A general collection of discourses of the virtuosi of France, upon questions of all sorts of philosophy, and other natural knowledg made in the assembly of the Beaux Esprits at Paris, by the most ingenious persons of that nation / render'd into English by G. Havers, Gent.

CONFERENCE XCIII.

I. Of the spots in the Moon and the Sun. II. Whe∣ther 'tis best to use severity or gentleness towards our dependents.

I. Of the spots in the Moon and the Sun.

THere is nothing perfect in the world, spots being observ'd in the brightest bodies of Nature. And not to speak of those in the Sun, which seem to proceed from the same cause with those observ'd in our flame according as 'tis condens'd or rarifi'd; we may well give account of those in the Moon, by say∣ing, with the Pythagoreans, and some later excellent Mathema∣ticians, that the Moon is an earthly habitable Globe, as the emi∣nences and inequalities, observ'd therein by the Telescope, the great communications of the Moon with our earth, depriving one another of the Sun, by the opacity, rotundity and solidty of both; and the cold and moist qualities which it transmits hi∣ther, like those of this terr-aqueous Globe; since the same appa∣rences and illumination of the Earth would be seen from the Heaven of the Moon, if a man were carri'd thither. And because solid massie bodies, as wood and stone, reflect light most strongly, therefore the brightest parts of the Moon answer the terrestrial dense parts, and the dark the water, which being rarer, and liker the air is also more transparent, and, consequently, less apt to stop and reflect light. This we experience in the prospect of high Mountains very remote, or the points of Rocks in the open Sea, which reflect a light, and have a colour like that of the Moon, when the Sun is still above the Horizon with her: where∣as

the Sea and great Lakes being less capable of remitting this light, seem dark and like clouds. So that were this Globe of Ocean and Earth seen from far, it would appear illuminated and spotted like the Moon. For the opinion of Plurality of Worlds (which can be no way dangerous of it self, but only in the consequences the weakness of humane wit would draw from it; much less is it contrary to the faith, as some imagine) is ra∣ther an argument of Gods Omnipotence, and more abundant communication of his goodness in the production of more crea∣tures; whereas his immense goodness seems to be restrain'd in the creation of but one world, and of but one kind. Nor is it impossible but that, as we see about some Planets, namely, Ju∣piter and Saturn, some other Stars which move in Epicycles, and in respect of their stations, and those Planets, seem like Moons to them, and are of the same substance: so that which shines to us, here below, may be of the same substance with our earth, and plac'd as a bound to this elementary Globe.

The Second said, That the spots of the Sun and Moon cannot be explicated without some Optical presuppositions. And first, 'tis to be known that Vision is perform'd three ways; directly, by reflection, and by refraction. Direct Vision, which is the most ordinary, is when an object sends its species to the eye by a direct way, that is, when all the points of one and the same ob∣ject make themselves seen by so many right lines. Reflective Vision is when the species of an object falling upon the surface of an opake body, is remitted back to the sight, as 'tis in our Looking-glasses. Vision by refraction, is, when the species of an object having pass'd through a medium diaphanous to a certain degree, enters obliquely into another medium more or less dia∣phanous; for then 'tis broken and continues not its way direct∣ly: but with this diversity, that coming from a thicker medium into a thinner, as from water into air, the species in breaking re∣cedes from a perpendicular falling upon the common surface of the two mediums; as, on the contrary, entring into a less dia∣phanous medium out of one more diaphanous, it breaks, and Cones neerer a perpendicular then it would have done had it continu'd directly. Secondly, 'Tis to be observ'd, that bo∣dies which cause reflection or refraction are either smooth or unequal and rough. Smooth bodies make reflection and refraction with order; and the reflected or refracted image resembles its object, although it may be alter'd by the va∣rious figures of the reflecting or refracting bodies, as con∣vex Looking-glasses diminish it, hollow enlarge it; whereas, on the contrary, convex Perspective Glasses enlarge and concave lessen the object: but both the Looking-glasses, and the other represent the Image perfect. Unequal and scabrous bodies reflect or refract confusedly without di∣stinct representation of the Image; because these Bodies being terminated with infinite little imperceptible surfaces looking

every way, they also reflect every way, as is seen in stones, wood, and other bodies of different ruggedness, and so causing different reflections and refractions. in the third place, we must observe some prime properties of Looking-glasses; as, That if a species fall perpendicularly upon the surface, 'tis likewise perpendicu∣larly reflected, and consequently, upon its own object; as when the Eye beholds it self in the glass. But if the species fall ob∣liquely upon the glass, it will be reflected as obliquely the other way, making the angles of the incidence equal to those of refle∣ction; as when the Eye beholds something else then it self in the glass. And an Eye constituted in the place where it may re∣ceive the reflection shall see the image of the object by help of the glass. But if the mirror reflect no species to the place where the Eye is, then the surface of the mirror shall appear so much more dark as the mirror is exact, that is, smooth; and more opake, the greater the light is. As the Eye being in the place of reflection cannot bear the Sun-beams reflected from the mirror no more then the Sun it self; but being in another place, it shall see no∣thing but darkness, and take the glass for a hole, especially if it lie upon the ground. Moreover, a Convex Spherical glass hath this property, that it represents the image very small, and more small when the Eye and object are remote from the mirror which is small, or appears such. In which glasses also the Image never takes up the whole plane of the glass, but a very small part of it. Lastly, Every object which appears lucid, and not by its own light, transmits light to us either by reflection or refraction, af∣ter having receiv'd the same from some other luminous object. From these truths here suppos'd, but clearly demonstrated in the Catoptricks, I conclude necessarily, That the body of the Moon is not smooth, but rough or scabrous. For 'tis manifest by its various faces, that it borrows from the Sun the greater light of the two which appear in her, (the least whereof, namely, that which appears in the part which the Sun enlightens not, (in the increase and decrease) many think to be her own:) which borrow'd light increases or diminishes according as she removes farther from, or comes nearer to the Sun; whence the diversity of her faces. From which diversity of faces 'tis con∣cluded further, that the figure of the face towards us is spherical, convex, either rough or smooth. But smooth it cannot be, be∣cause then it would represent the very Image of the Sun to us very small, and in a small part of its face, the rest remaining dark, by the aforesaid observations of Looking-glasses; wherefore it must be rough or unequal, because the whole face appears lucid when 'tis beheld by the Sun at the full, and no image of the Sun appears distinctly in it. For 'tis certain, that the Moon sends her borrow'd light by reflection, and not by refraction; otherwise she should be diaphanous, and would appear most illuminated when near the Sun, and be full in her conjunction, and obscure in her full; because she's lower then the Sun, and so in con∣junction

his light would appear through her; and in her full, which is her opposition, the Sun's light would pass through her towards Heaven, not towards us. Wherefore, as to the spots of the Moon, it may be said, in general, that she is unequally seabrous, and the dark parts are nearest smoothness, and so make a more orderly reflection, but another way then to the Earth, the Angles of Incidence and Reflection being not dispos'd thereunto. But they are not perfectly smooth, because they transmit a little light to us; which they could not do being perfectly smooth, unless at a certain time when the Sun were so dispos'd, as that his Image might be seen in those parts, as in a Spherical Mirror. The other more scabrous parts making a disorderly and irregular reflection, are seen on all parts; as if you fasten pieces of glass, marble, or the like smooth bodies, to a wall enlighten'd by the Sun, the rough parts of the wall will appear very bright, and the smooth obscure. But because we know not truly what is the matter of the Heavenly Bodies, we can onely say, for proof of this unevenness in the Moon's body, that the rougher parts are more hard, and the less rough are liquid; for then the liquor surrounding the centre of the Moon, as the water doth about that of the earth, will have a surface more approach∣ing to smoothness as the water hath; and this, without in∣ferring it compos'd of earth and water, but of some celestial matter like to our elementary, and whose fluidity or hardness doth not prejudice its incorruptibility; those who hold the Heavens solid or liquid, holding them equally incorruptible. Unless we had rather say, that the body of the Moon being all of the same hardness, may nevertheless have parts unequally rough and smooth.

The Third said, That he apprehended two causes of these spots. First, the diverse conformation of these celestial bodies, which being no more perfectly round then the earth (which ne∣vertheless would appear spherical to us if it were luminous) make shadows inseparable from bodies of other figure then the plain. Secondly, from the weakness of our Sight, which as it phancies colours in the clouds which are not in them, (no more then the Air is blew, though it appear to us, and we paint it such;) so being dazled by a luminous body, and the visual ray being dis∣gregated, it makes sundry appearances therein, which can be onely dark and obscure in a thing which is lucid. For I would not attribute these spots, which represent the lineaments of a face, to such a phancy as that of Antiphon, who saw his own picture in the Air, since they are observ'd by all people after the same manner: but the weakness of our Sight may contribute some∣thing thereunto. For if we say that every celestial body is an earth, and that the bright part is the terrestrial mass, and the dark the water, or the contrary; it will be necessary that this earth also have its Heaven, that its stars, and so to infinity.

The Fourth said, That they who have imagin'd spots in the

Sun, had them in their Eyes, it being improbable that there is any defect of light in that Star which is the fountain of it; but they are produc'd by the vapours between the Sun and the Eye, and therefore appear not at full noon, and change with the va∣pours and clouds. As for those which appear in the Moon's face, there is great diversity of opinions; as of the Rabbines and Ma∣hometans, of the ancient Philosophers reported by Plutarch in his treatise thereof, and of the moderns. The first are ridicu∣lous, in believing that Lucifer, by his fall, and the beating of his wings, struck down part of the light of this great Luminary, or that the same was taken away to frame the Spirits of the Pro∣phets. Those Philosophers who attributed the cause to the vio∣lence of the Sun-beams reflected from the Moon to our Eyes, would conclude well if the like spots appear'd in the Sun as do in the Moon; because the rayes coming directly from the Sun to the Eyes have more brightness, and dazle more, then those reflected by the Moon. Nor can these spots be the Images of the Sea and its Streights; for the Ocean surrounding the Terrestrial Globe, that part of it which remains in the lower part of the Globe cannot send its species so far as the Moon, whilst she enlightens the upper part; the Moon being able to receive onely the species of that part which she enlightens, ac∣cording to the principles of Theodosius, who teaches us that from the Zenith of one Hemisphere right lines cannot be drawn to the other Hemisphere, by reason of the solidity of the Globe; the caliginous fire, the wind, the condensation of the Air, and the like opinions of the Stoicks, and other ancient Philosophers, though erroneous, yet seem to me more probable then those of some Moderns, who will have the Moon inhabited, not consi∣dering that 'tis too small to make an habitable earth, her body being the fortieth part of the Terrestrial Globe, and its surface the thirteenth of that of the Earth, or thereabouts; besides, that she comes too near the Sun, whose Eclipse her interposition causeth, They who make the Moon and the Earth to move about the Sun, may indeed, with Copernicus, explicate the most signal motions and phaenomena: But the stability of the Pole, and the Stars about it, requires a fix'd point in the Earth, with which the inequality of the dayes and seasons could not consist, if the Sun were stable and in one place. Moreover, the differ∣ence of dayes proceeds from the obliquity of the Ecliptick, which is the cause that the parallels of the Solstice are nearer one to another, and the dayes then less unequal then at the Equi∣noxes, which cannot hold good in this Scheme. But 'tis less reasonable to say, that the hollow places in the Moon seem dark; for by the rules of perspective, they should remit the Sun's rayes redoubled by their reflection, by reason of the cone which is form'd in hollow parts; nor can they be eminences, which ap∣pear obscure, because in this case the spots should not appear so great, or not come at all to us, being surpass'd by the dilatation

of the rayes redoubled by the conical figure of the cavities of the Moon. 'Tis therefore more probable that as a Star is the thicker part of its Orbe, so the Moon hath some dense then others which are the most luminous; as those which are more diaphanous, letting those beams of the Sun pass through them, which they are not able to reflect for want of sufficient density, seem more obscure, and make the spots.

The fifth said, The spots of the Sun cannot be from the same causes with those of the Moon, which experience shews us changes place and figure, those of the Sun remaining always alike, and in the same figure; whereby we may also understand the validity of what is alledg'd by some, That the Sun moving upon his own Centre carries his spots about with him: For granting this motion, yet if these spots interr'd in the Sun, they would always appear in the same manner, and at regular times, by reason of the Sun's equal and uniform revolution. Never∣theless, the most diligent observers find that some of them are generated, and disappear at the same time in the Solar face. Which would incline me to their opinion who hold those spots to be generated out of the body of the Sun, in the same manner that exhalations are out of the bosom of the earth; did not this derogate from the receiv'd incorruptibility of the Heavens. For it cannot be any defect of our sight, mistaking the vapours between the eye and the Sun for spots inherent in his body, since they are seen by all, almost in the same number and figure; which should alter with the medium if this were the cause of them; and 'tis impossible that vapours should follow the Sun in his course for so many days together as one of these spots ap∣pears; for it must move above 6000 leagues a day, though it were not much elevated above the earth. Nor do our Tele∣scopes deceive us, since without them we behold these spots in a Basin of water, or upon a white paper in a close Chamber, where∣into the Sun is admitted only by a small hole. Nor, Lastly, are they small Stars, call'd by some Borboneae and Mediceae, because we perceive both their nativity and their end.

II. Whether 'tis best to use ••••∣verity or gen∣tleness to∣wards our dependents.

Upon the second Point 'twas said, That he who said a man hath as many domestick enemies as servants, imply'd that we are to use them as such, converse with them as in an Enemy-Country, and according to the Counsel of good Captains build some Fort therein for our security. Which Fort is severity, and its Bastions the reasons obliging us to this rigour. The first of which is drawn from the contempt ensuing upon gentleness and familiarity, and from the respect arising from severity and gravity, especially in low and servile souls, which being ill edu∣cated would easily fall into vice; to which men are more inclin'd then to vertue, if they be not restrain'd by fear of punishment, which makes deeper impression upon their minds then the sweet∣ness and love of virtue wherewith they are not acquainted.

Besides that servants are apt to grow slack and luke-warm in their duties, unless they be spurr'd up by severity. And 'tis a great disorder when a servant becomes equal to his master, as it happens by mildness; nor was Paganism ever more ridiculous then in the Saturnalia, when the servants play'd the masters. It must likewise be confess'd that severity hath a certain majesty which exacts such honour and service as gentleness cannot ob∣tain. By this virtue Germanicus became so considerable, and was so well obey'd, as, on the contrary, Nerva's mildness weakned and enervated the Roman Commonwealth. Was ever King more severe, and better obey'd then Tamberlane, or any family more powerfully establish'd then that of the Ottamans, which owes all its grandeur to severity and rigour, the sole upholder of Mili∣tary Discipline, a good Captain never pardoning any in war. For the misery of inferiors, whether true or imaginary, joyn'd with the natural desire of liberty, easily carries them to rebel∣lion, if fear and rigour tye not their hands. Thus the war un∣dertaken by the Servants against their Masters at Rome was the effect of mildness; nor was there any other means to repress it but by blood and slaughter; as another Nation once routed an Army of their Slaves with Whips and Stirrup-leathers; the sight of which reviving the memory of their former scars was more effectual then ordinary weapons. Therefore when the Law gave power of life and death over slaves, it intended not to authorize homicide, being sufficiently careful of men's lives; but judg'd it expedient to retain these persons in their duty by the apprehension of death. The reason which once oblig'd the Senate to put 600 innocent slaves to death, for an example to others.

The Second said, whatever security there may be in severity, it hath effects too violent to be durable. Man's mind is too de∣licate a piece; and whatever difference fortune hath put be∣tween men, their spirit, which is the same in all, is too noble to be curb'd with a cudgel and biting of brutish severity; which on the other side causes hatred, as mildness doth love, and is therefore to be prefer'd; there being none but had rather be lov'd then hated, and no way to be belov'd but by loving. For the same Proverb which reckons servants amongst necessary evils, reckons a wife so too; and the tyrannical Aphorism, So many servants so many enemies, is not true but in those who have cause given them to be so. And indeed, a Master's condition would be the worst of all, if he must live always at home upon his guard, as in a den of Lyons or Tygres. For, what is al∣ledg'd, that servants are ill bred and ill-natur'd, and seldom ac∣knowledge the obligations they have to their Masters, is indeed too true in the most eminent conditions: but that which we call ingratitude in them, comes especially from the rigour of our deportments, which offuscate the benefits and commodities they receive from us. Their low fortune is unpleasant enough, with∣out

making them desperate to our prejudice. And indeed, the Laws which have allow'd most severity to Masters over their slaves, have sometimes been insufficient to secure them from the fatal strokes of their discontent; as many Histories of Roman Masters murder'd by their slaves (notwithstanding that rigour of Silanus's Law) and the dangerous revolts of Spartacus, and others in the Provinces, sufficiently testifie. Whence it appears, that a man must be in as much fear of his servants as he would be fear'd by them; and that suspicion and diffidence is as well the mother of treacheries as of safety, since it seems to leave those whom we distrust to do all the mischief they can. For to pre∣tend severity, for avoidance of contempt and too great familiari∣ty, in my judgement speaks great weakness of mind; and as if dominion and majesty could not be more agreeably maintain'd by clemency: and gravity affected by rigour is as ridiculous as odious; yea 'tis to fall into an extremity too vicious, to make one's self hated for fear of being sleighted, and to appear cruel to avoid being familiar.

The Third said, That although gentleness be more accepta∣ble then severity, yet 'tis also more dangerous: witness that of Lewis the Debonnaire, and Eli the chief Priest, towards their children, for whom the Wiseman recommends the rod, as Ari∣stotle doth discipline for servants and slaves: and the indulgence of good husbands to their wives is the most apparent cause of the luxury reigning in that Sex, to say no worse. A family is a kind of Republick, and the principles of Occonomy and Poli∣cy are much alike. Now we see States are preserv'd by the ex∣act severity of Laws, signifi'd by the Rods, Axes, Maces and naked Swords, born by Magistrates, and the Scepters of Kings. But no Magistrates have Ensigns of gentleness, as being more dangerous, because directly oppos'd to justice, all whose rights and priviledges are preserv'd by severity. And hence clemency is not permitted to be us'd by inferior Judges, but that it may be more rare, 'tis reserv'd to Princes themselves who are above Laws and Customs.

The Fourth said, It belongs to Prudence to determine when, how, where and why, ways of gentleness or severity are to be us'd; some minds being exasperated by severity, like those tempers on which violent medicines work least; and others turning sweetness into bitterness, whilst they think it to pro∣ceed from timerousness or impotence, and so take license to do any thing, whom benigne medicines act not. But, to speak ab∣solutely, the way of gentleness must always precede and be found unprofitable before coming to rigour, according to the precept of the Physitians, who use fire and cauteries only when the malignity of the malady will not yield to ordinary reme∣dies, which the ancient Arabians never us'd till having first try'd a diet and regiment of living. Nor do's wise Nature ever use violence till she is forc'd to it by some potent cause, as the

fear of Vacuity, or the penetration of Dimensions. In all the rest of her actions she proceeds with sweetness, wherewith she hath so endow'd man, that the same humour which gives and preserves his being, namely, Blood, is the cause of Clemency and Gentleness, call'd for this reason Humanity. Wherefore 'tis more sutable to our nature then to lean towards its contrary; and the way from gentleness to rigour is more rational and natural then from rigour to gentleness. For when a rough master speaks flatteringly to his servants, they are no more mov'd therewith then a Horse accustom'd to the spur is with the voice alone. Yea, a Horse that will not stir for words will go for the spur; and Masters who incessantly rate and beat their servants, are like those ill Horse-men who have alwayes their spurs in the Horses sides, where they make by this means a callous scar, insensible to the most quick stimulations.