Observations topographical, moral, & physiological made in a journey through part of the low-countries, Germany, Italy, and France with a catalogue of plants not native of England, found spontaneously growing in those parts, and their virtues / by John Ray ... ; whereunto is added a brief account of Francis Willughby, Esq., his voyage through a great part of Spain.

The Procurators of St. MARK.

The Office of Procurator is of great reputation in this City. Though it be not of the number of those which have to do with the administration and government of the Commonwealth: yet is it ho∣nourable, because, as that of the Duke, it continues for life; and is besides ancient, and hath maintained its Reputation to the present times. There was ne∣ver any Gentleman of great esteem in the City, but he was adorned with this Dignity: so that very few have been Dukes since this Magistracy was ordained but they have before been Procurators. Anciently there was but one Procurator made, to take care of the Church of St. Mark and its treasure; but after the death of Sebastian Ciani, he having left a great Legacy to St. Marks, the Revenues whereof were to be distributed by the Procurator; one person not sufficing for so much business, it was found necessary

to create another; whose charge it should be to su∣perintend and manage the Legacy of Sebastian Ciani. Afterwards Legacies being multiplied, in the year 1270. in the time of Rinieri Zeno, a third was thought fit to be created; and they did so divide the business among them, that one took care of the Church, an∣other of the Legacies bequeathed by them that dwelt on this side the great Chanel; and the third of their Legacies who dwelt on the other side of the great Chanel. In the same Dukes time there was a fourth created to be Collegue with him that governed the Church and its Treasures. For the same reason two more were added when John Soranzo was Duke. Afterwards in the year 1423. when Francis Foscaro was made Duke there were three more created anew; so that then the whole number was nine; three of whom took care of the Church and its Treasures; three of the Legacies of the three Sestieri on one side the great Chanel; and three of the Legacies of the three Sestieri on the other side. In the year 1509. when the Republics Armies were broken and routed at Addua by Lewis XII, King of France, they were constrained to create six for mony, conferring that honour upon such as would lend the Commonwealth such a certain sum. These Procurators have power to compel Heirs to perform the Wills of the Testators. They wear Ducal habits, and carry servants about with them; and have the precedence of all other Magistrates. In processons the Counsellors and three Capi de Quaranta take place of them. They have either an habitation assigned them, or 60 Ducats per annum allowed. They all enter into the Coun∣cil of Pregadi, but not all into the Council of Ten, but only nine chosen by the said Council, three for a Procuracy. They are not capable of any other Ma∣gistracy, except that of Savio grande and the Gi∣unta of the Council of X. When there is a Captain of the Armata, or a Proveditor of the Camp to be

chosen, there is a Law made in the Pregadi, that any one that is Procurator may obtain that Dignity. They cannot go to the Great Council, but only in the Election of the Duke; which license is then granted them by an especial Law. They were wont anciently upon all those days the Great Council met, during all the time the Council sate, to continue in the Court of the Palace, and never to depart thence till the Great Council was risen; that if any unex∣pected or suddain accident should happen they might be ready to remedy or assist. And this perchance was the reason that it was forbidden them to go to the Great Council. But in our time this usance is not ob∣served, because of that quiet and tranquility the Commonwealth enjoys: Which is such, that no man thinks there can any accident happen in the City which shall require the presence of the Procurators more is one place than in another. There is no Ma∣gistracy or Dignity in the City of much desired by the Gentlemen as this of Procurator: Yet I think that it hath lost much of its ancient reputation. For whereas formerly it was not wont to be granted to any but ancient men, and great repute; in our times we have seen many adorned therewith, who were neither of mature age, nor great esteem and credit.

Of the other Officers and Magistrates (whereof this Republic hath good store) I shall say nothing, they belonging rather to the administration of Justice and particular civil affairs, then the Government of the Commonwealth. Only it is worth the notice ta∣king, that they have so many Offices divided among the Gentlemen, to busie and employ the greater num∣ber of them, that so having something to entertain their time with, they may not be at leisure to think upon innovating in the Government, or any way de∣sign and practice against the constitution of the Commonwealth, to the disturbance of the peace.

The Gentlemen while they are in the City wear black Gowns with narrow sleeves, and caps; with∣out which habit they never appear in the streets, or any public place. In the Piazza of S. Mark, that side next the Great Council-chamber is appropriated to them to walk in, where no others mingle with them. This walk, or rather the company of Gentlemen walking together there; they call the Broil [Broglio.] The principal diversion of the Gentlemen, Citizens, and Strangers is to walk in this Piazza.

The present Citizens of what quality or estate so∣ever have no share or interest at all in the Govrern∣ment of the Commonwealth. Probable it is, that when the Creat Council was shut up (as they phrase it) that is, determined to such a number of Families excluding all the rest, that all the Citizens of any quality were therein comprehended; because before that time the Government having been common to all, it is not likely the present establishment would have taken place without commotion and distur∣bance, if there had been a considerable number of Citizens of fashion and interest left out. Formerly this honour hath been given to many Citizens of eminent merit. Lately since the Wars with the Turks in Candy for 100000 Ducats any Citizen might be created Nobleman▪ By which means the State raised millions of Ducats there ha∣ving been more then fourscore Families advanced to that Dignity.

They put not weapons into the Citizens hands, but chuse rather to make use of mercenary Souldiers in their Wars.

There is no Law that prohibits any Citizen to be chosen to any place or Office by the Great Council, nor doth there need it: For that they are as sure not to be cosen as though there were such a Law, the interest of the Nobility being as strong a bar to such a choice as Law would be. And yet Gianotti saith,

that some have attained to be nominated and balloted in the Great Council.

The air, notwithstanding the situation of the Ci∣ty, is held to be very good and healthful, and (which is more) agreeable to people of all countreys and tempers. We never enjoyed our health better, nor had better stomachs to our meat in any place beyond the Seas then we had heer.

Heer we first saw the Ludicrum, called by some Diabolus in carc••re, from a little hollow glass-image made like the Picture of the Devil (though a glass-bubble would serve the purpose as well or better) which being put into a cylindrical glass-tube full of water they could make ascend, descend or rest in any part of the tube at pleasure. The manner thus, They prepare an icuncula or glass-bubble hollow and ha∣ving in the heavier end of it a little hole of such a poise as just to ascend and swim in water, and having put it into a glass-tube stopt close or sealed at one end, and almost full of water, they clap their hand on the mouth of the tube, and press down the air upon the superficies of the water. The water being thus prest, presses upon the air in the icuncula or bubble; which giving place, part of the water thrusts into it by the little hole. The bubble thereupon be∣coming heavier sinks in the water. Then taking up the hand and removing the force, the air in the icuncula or bubble by its elastic power expands it self, and expelling the water again, the icuncula or bubble ascends; and so by proportioning the force they can make it not only ascend and descend from top to bottom, but rest at what point of height or depth they please. Of this and other ludicrous ex∣periments concerning the motion of these bubbles, I shall not think much heer to set down what Doctor Cornelius of Naples hath delivered in his Progymnas∣mata Physica, Epist. de Circumpulsione Platonica I was (saith he) informed by Lud. Casalius of an expe∣riment

invented at Florence, viz. Two glass-bubbles being put into a vessel of water were so alternately moved, that in cold water the one sank to the bot∣tom, the other swam on the top; but putting in a little hot water they changed places, that at the bot∣tom ascending up to the top, and that on the top sinking down to the bottom. Being taken with the novity of the thing, I applyed my mind to consider what might be the Physical reson of it, and soon found out how it might be effected, to wit, one of these Glass-bubbles was perforated with a little hole on the heavier side, and blown so light as to swim in water: then some of the air being suckt out, there was so much water let in in the room thereof, as to make the bubble sink in cold water, which upon fil∣ling the Vessel with hot water would mount up to the top. For the air in the bubble being rarefied or dila∣ted by the heat of the water presently expells the water contained in the bubble, and so the bubble be∣coming lighter ascends, The other glass-bubble is imperforate and made of that poise as to swim in cold water and sink in hot. He goes on.

Sed cùm in ejusmodi ludicris inventis occuparemur, rumor ad aures nostras perfertur, versari in manibus viri cujusdam in∣geniosi admirabile artificium, nempe vitreum tubum aquâ plenum, in quae plures orbiculi vitrei sursum de∣orsumque ferebantur ad nutum ejus qui tubi ostium digito obturabat. Tum eò cogita••ionem intendi, ut qua rati∣oneid fieri posset assequerer: neque diu haesitaveram, cùm intellexi orbiculos illos esse aliquanto levioures aqua, & for∣amina habere, per qua digiti pressu aqua intruderetur; aere intus contento in minus spatium coacto; ut proinde orbiculi graviores facti fundum peterent: at mox digito laxato dum aer sese iterum ad debitam expansionem redi∣geret, aquam per foramen extrudi; atque idcirco orbi∣culos levioures factos iterum sursum adsurgere.

Quibus animadversis memoria mihi suggesit ea, quae aliàs meditatus eram de impulsu aquae in cavum orbis

infra illam demersi, cujus supra facta est mentio, Quam∣obrem existimavi posse orbiculos perforatos sursum vel de∣orsum ferri, & in medio libratos detineri, absque ulla caloris aut frigoris vi: Item sine ullo digiti manúsve pressu; sed tantùm impulsu ipsius aquae, quae modò ma∣jorem modò minorem altitudinem supra dictos orbiculos assequeretur, hoc scilicet modo.

In tubum vitreum retortum ABCD aquae plenum im∣mittantur orbiculi perforati B, C, D, quae ità aquae tubo inclusae innatent, ut minimi ponderis ac∣cess••one

[illustration]

fundum petant; tum digito com∣primente vel spiritu adacto, cogantur di∣cti orbiculi ad fundum descendere, tubùs∣que ità invertatur, ut illi versus D feran∣tur. Quibus positis observabimus dictos orbiculos per tubulum BCD ascendere & descendere pro ratione inclinationis ipsius tubi. Etenim cùm recta AB horizonti perpendiculariter insistit, globuli ex D descendunt versus B; at contra càm tubus ità aptatur ut recta AB ad horizontem in∣clinetur, tunc iidem orbiculi ex B ascen∣dent versus D.

At verò positis globulis, ut ferè semper contingit, aliquo gravitatis excessu sese superantibus, tunc poterimus multiformi ter illos movere; namque alter pessum ibit dum reliqui sursum feruntur; item alius quovis in loco quasi libratus pendebit; si scilicet organum tantundem inclinemus, quantum ad opus requiri experientiâ didi∣cerimus.

Ratio cur haec ità contingant manife∣sta est ex iis, quae jam exposuimus de aqua, quae in orbiculos eò •• opiosiùs intruditur, quo fuerit altior, ut accidit cùm tubus AB ad horizontis planum erectum fuerit, nam ex inclinatione ipsius tubi aquae altitudo decrescit ac proinde ejus vis seu conatus fit minor.

Structuram vitrei tubi usus docebit: Id curandum est petissimùm, ut ejusdem crura AB, DB quodammodo parallela sint; altitudo autem BA altitudini BD tripla vel quadrupla. Tubus aequalem ubique habeat ampli∣tudinem, vel in crure BA, sit aliquanto amplior quàm in crure BD.

Orbiculi eâ parte quae pertusa est praeponderent, ut dum in aqua librantur foramina deorsum vergant, &c.

A Nobleman of this City shewed us a Boy, who had a faculty of charging his belly with wind, and discharging it again backward at pleasure; which we saw him perform. When he charged himself he lay upon his hands and knees, and put his head on the ground almost between his legs.

The same Nobleman shewed us the experiment, and gave us the receipt of a fulminating powder, which will do almost as well as that chargeable one made of gold. Take of salt of Tartar one part, of com∣mon Brimstone two parts, of Nitre or Salt-peter three parts; put these three all at once into a Mortar, beat them fine and mingle them well together. Take of this powder and put it on a plate of iron, or in a fire∣pan or other vessel, and hold it over a flame of fire or a pan of charcoal: When the powder begins to melt, it will explode with a very smart crack like to Aurum fulminans. The same or the like fulmina∣ting powder hath been since shewn us by Mr. Fisher of Sheffield. It is not unlikely that there may be se∣veral sorts of powder made, which shall explode and fulminate after this fashion.

The same Gentleman also shew'd us the whole process of making Venice-Sope, which is very like and nothing inferiour to Castile-Sope. It is made of the best Oil Olive, and a lixivium or Lye. The lixivium is thus made. They take of the ashes of Kali, made in Spain, and in England known by the name of Beriglia, two thirds, of Kelp, i. e. the ashes of the ordinary Sea-wrack one third. These they

break into small pieces with a mallet or hammer, and mingle well together. This done they put them into a mill, such as we grind apples in to make Cider, and grind them to powder, and then sift them. This powder they mingle with a little slaked lime, and make it up into pellets, which they put into letches or troughs, and pouring water upon them make the Lixivium. The Cauldrons wherein they boil their Sope are very large. The bottom of them is a copper vessel, but the sides are made up of stone close ce∣mented together, bound about with iron hoops, and enclosed in a case of Wood. Into these Cauldrons they put a great quantity of Oil, it may be one third part of the measure, or more or less as they please: then they fill them up with the lixivium, and putting fire under it, cause it to boil continually; as the lixivium boils away still filling it up with new, till all the oil be consumed or boiled out of it. For the oil uniting it self with the salt of the lixivium rises continually up to the top in the form of a scum or froth, which by degrees grows thicker and thicker, and by reason of the cold of the air condenses into that body we call Sope. This scum continues to rise so long as there is any oil remaining in the vessels; the cremor or coat of Sope growing still thicker. Those that are practised can tell by the smell when all the oil is boiled away. The lixivium they account strong enough so long as it will bear an egg. This lixivium they make of Sea water, but they told us they might as well make it of fresh water. To ex∣pedite the making the lixivium, they take some of the boiling lixivium out of the Cauldrons; to which purpose there is a pipe comes out of the Cauldron in the region of the lixivium, whereby they let out the boiling lixivium into a trough; and this together with cold water they pour upon the ashes to promote the separation of the salt. When the oil is boil'd away they let all cool, and taking the cremor or crust

of Sope off the superficies of the liquor, spread it upon a floor, and smooth it, and so let it dry in a bed of more then a bricks thickness. When it is dried they cut it long ways and cross ways into ob∣long parallelograms, or the figure of oblong bricks, there being nicks in the borders of the beds on pur∣pose to direct the instruments to cut it. This done they pare these pieces from any impurities that may adhere to them from the bottom of the bed, (For the beds are all strowed with Lime-dust to hinder the sticking of the Sope to the floor) and run them over a plane, to smooth them. These large pieces they subdivide into lesser, and seal them with a Seal.

The reason why they mix Kelp with the Beriglia, is because Beriglia alone would make the Sope too soft, and Kelp alone too brittle.

To colour the Sope green they take the juyce of Beet, a good quantity, and put it into the Cauldron with the lixivium and oyl. The Germans will have it thus coloured, and perhaps the Nitre which is in this juyce may add some vigour to the Sope.

The fire is continually kept burning, and so the liquor boiling till the operation be finished.