on, it is rather to be ascribed to their cooling than stimulating the intestines.

As to the effects of animal and vegetable food on stool. Wherever neither putrefaction, nor acidity, have gone a great length, I alledge that animal food keeps the belly more regular, and vegetable food gives a greater proportion of faeculent matter, and when exsuccated by the stomach and intestines, is more apt to stagnate, and produce slow belly and costiveness than animal stimulating food, which, be|fore it comes to the great guts, where stoppage is made, has attained

a putrefactive tendency, and gives a proper stimulus, and thus those who are costive, from vegetable food, when they have recourse to animal, are in this respect better.

4. Effects of animal and vegetable foods in the blood vessels. They both give a blood of the same kind, but of different quality. Ani|mal food gives it in greater quantity, being wholly, as the expression is, convertible in succum et sanguinem, and of easy digestion; where|as the vegetable is more watery, and contains a portion of uncon|querable saline matter, which causes it to be thrown cut of the body by some excretion. Animal food affords a more dense stimu|lating elastic blood than vegetable, stretching and causing a greater resistance to the solids, and again exciting their stronger action. It has been supposed, that acescency of vegetable food is carried into the blood vessels, and there exerts its effects; but the tendency of animal fluids is so strong to alkalescency, that I cannot be persuaded an acid acrimony every existed in animal blood. Animal food alone will soon produce an alkalescent acrimony, and if a person who lives entirely on vegetables, were to take no food for a few days, his acri|mony would be alkalescent.

We are next to take notice of the quantity of nutriment these different foods afford. Nutriment is of two kinds; the first repairs the waste of the solid fibres, the other supplies certain fluids: The chief of these fluids is oil. Now, as animal food is easier converted, and also longer retained in the system, and as it contains a greater proportion of oil, it will afford both kinds of nutriment more co|piously than vegetables. A proof that corpulency is produced most by animal food is, that in England there are more fat people than in any country of twice the bulk in the world.

5. Lastly, As to the different degrees of perspirability of these foods. This is not yet properly determined. Sanctorius constantly speaks of mutton as the 〈◊〉〈◊〉 perspirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking perspiration. This is a consequence of the different sti|mulus

those foods give to the stomach, so that persons who live on vegetables have not their perspiration so suddenly excited. In time of digestion, perspiration is stopped from whatever food, much more so from cooling vegetables. Another reason why vegetables are less perspirable, is, because their aqueo-saline juices determine them to go off by urine, while the more perfectly mixed animal food is more equally diffused over the system, and so goes off by perspiration. Hence Sanctorius's accounts may be understood; for vegetable aliment is not longer retained in the body, but mostly takes the course of the kidneys. Both are equally perspirable in this respect, viz. that a person living on either, returning once a day to his usual weight; and if we consider the little nourishment of vegetables, and the great tendency of animal food to corpulency, we must allow that vegetable is more quickly perspired than animal food.

Here I cannot avoid the question so often handled, Whether man was designed for animal or vegetable food? This question has been managed unfairly; for in all other animals they take it up as a fact, by observing what the animal chuses; but they tell us man's reason leads him astray. For my part, I conceive little in this argument; for if in th••se countries where no prejudice of custom prevails, I see people live promiscuously on both, I conclude Nature has designed both for them; and, indeed, when we examine the structure of man's body, his, teeth, stomach and intestines, we find Nature has designed him for a mixed aliment. He has dentes incisivi & canini like the carnivorous, and a double row of grinders like the gramini|vorous. His stomach approaches to that of the carnivorous animals, and his intestines in a middle between both, not so long as the phy|tovorous, but not so short as the carnivorous animals. But I would trust more to instinct producing practice, abstracted from artificial opinions; and in these cases we find the use of animals and vegeta|bles promiscuously. The Pythagoreans, and their modern imitators, the Brachmans, live on vegetables, merely from prejudice of opi|nion; and we need not heed those mythologists, who tells us that

man at first lived on vegetables, as their accounts are not founded on fact. They are opposed by this, that there are many nations still in a rude state, and whom luxury has not yet perverted, who are so far from living on vegetable food, that, from climate, they are obliged to live pretty entirely on animals; and the state of the Hunter and Shepherd is more simple, and more ancient, than that of the Farmer or Gardener.

With regard to the effects of these foods on men, I would alledge, there are no persons who live entirely on vegetables; and the Py|thagoreans themselves eat milk; and those who do so mostly, as the Pythagoreans above-mentioned, are weakly, sickly, and meagre, labouring under a constant diarrhaea, and several other diseases. None of the hardy robust laborious live on these, but chiefly such as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their mental faculties, as in the East Indies, factors and brokers; and this method of life is now confined to the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without inconve|nience; may be carried to great excess. Though it be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live on these different foods pro|miscuously, yet the vegetable should be in very great proportion. Thus the Laplanders are said to live entirely on animal food; but this is contradicted by the best accounts; for Linnaeus says, that be|sides milk, which they take sour, to obviate the bad effects of animal food, they use also calla, menyanthes, and many other plants copi|ously. So there is no instance of any nation living entirely either on vegetable or animal food, though there are indeed some who live particularly on one or other in the greatest proportion. In the cold countries, e. g. the inhabitants live chiefly on animal food, on account of the rigour of the season, their smaller perspiration, and little tendency to putrefaction.

Of more importance is the following than the former question, viz. In what proportion animal and vegetable ought to be mixed? First, I shall observe that when I speak of animal or vegetable foods here, I mean those foods given in great proportion. To go on,

then; animal food gives most strength to the system. It is a known aphorism of Sanctorius, that pondis addit robur, which may be ex|plained from ••he impletion of the blood vessels, and giving a proper degree of tension for the performance of strong oscillations. Now animal food not only goes a greater way in supplying fluid, but also gives the fluid more dense and elastic. The art of giving the utmost strength to the system is best understood by those who breed fight|ing cocks. These people raise the cocks to a certain weight, which must bear a certain proportion to the other parts of the system, and which, at the same time, is so nicely proportioned, as that on losing a few ounces of it, their strength is very considerably impaired. Dr. Robinson, of Dublin, has observed, that the force and weight of the system ought to be determined by the largeness of the heart, and its proportion to the system; for a large heart will give large blood vessels, while, at the same time, the viscera are less, particularly the liver, which last being increased in size, a greater quantity of fluid is deter|mined into the cellular texture, and less into the sanguineous system. Hence we see how animal food gives strength, by filling the san|guiferous vessels. What pains we now bestow on cocks, the an|cients did on the Athletae, by proper nourishment bringing them to a great degree of strength and agility. It is said that those men were at first fed on figs, a proof of which we have said formerly of their nutritious quality; however, in this respect they were soon found to fall far short of animal food; and thus we see, that men, in some measure, will work in proportion to the quality of their food. The English labour more than the Scots, and wherever men are exposed to hard labour, their food should be animal, Animal food, al|though it gives strength, yet loads the body; and Hippocrates long ago observed, that the athletic habit, by a small encrease, was ex|posed to the greatest hazards. Hence it is only proper for bodily labours, and entirely improper for mental exercises; for whoever would keep his mind acute and penetrating, will exceed rather on the side of vegetable food. Even the body is oppressed with animal food; a full meal always produces dulness, laziness, and yawning; and hence the feeding of gamesters, whose mind must be ready to

take advantages, is always performed by avoiding a large quantity of animal food. Farther, with regard to the strength of the body, animal food in the first stage of life is hardly necessary to give strength; in manhood, when we are exposed to active scenes, it is more allow|able; and even in the decline of life, some proportion of it is necessary to keep the body in vigour. There are some diseases, which come on at the decay of life, at least aggravated by it; among these I mean the Gout. This, when it is in the system, and does not appear with inflammation in the extremities, has pernicious effects there, attacking the 〈◊〉〈◊〉, stomach, head, &c. Now to deter|mine this to the extremities, a large proportion of animal food is ne|cessary, especially as the person is commonly incapable of much exercise.

Animal food, although it gives strength, is yet of many hazards to the system, as it produces plethora and all its consequences. As a stimulus to the stomach and to the whole system, it excites fever, urges the circulation, and promotes perspiration. The system, however, by the repetition of these stimuli, is soon worn out; and a man who has early used the athletic diet, is either early carried off by inflammatory diseases, or, if he takes exercise sufficient to render that diet salutary, such an accumulation is made of putrescent fluids, as in his after life lays a foundation of the most inveterate chronic distempers. Therefore it is to be questioned, whether we should desire this high degree of bodily strength, with all the inconveniencies and dangers. Plain it is, that those who are chiefly employed in mental researches, and not exposed to too much bodily labour, should avoid an excess of animal food. There is a disease which seems to require animal food, viz. the hysteric or hypochondriac, which to me seems to be very much a-kin to the Gout, affecting the alimentary canal. All people affected with this disease are much disposed to acescency, and I have seen it go so far, that no other vegetable but bread could be taken in, without occasioning the worst consequences. Here then we are obliged to prescribe an animal diet, even to those of very weak organs, for it generally obviates the symptoms. However, I have known several

instances of scurvy in excess produced by a long continued use of this diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to prescribe; and when it is absolutely necessary to prescribe, it should be joined with as much of the vegetable as possible, and when a cure is performed, we should gradually recur to that again. If this luxurious age could be persuaded, this disease might be removed with much less danger, by exercise, fresh air, and avoiding warm chambers, venery, and late hours.

Next, let us consider the vegetable diet. The chief inconve|niency of this is difficulty of assimilation, which, however, in the vigorous and exercised, will not be liable to occur. In warm climates the assimilation of vegetable aliment is more easy, so that there it may be more used, and when joined to exercise gives a pretty tolerable degree of strength and vigour; and though the general rule be in favour of animal diet, for giving strength, yet there are many instances of their being remarkably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and that we can hardly suffer from a full meal of it. Besides the disorders it is liable to produce in the primae viae, and its falling short to give strength, I do not know any bad consequences it can produce in the blood vessels, for where there is no instance where its peculiar acrimony was ever carried there, and it is cer|tainly less putrifiable than animal food; nor without the utmost indolence, and a sharp appetite, does it give generally plethora, or any of its consequences; so that we cannot here but conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is useful for the generality of mankind.

There is no error in this country more dangerous, or more com|mon, than the neglect of bread; for it is the safest of vegetable ali|ment, and the best corrector of animal food; and, by a large propor|tion of this alone, have I obviated its bad consequences, when used in a hypochondriac state. The French apparently have as much animal food on their tables as the Britons, and yet, by a greater use

of bread, and the dried acid fruits, its bad effects are prevented; and therefore bread should be particularly used by the English, as they are so voracious of animal food. Vegetable food is not only neces|sary to secure health, but long life; and, as we have said, in infancy and youth we should be confined to it mostly; in manhood, and decay of life, use animal; and, near the end, vegetable again.

There is another question much agitated, viz. What are the ef|fects of variety in food? Is it necessary and allowable, or univer|sally hurtful? Variety of a certain kind seems to me necessary, as vegetable and animal foods have their mutual advantages, tending to correct each other. Another variety, which is very proper, is that of liquid and solid food, which should be so managed as to temper each other; and I formerly observed, that liquid food, espe|cially of the vegetable kind, is too ready to pass off before it is properly assimilated, while solid food makes a long stay. But this does not properly belong to the question, whether variety of the same kind is necessary or proper, as in animal foods, beef, fish, fowl, &c. I indeed have never perceived any inconvenience arising from this mixture, or difficulty of assimilation, provided a moderate quantity be taken; when any inconvenience does arise, it probably proceeds from this, that one of the particular substances in the mixture, when taken by itself would produce the same effect; and, indeed, it appears to me, that this effect is not heightened by the mixture, but probably obviated by it. There are few excep|tions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large proportion of acescent substances with milk. The coldness, &c. acidity, flatulency, &c. may appear, and it is possible that the coagulum, from the acescency of the vegetables, being somewhat stronger induced, may give oc|casion to too long retention in the stomach, and to acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture of fish and milk often occasions inconveniencies. The theory of this is difficult, though, from uni|versal consent, it must certainly be just. Can we suppose that fish gives occasion to such a coagulum as rennet? If it does so, it may produce the fore-mentioned bad effects. Besides, fish approach

somewhat to vegetables, in giving little stimulus, and are accused of the same bad effects as these, viz. bringing on the cold fit of fever.

Thus much may be said for variety: But it also has its disadvan|tages, provoking to gluttony; this, and the art of cookery, making men take in more than they properly can digest; and hence, per|haps very justly, Physicians have universally almost preferred sim|plicity of diet; for, in spite of rules, man's eating will only be measured by his appetite, and satiety is sooner produced by one than by many substances. But this is so far from being an argument against variety, that it is one for it, as the only way of avoiding a full meal of animal food, and its bad effects, is by presenting a quan|tity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing the bad effects of animal food, is to take a large proportion of liquid; and it is on that account the bad effects of animal food are not so much felt here, on account of our drinking much with it, and using broths, which are at once excellent correctors of animal food, and preventors of gluttony.

Having now finished what we had to say on animal food in ge|neral, and discussed several comparisons and questions which arose on that subject, I now come to the particular substances mentioned in the Catalogue.

MILK.

Of the foods taken from animals, I chuse to begin with milk, as it is a connecting and intermediate substance between animals and vegetables. I do not find it proper to enter just now into a minute chemical investigation of this subject, especially as you will soon have an opportunity of seeing that subject more fully treated than I can do here* 1.3. Milk seems immediately to be secreted from the chyle, both being a white liquor of the same consistence: It is most copiously secreted after meals, and of acescent nature. In most animals who live on vegetables, the milk is acescent, and it is

uncertain, though at the same time no observation proves the con|trary, whether it is not so likewise in carnivorous animals. If it really be found of this nature it will solve the question about the de|composition and acescency of the food of these last mentioned animals in the primae viae. But whatever be in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals, who live on vegetables, is acescent. Milk being derived from the chyle, we thence conclude its vegetable nature, for in those who live on both promiscuously, more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vegetable than the animal food. Milk, how|ever, is not purely vegetable, though we have a vegetable liquor that resembles its taste, consistence, colour, acescency, and the separa|bility of the oily part, I mean an emulsion of the nuces oleosae and farinaceous substances. But these want the coagulable part of milk, which seems to be of animal nature, approaching to that of the coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, seems to be of an inter|mediate nature, between chyle taken up from the intestines, and their albumen, or fully elaborated animal fluid.

Its contents are of three kinds; first, an oily part, which, what|ever may be said concerning the origin of other oils in the body, is certainly immediately derived from the oil of the vegetables taken in, as with these it agrees very exactly in its nature, and would entirely, if we could separate it fully from the coagulable part. Another mark of their agreement is the separability, which proves that the mixture has been lately attempted, but not fully performed. 2dly, Besides this oily, I have told you there is a proper coagulable part; and, 3dly, much water accompanies both, in which there is dissolved a saline saccharine substance. These three can be got separate in cheese, butter, and whey, but never perfectly so, a part of each being always blended with every other part.

Nothing is more common, from what has been said of its intermediate nature, than to suppose that it requires no assimilation, and hence has been deduced the reason of its exhibition in the

most weakly state of the human body. But wherever we can examine milk we always find that it coagulates, suffers a decomposition, and becomes acescent. Again, infants, who feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eructations, which every body observes are not of the same quality with the food taken, and therefore I would alledge, that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acescent in the stomach, and only appears in the chyle and blood, in consequence of a new recomposition. It approaches then to the nature of vege|table aliment, but is not capable of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has an advantage over it; neither from this quality, like animal food, is it heating in the stomach, and productive of fever, though at the same time, from its quantity of coagulable matter, it is more nourishing than vegetables.

These are the general qualities of milk; now let us consider these as applicable to food. Milk is the food most universally suited to all ages and states of the body, but it seems chiefly designed by Nature as the food of infants. When animals are in the foetus state, their solids are a perfect jelly, incapable of an assimilatory power. In such state Nature has perfectly assimilated food, as the albumen ovi in the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly somewhat of the same kind, as it was necessary the vessels should be filled with such a fluid as would make way for an after assimilation. When the infant has attained a considerable degree of firmness, as when it is separated from the mother, yet such a degree of weakness still re|mains, as makes somewhat of the same indication necessary. It behoves the infant to have an alkalescent food ready prepared, and at the same time its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is given, which is alkalescent, and, at the same time, has a sufficient quantity of acidity to correct that alkalescency. As the body advances in growth, and the alkalescent tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more suited to its strength of assimilation.

I observed, that milk was almost suited to all temperaments, and it is even so to stomachs disposed to acescency, more than those sub|stances which have undergone the vinous fermentation; nay, it even checks vinous fermentation, curing the heart-burn, and preci|pitating the lees, when, by renewal of fermentation, the wine hap|pens to be fouled. It therefore very properly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment, although sometimes its acescency is troublesome, either from a large proportion taken in, or from the degree of it; for according to certain unaccountable circumstances, different acids are formed in the stomach, in a healthy body a mild one; in the hypochondriac disease, e. g. one sometimes as corrosive as the fossil acids. When the acidity of milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove remarkably refrigerant, and occasion cold cru|dities, and the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the com|mon notion of its passing, unchanged, into the blood, it can suffer no solution. But if, with me, you admit its coagulum in the sto|mach, then it may be reckoned among soluble or insoluble foods, according as that coagulum is more or less tenacious. Formerly ren|net, which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an acid, but, from late observations, it appears that, if it be an acid, it is very different from other acids, and that its coagulum is stronger than that produced by acids. It has been imagined that a rennet is to be found in the stomachs of all animals, which causes coagulation of milk; but to me the coagulation of milk seems to be owing to a weak acid in the stomach, the relicts of our vegetable food induc|ing, in healthy persons, a weak and soluble coagulum; but in dif|ferent stomachs this may be very different, in these becoming heavy and less soluble food, and sometimes even evacuated in a coagulated undissolved state, both by stomach and stool.

As milk is acescent, it may be rendered sometimes purgative by mixing with the bile; and I know some examples of this. More commonly, however, it is reckoned among those foods which occa|sion costiveness.

Hoffman, in his Experiments on Milk, found, that all kinds of it contained much water, and when this was dissipated, found the residuum very different in their solubility. But we must not thence conclude that the same insolubility takes place in the stomach, for extracts made from vegetables with water are often very insoluble substances, and hardly diffusible through water itself; therefore in Hoffman's extracts, if I may so call them, of milk, somewhat of the same kind might have appeared, and these substances, which in their natural state were not so, might appear very insoluble. However, we may allow that milk is always somehow insoluble in the intestines, as it is of a drying nature, and, as cheese, &c. is very costive. And this effect, I think, shows that milk is always coagulated in the stomach; for if it remained fluid no faeces would be produced, whereas sometimes very hard ones are observed. In the blood vessels, from its animal nature, it may be considered as nutritious; but when we consider its vegetable contents, and aces|cency in the primae viae, we find that, it does not like animal food, excite that degree of fever in the time of digestion, and that from its acescency it will resist putrefaction. Hence is the foundation of its use in hectic fevers, which, whatever be their cause, appear only to be exacerbations of natural feverish paroxysms, which occur twice every day, commonly after meals, and at night. To obviate these, therefore, we give such an aliment as produces the least exacerbation of these fevers; such is milk, on account of its acescent vegetable nature.

There appears also somewhat peculiar in milk, which requires only a small exertion of the animal powers in order to its assimila|tion; and besides, in hectic complaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approaching to the animal nature, so that on all these accounts, milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in general, to most convalescents, and to those of inflammatory temperaments. There is a certain disease whose proper salutary form is that of inflammation, I mean the Gout. There is no method of curing, I had rather say preventing this, but by avoiding this inflammatory

tendency by a proper regulation of diet. The inflammatory form, which I said was the salutary one, is also attended with a weakness of the nerves, so that in our prevention we should not weaken the system too much, as would be done by vegetables, and therefore milk may be employed with advantage. However, it may be a question how far, and in what cases, we ought even to obviate the gout, which is often a constitutional disease, and has taken deep root in the system, and if prevented in its native inflammatory form, as it may often be by weakening too much, and so will appear in other more pernicious ones. But there can be no objection against at|tempting this by milk. However, that attempt ought not be made but very early in life, and then, if this diet be used with proper exercise, temperance, and avoiding of venery, there may be ex|pectations of success; for in the decline of life, after one has been used to high living, this low diet is often attended with pernicious consequences. So far of milk in general. We shall now speak of the particular kinds mentioned in the Catalogue, and which are in common use. I have set them down in the proportion of their solid contents.

The three first agree very much in their qualities, being very dilute, having little solid contents, and, when envaporated to dryness, having these very soluble, containing much saccharine matter, of a very ready acescency, and when coagulated, their coagulum being tender and easily broke down. From this view you see they have less oil, and less coagulable matter than the rest.

The three last agree, in opposite qualities, to the three men|tioned; but here there is somewhat more of gradation. Cows milk comes nearest to the former milks: Goats milk is less fluid, less sweet, less flatulent, has the largest proportion of insoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the largest proportion of coagulable part; its oily and coagulable part are not spontaneously separable, never throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be readily ex|tracted from it. Hence the virtues of these milks are obvious,

being more nourishing, though, at the same time, less easily soluble in weak stomachs, than the three first, less acescent than these, and so more rarely laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of convalescents without fever. The three first, again, are less nou|rishing, more soluble, more laxative as more acescent, and adapted to the convalescents with fever.

These qualities, in particular milks, are considerably diversified by different circumstances. First, Different animals, living on the same diet, give a considerably different milk; for there seems to be something in the constitution, abstracting from the aliment, which constitutes a considerable diversity of milk, not only in the same species of animals, but also in the same animal, at different ages, and at different distances after delivery: This, you will easily per|ceive, applies to the choice of nurses. Secondly, Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any other juice in the human body, being more or less fluid and dilute, more or less solid and nourishing, in proportion as these qualities are more or less in the aliment. (a) The nature of the aliment differs according to its time of growth, e. g. old grass being always found more nourishing than young. (b) Aliment, too, is always varied according to the season, as that is warm or dry, moist or cloudy.

The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter for particular purposes, when fed on proper food. Thus the cow delights in the succulent herbage of the vale: If the sheep be fed there he certainly rots, but on the higher and more dry side of the mountain he feeds pleasantly and healthy; while the goat never stops near the bottom, but ascends to the craggy summit: And certainly the milks of these animals are always best in their proper soil, and that of goats is best on a mountainous country. From a dissertation of Linnaeus, we have many observations concerning the diversity of plants on which each animal chuses to feed. All the Swedish plants, which could be collected together, were presented alter|nately to domestic animals, and then it appeared that the goat

lived on the greatest variety, and even on many which were poi|sonous to the rest; that the cow chose the first succulent shoots of the plant, and neglected the fructification, which last was preferred by the goat. Hence may be deduced rules concerning the pasturage of different animals; e. g. Farmers find that, in a pasture which was only fit to feed a certain number of sheep, an equal number of goats may be introduced, while the sheep are no less nourished than before.

RULES for the USE of MILK.

It is not easy to assign the difference between milk fresh drawn and that detained in the open air for some time, but certainly there is some material one, otherwise nature universally would not have directed infants to sucking; and indeed it seems, better than the other, fitted for digestion and nourishment. Physicians have sup|posed that this depended on the evaporation of some spt. rector. but indeed I cannot conceive any such, except common water here; and besides, these volatile parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plausible account seems deducible from mixture: Milk exposed for some time to the air, suffers more or less of spontaneous separation, a circumstance hurtful to digestion, none of the parts being, by themselves, so easily assimilated as when they are all taken together. Hence, then, milk new drawn is more intimately blended, and there|fore then is most proper to the weakly and infants.

Another difference in the use of milk exposed for some time to the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled. Physicians have generally recommended the former, but the reason is not easily assigned. Perhaps the reason is this, Milk kept for some time exposed to the air has gone so far to a spontaneous separation; whereas the heat thoroughly blends the whole, and hence its resolution is not so easy in the stomach; and thus boiled milk is more costive than raw, and gives more faeces. Again, when milk is boiled, a consi|derable quantity of air is detached, as appears from the froth on the surface, and air is the chief instrument of fermentation in

bodies, so that, after this process, it is not liable to acescency; for these reasons it is proper for the robust and vigorous.

Another difference of milk is, according as it is fluid or coagu|lated. The coagulated is of two kinds, as induced by rennent, or the natural acescency of the milk. The former preparation makes the firmer and less easily soluble coagulum, though, when taken with the whey unseparated, it is less difficult of solution, though more so than any other coagulum in the same case. Many nations use the latter form, which is easier soluble, but very much acescent, and there|fore the former, in point of solution, should be confined to the vigo|rous; the latter, in point of acescency, to those who live on al|kalescent food; and in the last case the Laplanders use it as their chief acescent condiment. From the same considerations it is more cooling, and in its other effects like all other acescent vegetables.

We now come to the examination of the parts into which milk separates; and first, with regard to the

COAGULABLE PART.

This we use at all different ages, from fresh curd to old cheese. The whole of this is chiefly animal; hence it is the most nutritive part, and much the most insoluble, and hence gives most faeces, and therefore the common notion of cheese's costiveness is just. So far of cheese in general. It differs in proportion to the quantity of oily parts natural in or added to the coagulable part. The more rich oily parts there are in cheese, the more it is nutritive and soluble, lean cheese being among the most insoluble aliments. Cheese is liable to rancidity and putrefaction, and then we must consider it as having all the effects of animal food the farther ad|vanced to putrefaction; at this time it ceases to be nutritive, and is only to be considered as a fit condiment for vegetable food. In general, cheese, as an aliment, is only fit for the laborious and robust.

OILY PART.

We use this, in consequence of its immediate spontaneous separa|tion, in the state of cream. This is liable to acidity and rancidity, on both which accounts it is of difficult mixture and digestion in the stomach, and I do not know but all the bad effects of milk may be imputed to cream, the quarter part of which is not pure oil, and the rest coagulable and saline parts. In the form of butter the oil is much more pure, and then may be used with advantage in diet: I have mentioned it as a strong nutriment, fit to accompany our vegetable diet, especially to the leaner farinacea, in order to give them, in some measure, the qualities of the rich nuces oleos••e. Butter is more ran|cescent than olive oil, but as that cannot be had here, either pure or fresh, we use our own butter with greater propriety.

WATERY SALINO-SACCHARINE PART.

This will be different, according as the milk has been coagulated by rennet, or its own acescency. By rennet, the coagulable part is more purely separated, and a proportion of oil goes along with the whey; but when the milk is coagulated by its own souring, the watery part is almost purely acid, and seldom used. The whey contains much saccharine part, and so is more acescent than entire milk, and has even been said to be capable of vinous fermentation: Certainly it approaches nearer to it than milk it|self, and hence is more capable of a noxious acescency, and hence is more purgative and flatulent than milk. Of all ingredients in milk, there is a great proportion which goes along with the whey, and therefore it will be a nutritious substance, though at first sight, as that was supposed to be separated, it might seem otherwise. Diffe|rent milks yield wheys of different qualities; cows milk allows less of its oil to be separated with the whey; from that of sheep and goats, there is more. In some measure the whey follows the nature of the milk; goats whey is more nutritious, and may be substituted for womens, asses, and mares, in hectic cases, &c. Goats whey is

a medicine of great use in many cases, and perhaps its advantages are improved by the necessary reparation to mountainous countries to obtain it, not only because it is there more perfect, but also be|cause of the change of the smoaky city air into light and salubrious. By taking these substances in the form of whey, there is introduced into the habit a bland, easily assimilated nourishment, passing off easily by the secretions, and soon changing the state of the fluids. If it were not for regard to the state of the stomach, liquid food would often be employed with advantage, as, in many cases, encrease of fluidity gives encrease of nourishment; and thus a calf is more effectually nourished by diluting its milk with equal quantity of water, than if the milk were given alone. Quite analogous to this is the taking in this bland and mild nourishment in form of whey, especially from the richer milk.

BUTTER MILK.

Here the whey and coagulable part are more entirely separated from the oily, but the coagulable part in butter milk is broke down, resolved, and of easy digestion. As it is very saccharine it is very nutritious, but not without acidity, and therefore is more cooling to the system, and more suited to the inflammatory and alkalescent diathesis, than milk, but for the same reason it is noxious where refrigeration is hurtful.

Condiments of milk, as liable to acescency and cooling in par|ticular constitutions. Where this tendency is apprehended, it may be accompanied with some of the aromata, and cream and whey are there often attended with advantage if used with these. Sugar is another condiment. If milk is liable to acescency, this would seem to encrease it, and indeed it does so in stomachs so disposed. But sugar has another effect, viz. preventing the spontaneous se|paration of milk, and therefore has many of the advantages of newly drawn milk. It is proper, therefore, to give sugar along with milk to convalescents. Conserve of roses is often employed,

and acts only by its sugar, two-thirds of it being such; and honey itself, the most acescent of all the sweets, is often employed with advantage.

Having now finished what ••e had to say on Milk, the inter|mediate substance between Animal and Vegetable, we come now to ANIMAL FOOD, strictly so called.

The first difference of animal food regards its solubility, de|pending on a lax or firm texture of its different kinds. Solubility of animal food seems to deserve less attention than is commonly imagined; for I have known persons of a weak stomach incapable of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of dissolving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a piece of ham, was very grateful, and easily digested. None of the theories given for the solution of animal food in the human stomach seem to me suffi|ciently to have explained that process. Long ago has been discarded the supposition of an active corrosive menstruum there, and also the doctrine of trituration, for which, indeed, there seems no mechanism in the human body; and we now commonly agree with Boerhaave, supposing nothing more necessary than a watery menstruum, moderate heat and frequent agitation. This will account for solution in some cases, but not entirely. Let us try to imitate it out of the body with the same circumstances, and in ten times the time in which the food is dissolved in the stomach, we shall not be able to bring about the same changes. Take the coagulated white of an egg, which almost every body can easily digest, and yet no artifice shall be able to dissolve it. Hence then we are led to seek another cause for solution, viz. fermentation, a notion, indeed, formerly embraced, but on the introduction of mechanical philosophy, indus|triously banished, with every other supposition of that process taking place at all in the animal oeconomy.

Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to be putre|factive; but this we deny, as an acid is produced; though hence

the fermentation might be reckoned the vinous, which, however, I have formerly proved to you to be morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation purely acetous, but modified by putrescents; for Pringle has observed, that animal matters raise and even expede the acetous process. The fermentation, then, in the stomach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and putrefactive, mutually modifying each other; though, indeed, in the intestines, somewhat of the putrefactive seems to take place, as may be observed from the state of the faeces broke down, and from the little disposition of such substances to be so, which are not liable to the putrefactive process, as the firmer parts of vegetables, &c. Upon this view solution seems to be extremely easy, and those substances to be most easily broke down which are most subject to putrefaction.

But solution also depends on other circumstances, and hence requires a more particular regard. First, there is a difference of solubility with respect to the manducation of animal food, for which bread is extremely necessary, in order to keep the more slippery parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted. From want of proper manducation I have known many persons subject to eructations, and this more frequently from the firm vegetable foods than from the animal, as apples, almonds, &c. though, indeed, even from animal food, very tendinous, or swallowed in unbroken masses, such sometimes occur. Manducation is so much connected with solution, that some, from imperfectly performing that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate it, and swallow it again before the stomach can dissolve it, or proper nourishment be extracted. Another proof of our regard to solubility, is our re|jecting the firmer parts of animal food, as bull beef, and generally carnivorous animals.

Its effects with regard to solubility I also take, secondly, to be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean, young and old meats. In the lean, although, perhaps, a single fibre might be sufficiently tender, yet these, when collected in fasciculi, are very firm

and compact, and of difficult solution; whereas in the fat there is a greater number of vessels, a greater quantity of juice, more inter|position of cellular substance, and consequently more solubility. Again, in young animals, in my opinion, there is the same number of fibres as in the older, but these more connected; whereas, in the older, the growth depending on the separation of these, and the encrease of vessels and cellular substance, the texture is less firm and more soluble, which qualities, with regard to the stomach, are at that time too encreased, by the encreased alkalescency of the animal. To this also may be referred our choice of castrated animals, viz. on their disposition to fatten after the operation.

3. It is with a view to the solubility, that we make a choice be|tween meats recently killed, and those which have been kept for some time. As soon as meat is killed the putrefactive process be|gins, which commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that process is the most effectual breaker down of animal matters, and a great assistance to solution. The length of time during which meat ought to be kept, is proportioned to the meat's tendency to undergo the putrid fermentation, and the degree of those circumstances which favour it: Thus in the Torrid Zone, where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours, it is used much more recent than in these northern climates.

4. Boiled or roasted meats create a difference of solution. By boiling we extract the juices interposed between the fibres, approxi|mate them more to each other, and render them of more difficult solubility, which is encreased too by the extraction of the juices, which are much more alkalescent than the fibres; but when we want to avoid the stimulus of alkalescent food, and the quick solu|tion, as in some cases of disease, boiled is not to be chosen. Of roasted meat, it may be asked whether are more proper, those which are most or least roasted. That which is least done is cer|tainly the most soluble; even raw meats are more soluble than dressed, as I know from a person who from necessity was obliged,

for some time, to eat such: But at the same time that meats little done are very soluble, they are very alkalescent; so that, wherever we want to avoid alkalescency in the primae viae, the most roasted meats should be chosen. Those who throw away the broths of boiled meat do very improperly; for, besides their supplying a fluid, (as I formerly observed,) from their greater alkalescency they en|crease the solubility of the meat. Here we shall observe, that pure blood has been thought insoluble; undoubtedly it is very nutritious, and though out of the body, like the white of eggs, it seems very insoluble, yet, like that too, in the body it is commonly easily di|gested. Moses very properly forbad it the Israelites, as, in warm countries, it is highly alkalescent, and even here, when it was used in great quantity, the scurvy was more frequent; but to a moderate use of it, in these climates, no such objection takes place.

5. Solubility is varied from another source, viz. viscidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then, appear less soluble than old, not on account of their compaction and firmness of texture, but rather on their greater viscidity of juice. See Dr. Brian Robinson•• of Dublin, on this head. And nothing is more common, as 〈◊〉〈◊〉 observed, than to be longer oppressed from a full meal of veal, 〈◊〉〈◊〉 from the same quantity of beef, &c. Upon account too of their greater viscidity of juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of animals longer retained than the purely muscular, as well as on account of their firmness of texture. Even fishes, whose muscular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on account of their gluey viscosity, longer of solution in the stomach. And eggs, too, which are exceed|ingly nourishing, have the same effect, and cannot be taken in great quantity: For the stomach is peculiarly sensible to gelatinous sub|stances, and by this means has Nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a sort of instinct, to limit ourselves in the quantity of such nutri|tive substances.

6. With regard to solution, we must take in the oils of animal food, which, when tolerably pure, are the least putrescent part of

it, and by diminishing the cohesion of the fibres, render them more soluble. On this last account is the lean of fat meat more easily dissolved than other lean. But when the meat is exposed to much heat, this oil is separated, leaving the solid parts less easily soluble, and becoming itself empyreumatic, rancescent, and of difficult mixture in the stomach. Fried meats, from the reasons now given, and baked meats, for the same, as well as the tenacity of the paste, are preparations which diminish the solubility of the food. From what has been said, the preparation of food by fattening it, and keeping it for some time after killed, although it may administer to gluttony, will yet, it must be confessed, encrease the solution of the food.

The second difference of animal food is with regard to

ALKALESCENCY.

Of th•••• we have taken a little notice already under the first head of Solubi••••••••.

First, 〈◊〉〈◊〉 the too great alkalescency we commonly avoid the carnivorous animal, and the ferae, and chuse rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed, which live on insects, are admitted into our food; but no man, without nausea, can live long upon these alone, for any length of time. Fishes, too, are an exception to this rule, living almost universally on each other. But in these the alkalescency does not proceed so far; whether from the viscidity of their juice, their want of heat, or some peculiarity in their oeconomy, I will not pretend to determine.

Secondly, Alkalescency is determined by difference of age. The older animals are always more alkalescent than the young, from their continual progress to putrefaction. Perhaps this may depend on the nourishment of the younger animals, milk, vegetables, &c. Homberg always found, in his endeavours to extract an acid from

human blood, that more was obtained from the young than from the old animals.

A third circumstance which varies the alkalescency of the food, is the wildness or tameness of the animal; and this again seems to depend on its exercise. I knew a Gentleman who was fond of cats for food, but he always used to feed them on vegetable food, and keep them from exercise; and in the same manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when intended for food. In the same way the flesh of the partridge and hen seems to be much the same; only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more alkalescent than the other. Again, tame animals are commonly used with|out their blood, whereas the wild are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that account, as well as their greater exercise, are more alkalescent.

Fourthly, The alkalescency of food may be determined from the quantity of volatile salt it affords. The older the meat is, it is found to give the greater proportion of volatile salt.

Fifthly, The alkalescency of aliment may also, in some measure, be determined from its colour, the younger animals being whiter and less alkalescent. We also take a mark from the colour of the gravy poured out, according to the redness of the juices judging of the animal's alkalescency.

Lastly, The relish of food is found to depend much on its alka|lescency, as also the stimulus it gives and the fever it produces in the system. These effects are also complicated with the viscidity of the food, by which means it is longer detained in the stomach, and the want of alkalescency supplied.

Having mentioned Animal Food as differing in solubility and alkalescency, which often go together in the same subject, we come to the third difference, viz.

QUANTITY of NUTRIMENT,

Which is either absolute or relative; absolute with respect to the quantity it really contains, sufficient powers being given to extract it; relative, with respect to the assimilatory powers of those who use it. The absolute nutriment is of some consequence, but the relative in the robust and healthy, and except in cases of extraordi|nary weakness, may, without much inconvenience, be disregarded. In another case is the quantity of nourishment relative, viz. with regard to its perspirability; for if the food is soon carried off by the excretions, it is the same thing as if it contained a less proportion of nourishment. For, giving more fluid, that which is longer retained affords most, and for the repair of the solids, that retention also is of advantage. Now gelatinous substances are long retained, and are, besides, animal substances themselves, dissolved so, that, both abso|lutely and relatively, such substances are nutritious. Of this kind are eggs, shell fish, &c. In adults, though it is disputed whether their solids need any repair, yet at any rate, at this period, fluid is more required; for this purpose the alkalescent foods are most proper, being most easily dissolved. They are, at the same time, the most perspirable; on one hand that alkalescency leading to disease, while on the other their perspirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as Writers justly observe, are better nourished on the alkalescent; the young and growing, on gelatinous foods. All this leads to a com|parison of young and old meats, the first being more gelatinous, and the last more alkalescent. This, however, by experience, is not yet properly ascertained. Mr Geoffroy is the only person I know who has been taken up with the analysis of foods. See Memoirs de l'Academie l'an 1731 & 1732. His attempt was certainly laudable, and in some respects usefully performed, but in general his expe|riments are not sufficiently repeated, nor, indeed, sufficiently accu|rate; and I would refuse that beef and veal have been properly examined, for he has not been on his guard against the various circumstances which affect meats; the cow kind liking a moist

succulent herbage, which is not to be got in warm climates; while the sheep are fond of a dry food, and thrive best there. Again, some of his experiments seem contradictory. He says, that veal gives more solution than beef, while lamb gives less than mutton; which, I confess is much to be doubted. If both he and Sanctorius had examined English beef, the result, probably, would have been very different as to its perspirability, &c. Besides, Mr. Geoffroy has only analised beef and veal when raw, has made no proper circum|stantial comparisons between quadrupeds and birds, and has exa|mined these last along with their bones, and not their muscles, &c. by themselves, as he ought to have done, &c. If a set of experi|ments of this kind were properly and accurately performed, they might be of great use; but at present, for the purpose of deter|mining our present subject, we must have recourse to our alka|lescency, solubilty, &c.

The fourth difference of animal foods is

The NATURE of the FLUIDS they afford.

The whole of this will, I think, be understood, from what has been said on alkalescency, the fluid produced being more or less dense and stimulating, in proportion as that prevails.

The fifth difference of animal foods is with respect to their

PERSPIRABILITY.

The sum of what I have to say on this matter is this, that such foods as promote an accumulation of fluid in our vessels, and dispose to plethora, are the least perspirable, and commonly give most strength; that the more alkalescent foods are the most perspirable, though the viscid and less alkalescent may attain the same property by long retention in the system. The authors on Perspirability have determined the Perspiration of Foods as imperfectly as Mr. Geoffroy has done the Solubility, and in a few cases only. We

must not lay hold on what Sanctorius has said on the perspirability of mutton, because he has not examined, in the same way, other meats in their perfect state; far less on what Keil says of oysters, as he himself was a valetudinarian, and consequently an unfit subject for such experiments, and probably of a peculiar temperament.

Having now finished the examination of Animal Food in general, we come to the consideration of particular animals, of which much cannot be expected to be said, after we have so fully delivered our general principles.

Animals are divided into six classes, the Quadrupedia, Aves, Am|phibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes. In my Catalogue I have entirely omitted the Amphibia, but shall supply them in their proper place, The advantages of this division will be known to any one who con|sults the first volume of Linnaeus's great Systema Naturae. That it should often contradict common language, is not to be wondered at, since that arose from a gross superficial view of things. Linnaeus, for the term Quadrupedia, now uses that of Mammalia, on account of the former excluding the cetaceous fishes, which, although they have not four feet, have yet the other distinguishing properties of the Quadrupedia, an heart with two auricles and two ventricles, lungs with which they breathe alternately, penis intrans, and, be|sides, are viviparous and lactiferous, &c.

This class is subdivided into different orders, and it seems doubt|ful whether any of them are rejected from our food, esculent animals, (if I may say so,) in different countries, being taken from every one of them. The Pecora are the order chiefly used here, and are distinguished by being hoofed, ruminant animals, phytovo|rous, domestic, tame, and generally horned. These, from living on vegetables, are perhaps the most proper food, and also from their being tame and domestic. Of the Pecora, those more com|monly in use are the cow, sheep, goat, and deer or hart. In other

countries the rest may be used, as the camel in Africa; and if the musk-deer be taken in, we have then the whole order.

COW KIND; BEEF, VEAL.

This we use as others, in two different ways, young and old. Beef, compared with mutton, is of a more firm texture, and less soluble, but I am persuaded is equally alkalescent, perspirable, and nutritious: If, in the southern countries, it is not esteemed so, it is on account of its imperfection there, as already observed. With regard to young and old foods, a great deal has been already said: I shall confirm that here, with an observation on our use of veal. If we were purely to consider tenderness of texture, the youngest animals certainly would always be preferred; but you observe, that we use veal at a certain age, and perhaps the reason of it may be this; when an animal is very young, although its fibres, taken by themselves are more tender, yet, on account of their great connec|tion and complication, they are less soluble; whereas, in the space of a month or two, by proper nourishment, the fibres come to be more and more separated, a greater quantity of cellular substance is interposed, and they are rendered more soluble and nutritious: Now, after this period, perhaps after the third month, the animal's nature tends towards robustness, firmness, and rigidity, becoming more fibrous again, and more difficultly dissolved. When an animal is very young, we commonly have an aversion to it; the whole of it then is, as it were, a semifluid mass, which we cannot take in suf|ficient quantity, and which, from its watery consistence, must be but little nutritious.

SHEEP KIND; MUTTON, LAMB.

Mutton has commonly been preferred to all the fleshes of qua|drupedes, and indeed, besides its being more perfect, has the ad|vantage over them of being more generally suited to different cli|mates; whereas beef, e. g. requires a very nice intermediate state,

which it seems to enjoy chiefly in England; for although we supply what are reckoned the best cattle, it is in their rich pastures they are brought to perfection. Now the sheep can be brought to almost the same perfection in this bleak northern, as in the mild southern coun|tries. With regard to the difference between the young and old of this kind, the same observations occur as under the former head. Lamb appears a more fibrous meat, and, upon that account, is less easily soluble than veal. In this country, house-lamb is never reared to advantage.

GOATS FLESH; KID.

The goat, from its own nature, and from its exercise in quest of food, is of a firm fibrous texture, and, with all the advantages art can give it, of very difficult solution, and so disused in those countries where delicacy of food is introduced. Kid, from its natural rigidity, and the little care bestowed on its feeding, has all the disadvantages of any young food in excess.

HART, CERVUS; VENISON.

Cervus dama, or fallow deer, is that with which we are best acquainted, and use most, known under the name of Venison. This, from the nature of its oeconomy, from its wild and exercised state, and from being generally killed in the blood, is an alkalescent sapid aliment, considered as a very great delicacy, and, though an exercised animal, of easy digestion. Its flesh approaches very near to that of the sheep, though undoubtedly it is more sapid and alka|lescent.

The stag, or red deer, is another of the same kind, sometimes used in food, and is a more intractable, robust, and exercised animal than the other, and consequently more insoluble. Perhaps there are others of the Cervus kind used in food, but I am not yet properly acquainted with them.

After the Pecora is set down in the Catalogue, after some interval, the term Lepus, one of the genera of the Mammalia Glires of Linnaeus, comprehending the hare and rabbit, which, although their specific difference be small, yet differ a good deal in qualities as food.

HARE.

This animal is much exercised, and thereby acquires a great firm|ness of fibres; and, though sufficiently alkalescent, and killed in the blood, is yet of difficult solubility. As the tenderness of meats de|pends on the succulency of the muscular parts, the hare killed after a long chace, when much of the oil of the body is absorbed, is much firmer and tougher than when killed in the seat.

RABBIT.

This animal is of very little exercise, moderately alkalescent, and one of the white meats without viscidity. Whether on these ac|counts, or some particulars in its oeconomy, I have always found it one of the lightest and most soluble animal foods.

Next Lepus, in the Catalogue, is placed the term, Sus, Hog.

HOG; PORK.

This animal is of a peculiar make, and difficultly reduced to any particular order, placed, however, among the Mammalia Bestiae of Linnaeus. It is the only domestic animal that I know, of no use to man when alive, and therefore properly designed for food. Besides, as loathsome and ugly to every human eye, it is killed without reluctance. The Pythagoreans, whether to preserve health, or on account of compassion, generally forbid the use of animal food, and yet it is alledged that Pythagoras reserved the use of hogs flesh for himself. The Jews, the Egyptians, &c. and others in the warm countries, and all the Mahometans at present, ••eject the use of pork. It is difficult to find out the reason of this,

or of the precept given to some of them, though commonly such as are not given without a particular one. The Greeks gave great commendations to this food; and Galen, though indeed that is sus|pected to be from a particular fondness, is every where full of it. The Romans considered it as one of their delicacies; and if some of the inhabitants of the northern climates have taken an aversion to it, that probably arose from the uncultivated state of their country not being able to rear it. Pork is of a very tender structure, encreased perhaps from a peculiarity in its oeconomy, viz. taking on fat more readily than any other animal. Pork is a white meat even in its adult state, and then gives out a jelly in very great quantity. On account of its little perspirability and tenderness, it is very nutritious, and was given for that intention to the athletae. With regard to its alkalescency, no proper experiments have yet been made, but as it is of a gelatinous and succulent nature, it is probably less so than many others.

Many others of the Mammalia, or Quadrupeds, are used in different countries, and it is not certain which of the Quadrupeds may be ex|cepted from the rule. Thus the Tartars eat horses, the Romans ea•• asses, dogs, rats, &c. but of these, as we have no experience, little can be said, though their qualities may probably be understood from the principles already delivered.

We now come to consider the Class of BIRDS, which is di|vided into six orders, Accipitres, Picae, Anseres, Grallae, Gallinae, and Passeres. The Accipitres and Picae are carnivorous Birds, and not used by us, or indeed much by any nation in food. The other four are what are chiefly used, of which we have begun with the Gallinae, as the chief of our domestic fowl; and of these the first, viz. Gallus Gallinaceus, is comprehended by Linnaeus, under the general name of Phasianus.

The COCK, HEN, CHICKEN, and CAPON, are entirely domestic animals, there being no country, as far as I know, in which they are found wild. They take little exercise, live mostly on vegetables, though sometimes, indeed, they pick up insects, and are chiefly delighted with grain. Hence they are a food of tender structure, easy solution, little alkalescency, and, as a white meat, gelatinous. When very young, they are extremely viscid, when old, tough and ligamentous; so that the proper time of using them is in a middle state, between these two extremes, i. e. when about a year old.

A question here arises about the feeding of animals, it being doubted whether a crammed, or barn-door fowl, is preferable. Many of our modern arts of feeding, besides giving more succulency and ten|derness to the food, encrease its alkalescency: As giving succulency, they are an improvement, but, as giving alkalescency, a dangerous one, though even with that they make solution more easy. Exercise, however, is necessary to give perfection, for, by this means, the fat of the animal is equally dispersed through the muscular parts, whereas, when the animal is fatted hastily, the fat is accumulated in a particular part, viz. in the cellular texture, more strictly so called; so that an exercised animal of equal weight, caeteris paribus, with a fed one, is much preferable.

The next bird mentioned in the Catalogue, is The MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO. another of the Galinae, under the generical name of Meleagris. The Meleagris Gallopavo, or turkey, with regard to its qualities in food, is entirely the same as the proceeding, being equally tender, soluble, and alkalescent.

The next bird we come to, is The PAVO CRISTATUS, or PEACOCK, which is somewhat of a white flesh, but firm and rigid, and partly from the coarseness of its texture, and partly from its not being pro|lific, is now properly enough neglected. The Romans formerly used, but probably only for show, our Peacock as food. It was remarked that the boiled Peacock would keep very long; but in this there is nothing extraordinary, as was imagined; for the most pu|trescent part of the food is the fluid, and this, by boiling, is ex|tracted, and leaves only the solid fibres behind. Now, if what is called jerking of beef in the West-Indies, or hand-roasting it, in both which cases the fluids are not so accurately drawn out, have the effect of preserving meat for a considerable time, how much greater must that effect be expected to be from the more rigid texture of the Peacock, exsuccated by boiling.

PHEASANT.

Next the Peacock should have been inserted the Pheasant, as it is the first among the wild fowl; but because Linnaeus has given Pha|sianus as his generical name for the Gallus Gallinaceus, &c. it was omitted: Here, however, it shall be mentioned, as it is in its proper place. The Pheasant is a wild fowl, is more exercised, and hence, and from its living on the drier vegetables, and insects, more alkalescent than the same fowl, and also, from its being capable of fattening, is more soluble.

The five following belong all to one genus, the Tetrao of Linnaeus. The two first,

TETRAO PERDIX et COTURNIX, i. e. the PARTRIDGE and QUAIL, approach in their nature to the tame fowl, but are more sapid, ten|der and alkalescent, the chief cause of difference residing in the alka|lescency.

The three last, viz.

The LAGOPUS, TETRIX et UROGALLUS, as living more on insects, are more alkalescent than the two former, much more so than the tame fowl.

In following Linnaeus, I have omitted The GROUSE, or RED GAME, which, however, I meant to comprehend under the term Lagopus; although Linnaeus does not seem to be acquainted with our red game, which, however, is the Lagopus of other Naturalists, and the Lagopus altera Plinii. The qualities of these are very much in common. From its size, rather than any real difference, is, I ima|gine, the black game thought more firm, tho' perhaps, from its living on very high mountains, it is seldomer got young. I have men|tioned young food as viscid and gelatinous, but these of which we are speaking are not so, which is an exception to the general rule, and which I impute to the greater alkalescency of the kind.

ANSERES.

Next in order come the Anseres of Linnaeus, which term may properly be translated Water Fowl.

From their nature, the water fowl are much exercised, and being

generally carnivorous, are more alkalescent than the tame; whether they are more so than the wild fowl, is undetermined. Certain however it is, that, whether from their less alkalescency, or peculiar nature, they are less soluble than these, so that if we here appre|hend a greater alkalescency, we must likewise suppose a greater viscidity, which indeed they generally possess more than the wild fowl.

Linnaeus using Anseres for the generical term, uses Anas for the goose as well as duck; but, for fear of confounding you, I have avoided the scientific terms.

ANAS DOMESTICA, the TAME DUCK.

Here Naturalists commonly have, although different in their manner of living, considered the tame and wild animal as the same: However that may hold in natural history, we must make a difference in their qualities, as food. The wild duck is more alkales|cent, more tender, and more easily dissolved than the tame, and, in general, this difference takes place between wild and tame ani|mals, if they are taken at a suitable age and proper season. Old animals are generally more alkalescent and more easily soluble than the young: Many animals, however, are not viscid when young, so that, in this case, the rule in contradicted. All wild animals too, differ according to the season, either from the time of their molting or the quantity of food they then get.

The next mentioned, is ANAS ••OSCHATA, or MUSCOVY DUCK, which seems to be of the same qualities with the former, but somewhat of a more firm and less tender texture. First when these

were known here, they were reared with very great care, but are now more commonly neglected.

Of the Boschus major, or Wild Duck, we have already spoken, under the Anas domestica. We go on to the others mentioned in the Catalogue.

The QUERQUEDULA, or TEALE, is very much of the nature of the wild duck, and is the most tender and alkalescent, the least viscid and most savoury of this kind.

ANSER DOMESTICUS, TAME GOOSE.

This is no less alkalescent than the duck, is manifestly less viscid, but of a firmer texture; its solution, however, is not so constant, depending more on a difference of stomach.

CYGNUS, SWAN.

In food, this is now very rarely used; in its young state, it is by far the most rigid of any of their order: It is of difficult manduca|tion, and so far as texture can occasion that, of difficult solution in the stomach.

Here I might have inserted a great many more of the ANSERINE tribe, but I was not so well acquainted with them as to point out their difference: They are all wild, and, from their oeconomy or food, we may judge of their qualities. As living on fish, they are viscid and alkalescent. I have set down two, the Pelicanus Bassanus, or So••an Goose, and the A••catorda, the Murret, or, in England, the Razor-bill, which may serve for the rest.

SOLAN GOOSE.

This is one of the most alkalescent foods we use here. It is an animal much exercised, and, when old, insoluble, but, when young, it is very easily soluble, and when it agrees with the sto|mach may be taken in large proportion, even in weak ones, as I myself have experienced, and though alkalescent, gives little in|convenience on that account. It is commonly talked of as a whet to the appetite; but this must not be taken seriously, although, in|deed, it is of remarkably easy solution. All this illustrates what has been said on the solubility of food depending on its alkalescency; and hence, in some measure, may be understood the qualities of other sea fowl used in diet.

GRALLAE.

The GRALLAE, the next class I am to mention, are much con|nected with the former, as being aquatic birds, though not always swimmers or divers. They live often in marshy grounds, catching fish, insects, &c. They have been called Limosugae, or Mud|suckers, but improperly, as they take up the earth only as it con|tains insects, or agitate it with their bills to bring up worms. For walking in marshy places they are provided with long legs, called grallae, from their likeness to those sticks on which people some|times walk, whence their gradus gralatorius. I have set down a number of different genera. Ardea, the Heron, and Bittern; Sco|lopax, the Woodcock, Snipe, and Curlew; Tringa, the Lapwing, in Scotland the Teachat, and Peaseweep, and Grey Plover; Cha|radrius, the Green Plover; Haematopus, the Sea Pye; Fulica, the Coot; Rallus the Rail, in Scotch the Corncraig; Otis, the Bus|tard, with a view to their qualities as aliment, I shall begin with

The OTIS.

It is doubtful whether this ought to be ranked with the other Grallae, it being a land animal, living on grain, and rather, I

believe, should have been kept with the Gallinae. Its flesh approaches to that of the partridge, and its qualities are much the same with those of the wild fowl of the Gallinae.

I consider the RALLUS as likewise belonging to the Gallinae, though, indeed, a species of it, the Rallus aquaticus, more evidently belongs to the Grallae. In many countries they are considered as Quails; and in Italy called the King of these, Il Re di Qualli. With exception of these two all the rest stand properly in the same order; but, from certain circumstances, are of different qualities, viz. being inland or not, &c.

Of the inland kind belonging to the Scolopax, are The WOODCOCK and SNIPE, which, although insectivorous, appear to be less alkalescent, of a tender structure, approaching to the white meats of the gallinaceous kind.

Here may be illustrated what we have said of exercise producing firmness. The Woodcock is obliged to fly much about, while the Partridge walks more and flies less. Hence it is observed, that the wing of the Woodcock is always very tough, while that of the Par|tridge is very tender; and, on the contrary, the leg of the Wood|cock is very tender, while that of the Partridge is very tough. Hence the proverb, Give the Woodcock the Partridge wings, he will be the most delicate of birds.

CURLEW.

This also belongs to the Scolopax, but living on fishes, and at sea, is very alkalescent, and approaches in quality to the Solan Goose.

TRINGA.

The Tringa are more alkalescent than the Woodcock, but less so than the Scolopaces, who live on fish, as being inland birds. A

difference occurs in the species, the Lapwing using its wings much, being of a firmer texture; while the Grey Plover, taking less exer|cise, is more soluble.

The CHARADRIUS, or GREEN PLOVER, is much more alkalescent than the Woodcock or Snipe.

Next come

The ARDEA, HERON, and BITTERN.

These are of a firmer texture than those we have mentioned, and, when old, are of little use. In their young state they are commonly fat, sufficiently soluble, alkalescent, and of exquisite relish. It would be worth while to examine accurately the qua|lities of the Heron and Bittern, as we should then know what dif|ference followed from animals of the same genus living on fish or on insects.

Those which remain of the Grallae are entirely sea fowl. The Haemotapus, or Sea Pye, and the Fulica, or Coot, with the Curlew, which we have mentioned under Scolopax, are more alkalescent than the other Grallae, approaching in their nature to the Solan Goose.

We now come to the AVES PASSERES of Linnaeus, of which we have a very great variety. I have only set down four of the genera, which seem to me to be the chief. It is difficult to say whether they have common qualities: Enquiry would probably shew us some difference, as they were granivorous or insectivorous.

The COLUMBA, or PIGEON KIND, are hot and alkalescent from much exercise, perhaps more so than any other of these who live on grain. When young, they are tender, and of easy solution.

With regard to the smaller birds, the Alauda, Turdus, & Emberiza, the Lark, Thrush, and Yellow Hammer; of these I have but little experience, and of many more which are comprehended under these generical terms. There is probably a difference, according to their exercise and food. I shall only say, that when taken at a proper age they are tender, succulent, and alkalescent.

I mentioned formerly my omission of the AMPHIBIA, which it is here proper to supply; as they are of a middle nature between birds and fish, the meaning of the term is doubtful. It is com|monly applied to animals who live both on water and land, and so includes both birds and beasts. Linnaeus's distinction is this: The Beasts and Birds have a heart with two auricles and two ventricles, a warm blood, and lungs which breathe alternately; whereas the Amphibia have a heart with one auricle and one ventricle a cold blood, and lungs which breathe arbitrarily. They are divided into three orders,

The SERPENTES, REPTILES, & NANTES.

Of the REPTILIA there are three genera employed in food, the Testudo, Tortoise, the Lacerta, Lizard, and the Rana, Frog.

TESTUDO, TORTOISE.

Of this there are several species used in food. The green Turtle is now become a famous delicacy. It is of a peculiar nature, having its fat of a green colour, of a remarkable odour, affecting the urine and sweat, the colour of which last is also altered. From this it has been supposed of peculiar qualities. From its odour, &c. it might be medicated, but these have no effect on its qualities as nutriment. From some particulars in its oeconomy, from its little motion, and its living on vegetables, it is less alkalescent than any of its kind, of a very gelatinous nature, and highly nutritious.

Of the numerous Lacertae there are few employed in food. There is only of which I remember, the Guana of the West Indies. This is there esteemed a great delicacy, and of tender texture. From pe|culiar antipathy against the animal, when in that country, I could not examine its qualities.

As to the FROG, one of its species is used in France, the Rana aesculenta. I am ignorant of its qualities for want of particular expe|rience. As far as we can depend on Geoffroy, this animal, from affording little volatile salt, seems not very alkalescent, nor, from others of Mr. Geoffroy's experiments, very gelatinous. But, consi|dering the class to which it belongs, and from any small examination I myself have made of it, it would seem in its nature to approach to the Tortoise and Guana.

VIPER.

Of the Amphibia serpentes, I know only one species used in food, namely, the Viper. It is still uncertain whether this is to be consi|dered as food or medicine. It has been much talked of in the last intention, though, in my opinion, it can have little power as such; for medicines are such bodies as alter the system suddenly, without being conquered by it. Now Vipers are commonly used in broths, and prove very nutritious, being continued for a length of time. Neither, indeed, is its volatile salt, which has been esteemed a famous remedy, different from that of other animals. Upon all which accounts I conclude that its virtues, as medicine, must only be in consequence of its nutritious quality. As a food, from Geoffroy's experiments, I perceive it is sufficiently soluble, approach|ing in this, and the quantity of juices it affords, to Quadrupeds; and to Fishes, in the gelatinous nature of these juices. Like all the Amphibia, it is of an intermediate nature between Quadrupeds and Fish, though in its qualities approaching more to the latter. I told you that, for want of other principles, I determined the alkalescency of animal substances from the quantity of volatile salt

they afford. The Viper, as affording less of this, I conclude to be less alkalescent than Quadrupeds or Birds.

As in Natural History we observe one ••ind by insensible degrees passing into another, so here the Amphibia connect the Quadrupeds and Fishes. Of these the Reptiles, on the one hand, approaching to Quadrupeds; while the Serpentes, on the other, come nearer to the Fishes. There is still another order of the Amphibia, viz. the Nantes, the same which formerly went under the name of the Car|tilaginous Fishes. I have marked three of these at the end of the Fishes, viz. the Petromyzon, or Lamprey; the Raia batis, or Thorn|back; in Scots, Scate; and the Accipenser Sturio, or Sturgeon. There are two or three more genera belonging to this order; and the Squalus, or Shark kind, is sometimes used in food. I said they were formerly classed with the fishes; but Linnaeus, considering that in their skin, lungs, organs of generation, and that in their being viviparous, &c. they approached to the Amphibia, has very properly ranked them in this class. With respect, however, to their qualities as food, they are little difference from the Fishes, though indeed I should suppose they approached to the other Am|phibia. They afford a more gelatinous food than any of the Qua|drupeds, or Amphibia, and probably are more nutritious. As to their alkalescency, from the quantity of volatile salt they afford, I conclude they are less alkalescent than the animals above mentioned, and more so than the Fishes.

FISHES.

After saying somewhat on the QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, and AMPHIBIA, I come to the FISH kind. I have only set down those which are commonly used, though in England perhaps more may be used. The first of these in the Catalogue is the Genus of the Salmo, of which there are six species. Salmo salar, the common Salmon; Salmo trutta, is the river Trout; in Scots, the bourn Trout; Salmo hucho, in the North of England, bull Trout; in Scotland the

Lochleven Trout; Salmo eperlanus, the Smelt; in Scots, the Sper|ling; Salmo thymallus, the Grayling, or Umber, which is not known here; Salmo Alpinus, the Charr, which lives in the coldest water in which any animal will live. After these fol|lows in the Catalogue another genus, the Cyprinus, of which eight are mentioned; Cyprinus barbus, the Barbel; Carpio, the Carp; Gobio, the Gudgeon; Tinca, the Tench; Caephalus, the Chub; Rutilus, the Roch; Alburnus, the Bleak; Brama, the Bream. After these is mentioned the genus of the Perca, of which the Perca fluviatilis, or common Perch. After this comes again the Gadus, of which six are mentioned, AEglesinus, Haddock; Merlangus, Whiting; Morhua, a Cod; Molva, Ling; Virens, in Scotland, Greenback; Callarias, in Scotland, the Codling, or Redware, though of this I am not certain. After these is the Cyclopterus lumpus, the Lump Fish, or Sea Owl; in Scots, the Cock Paddle. Next to this follows in order the Scomber Scombrus, the Mackarel; Scomber Thynnus, the Tunny, or Spanish Mackarel; Trigla cuculus, the Red Gurnard; Mugil, the Mullet; and Esox Lucius, the Pike. Next to these come the Clupea, of which four are set. Clupea harengus, the Herring; which I do not know if the Pilcher be the same species; Sprattus, the Sprat; in Scots, the Garvey; Encrasicolus, the Anchovy; Alosa, the Shad. After the foregoing are set down the Pleuronectes, of which five are marked; Flesus, the common Flounder; Solea, the Sole; Platessa, the Plaise, Maximus, the Turbot; Hypoglossus, the Holibut. In England, what is called the Holibut, is in Scotland the Turbot, et e con|trario.

Before we come to the Amphibia Nantes, which were placed here as formerly ranked among the Cartilaginous Fishes, are set down A••••••dites, the Sand Eel; Muraena Anguilla, the common Eel; Muraena Conger, the Sea Eel; and by mistake, as supposed an ali|ment, Anarrichas, the Sea Wolf.

Of QUALITIES of FISHES in general.

Their texture is generally more tender than that of Flesh, and they have nothing of a fibrous structure. With respect to their solution, after all, the matter does not seem determined; for from Geoffroy's experiments it appears, that they give less soluble matter out of the body than flesh. It is however very probable, that the powers of our stomach, the fermentation which is excited there, exceeds greatly any power we can apply out of the body; and, so far as we are able to judge, they are of more easy solution than Flesh meats. Broths, however, of Fishes do not form into a jelly, though there is somewhat gluey and viscid, which, like the young meats, makes them long retained in the stomach; yet, after all, I do not find, that even in this case of their longer retention and dif|ficult perspirability, that by ruminant men, if I may so call them, they are so often brought up as other foods.

The alkalescency of Fishes seems less than that of Meats, their putrefaction being flower, and their yield of volatile alkali less. There is in the solution of this food something particular, which is not yet properly enquired into. We use oil or butter sometimes with our vegetable aliment, oftner with meats, but more frequently still, and in greater quantity, with Fishes. This certainly, if pro|perly understood, would throw some light on solution of this ali|ment, as it seems to be a rule followed from some instigation of instinct, rather than precept of reason. I formerly spoke of the stimulus given to the stomach by the alkalescency of meats, which, at the same time, I told you might be produced by viscidity and long retention there. In the fish kind this is more remarkable, they being a very short time in the stomach before they produce heat, fever, thirst, and sometimes efflorescences over the whole surface of the body.

You will easily see, from the difficulty of giving the general qua|lities of fishes, how little you can expect to be said on particulars.

In order to the understanding the qualities of Fishes, they have been considered as differing in being River or Sea Fish, Saxatiles or Limosae, i. e. those living in gravelly bottoms, or such as, like the Lamprey, lie at the bottom, in the mud, &c. But in neither of these divisions do I find any certain foundation for ascertaining the difference of Fishes as aliment. Dr. Cheyne was extremely fond of the distinction by Colour, the White being supposed less stimulant, and the Red more so. In Birds and Quadrupeds this, indeed, will hold; but there are, except the Salmon, few Fishes but what are of a white colour, so that this distinction will go but a little way. As we found a difference in other aliment from a difference of food, the same would seem to take place in Fishes, all of whom are mostly carni|vorous; nor does any difference in the kind of animals they eat seem to make any difference in their qualities: The Perch, e. g. who eats mites, fishes, insects indifferently, and all of them rapaciously, and indeed, besides, water fowl, &c. is not more alkalescent than those who live on insects alone, &c. Nor indeed are they to be distinguished entirely from their different genera, though that indeed comes nearest the truth of any other of the distinctions. Now we proceed to the particular genera.

SALMON.

Most of this genus are fluviatiles, or lacustres, of a tender substance, sufficiently succulent and nourishing. They are also alkalescent and heating, and efflorescences, &c. are as frequent from them as any other fish. The red kind are of a higher relish and alkalescency, the white are soft and gelatinous. Here I may observe, that Lin|naeus seems to have forgot what are called our Salmon Trout, which are undoubtedly more stimulating and alkalescent, and less gelatinous than those of the white kind.

CYPRINUS.

This genus is of greater variety than the former, drier, and less tendinous, less sapid and heating, and among the fishes of a nature little gelatinous.

To these in nature approaches the Perch, which is of firm texture, but tender substance, easily soluble, not glutinous, heating, or re|markably stimulant.

GADUS.

These are Sea Fishes, and those of them we are best acquainted with are the Whiting, Haddock, and Cod. These give a gradation in tenderness, glutinosity, and stimulus to the system, the Cod being the firmest, most viscid, and heating of the three.

Fishes are often distinguished as being more or less squamous. All those we have mentioned are the scaly kind. The Amphibia and Eel kind have no scales. The Flounder is intermediate betwixt the two. The squamous are universally less glutinous than those without scales, easier miscible in the stomach, though less nutritious. Before the squamous I set down

CYCLOPTERUS LUMPUS.

The Lumpus Fish is remarkably glutinous, without scales, ap|proaching in ••••••lity to the Eel, and remarkably nutritious to them who use it. The Mackarel is a drier substance and less nutritious; the Tunny is mentioned here inadvertently, as it is only known in the the Mediterranean, and is there said to be more succulent and nu|tritious than the common Mackarel.

TRIGLA CUCULUS, RED GURNARD.

This is a remarkable sapid Fish, of the white kind, said to be considerably nutritious, and much valued in those places where it is used.

MUGIL, MULLET.

I am not certain if our Mullet be the Mugil of the Romans. It certainly has not the exquisite relish for which they valued theirs,

and seems to me to be of a middle between the Carp and Haddock, less dry than the one, and more succulent than the other. It is sufficiently soluble and nutritious.

ESOX LUCIUS, the PIKE.

This, though rapacious and carnivorous, is yet a dry, little oily and little alkalescent food, and one of the least heating of any we take in. We must suppose, then, considering these qualities of this fish, that there is somewhat peculiar in their oeconomy which gives rise to them.

CLUPEA.

All this genus, comprehending the Herring, &c. are of an oily, succulent nutritious nature, in their heating quality being next to the Salmon, quickening the pulse to a considerable degree.

PLEURONECTES, the FLOUNDER KIND.

This genus comprehends several species: They are all of a tender, oily, succulent nature, more glutinous than the preceding, but less so than the following. They are set down according to their qua|lities, the Flounder and Soal more tender, the Turbot and Holy but more glutinous.

EEL KIND.

Some here are without squamae, much of the same quality with the Viper, viscid, nutritious, and difficultly perspirable; by long re|tention in the stomach, heating and oppressive. As to the different species, I am not in a condition to ascertain the difference.

INSECTA.

This is a class little thought of as food. In some countries the Locusts and Grasshoppers are used as food. I can say nothing

of the Grasshopper, but that it approaches in nature to the Shrimp. The whole of the Crab kind, although different in their class, approach in their quality to Fishes in not being easily dissolved by decoction, to the Amphibia in giving a jellied broth, and again to the Fishes in stimulating the system. They afford little volatile alkali, and to some are a very peculiar stimulus, producing heat, anxiety, and fever. The three mentioned in the Catalogue are, Cancer Pagurus, the Crab; Cancer Gammarus, the Shrimp; Cancer Squilla, the Lobster.

VERMES.

These were formerly confounded partly with the Fishes; for the reasons of classing them separately, vide Linnaeus, vol. I. Systema Naturae. They are of five orders, two only of which are used as aliment, the Mollusca and Testacea. Of the Mollusca, the first species in the Catalogue is the Sepia Loligo, in Scotland, the Stock|ing Fish; in England, the Ink Fish. With regard to its qualities, it has none but what is common to it with the rest of the Vermes. Of the Testacea I have only set down such as are found on our shores, and give for them Linnaeus's trivial names. After the Sepia, I have set down eleven of the Vermes, viz. Patella vulgata, Limpet, Papshell; Helix Pomatia, the Garden Snail; Buccinum undatum, the Welk; in Scotland, the Bakky; Turbo littoreus, Periwinkle; in North of Scotland, the Black Welk; the Razor, in England; Cardium edule, the Cockle; Cardium echinatum, prickly Cockle; Venus Chione, Gawky in Scotland; Ostrea maxima, Scallop; Clam in Scotland; Ostrea edulis, common Oyster; Mytalus edulis, common Muscle.

The qualities of the whole of the Vermes is nearly the same. They are of a more tender texture than any other Animal Food, and thus would seem to be of very easy solution. But they afford, perhaps, the most viscid gluten of any of the Animal Foods, by this means affect the mixture in the stomach, and more the last

digestion, by which they are with very great difficulty expelled. By this means they are among the nourishing of Animal Foods; and though as Animal Substances they are alkalescent, yet they are among the least so, and least heating to the system.

Sepia loligo & Solen siliqua, or Spout, appear to possess nothing but the common qualities of the Vermes.

The four first mentioned of the Testacea are Univalves, and the ani|mal inhabiting them of the same genus; the last four are Bivalves, and the animal inhabiting them of the same genus, in all called, by Naturalists, Tethys; so that really we have only two animals to treat of. With regard to the snail, it has the general qualities of the Worms in a high degree, of a tender texture, easily soluble, but viscid and imperspirable. The Garden Snail is not known here as food, but in some of the southern countries it is reckoned a deli|cacy, and very nourishing food. Our own snails are sometimes boiled in milk and employed as a medicine in hectic cases, and I myself have seen remarkable advantage from them where there were no ulcerations, they soon recruiting the emaciated habit; but in case of ulcerations, these, as well as all other animal food, are very improper. A remarkable instance of the nutritious quality of Snails appears in the famine, which happened in this country about sixty years ago, of two girls being found to be remarkably nourished from snails alone, while others of 〈◊◊〉〈◊◊〉 sort were meagre and half-starved.

With regard to the other genera, they are more commonly em|ployed, but seem to be less tender, and therefore, perhaps, less nutritious.

BIVALVES.

Of the Bivalves, the most common is the common Oyster: It is among the few Animal Foods we take in raw, and in that state can be taken in much larger proportion, and more easily digested, than

when dressed. Keil and Sanctorius both agree in calling it a food of slow perspirability. Keil says it retards perspiration of other food; but this I confess I do not understand. On this account they are nutritious, and, though long retained, as little heating as any to the system.

The rest of the Bivalves are less soluble and tender; some of them are said to be somewhat poisonous, as the Muscle and Limpet, but in what part of them this resides I cannot tell; something, however, is always rejected.

EGGS of BIRDS.

These might have been set down after the Birds, but, as they are somewhat analogous to the last mentioned food, I have placed them here. It is obvious, from their nature and use in the nou|rishment of the foetus, that they contain a larger proportion of pure nutriment than any other aliment, as they give no foeces; for every other kind of animal food has some of its juices gone farther to putrefaction than the albumen, which is extracted in our stomach, which are deposited in that form. After all, Eggs are not of easy digestion, and, from the proportion of nourishment they afford, cannot be taken in large quantity. Whether the difficulty of di|gestion in Eggs resides naturally in the viscidity of the albumen, or, in the coagulated state in which we take it in, is a question; it seems at least to be encreased by coagulation, as the hardest Egg is most difficult of digestion. I do not think the insolubility resides in the Yolk, as some have supposed, for I have known persons reject the White, and live on the Yolk entirely, which is of different qua|lities and designed for an after-food. I have already mentioned the insolubility of the albumen ovi out of the body, by heat, &c. and said it could only depend on fermentation. Eggs approach to the Vermes in viscidity and difficult perspirability; they are less alkales|cent than Flesh, some of whose juices have always proceeded too far. A proof of the little alkalescency of Eggs, is from their being the Animal Food least apt to pall. Some have supposed bad qua|lities,

but I know no instance of any: They are sometimes noxious to certain persons, but this we must explain from an idiosyncrasy.

This is all that occurs on the subject of Eggs. I should next go on to consider medicines, but, before that, shall recapitulate a little what has been said on the subject of Aliment. From the whole you will perceive, that Aliment is divided into Vegetable and Animal, and that Milk is of an intermediate nature between both, acescent as the vegetable, but not liable to its noxious acescency; nourishing as the Animal, though not liable to its noxious alkalescency. The aces|cent Vegetable Aliment seems absolutely necessary to the human oeconomy, and there are none of the human species but what em|ploy it. How far we could dispense with Animal Food is uncertain; it seems rather useful than necessary, in order to give great strength, and for subsistence and long duration of life little proper. Farther, the Vegetable Aliment is never hurtful, except in the primae viae, and in these only of the diseased: Its effects never appear in the blood-vessels. On the contrary, Animal Food, which is more nourishing, easily goes to excess, and exposes to danger, readily, by its alkalescency, laying the foundation of diseases, and as well as its other qualities, e. g. corpulency, obesity, and putrescent acrimony.

EFFECTS of ALIMENT on the MIND.

It is plain the delicacy of feeling, liveliness of imagination, quick|ness of apprehension, and acuteness of judgment more frequently accompany a weak state of the body. True it is, indeed, that the same state is liable to timidity, fluctuation and doubt, while the strong have that steadiness of judgment, and firmness of purpose which are proper for the higher and more active scenes of life. The most va|luable state of the Mind, however, appears to reside in somewhat less firmness and vigour of body. Vegetable Aliment, as never over-distending the vessels, or loading the system, never interrupts the stronger exercise of the Mind, while the heat, fulness, and weight of Animal Food is an enemy to its activity. Temperance, then, does not so much consist in the quantity, for that always will be

regulated by our appetite, as in the quality, viz. a large proportion of Vegetable Aliment. So much in general. Vegetable Aliment consists of sugar and oil, both separately nutritious, but in that state liable to disadvantages. Sugar is of difficult assimilation, especially if its acid is evolved; as then, like the recent fruits, it will be a pro|per subject for the vinous fermentation. Oil is more difficultly mixed, and oily foods more so in proportion, as that is more separate. The Farinacea, where the oil and sugar are intimately blended, are the most perfect of Vegetable Aliment, and of these the Cerealia, as you will now easily know from their qualities.

Animal food differs in alkalescency and viscidity. The Quadru|peds and Birds are the most alkalescent, the Fishes and Vermes the most viscid. Alkalescency seems to depend on the heat of the ani|mal. The Quadrupeds and Birds have the greatest heat, the Fishes and worms least. A farther proof of the less alkalescency of Fishes is, that with Animal Food we are constantly led by instinct to take in Vegetable Aliment. The same instinct has never led us to take it in with Fishes. For experiment sake, I have sometimes taken Ap|ples along with Fish, and found them to disturb digestion. The flesh of Quadrupeds and Birds is, on account of its alkalescency, more easily dissolved, and sooner assimilated into blood, giving easiest nourishment and strength, while on the same account it is wisely or|dained that it is sooner expelled. Fishes and worms, on account of their viscidity, are more difficultly dissolved and assimilated, retained longer in the system, and only heating from their retention, and thus even accumulating the fluids, and affording nourishment to the solid parts.

Notes

• * 1.1

  This steadiness, produced by Custom, serves a good purpose, as otherwise the heart, being under the power of the will, would be too liable to its passions.
• * 1.2

  Dry lint.
• * 1.3

  The Author here refers to a very ingenious Thesis, published about that time▪ 〈◊〉〈◊〉 the subject of Milk.—De Lacte.