An entire body of philosophy according to the principles of the famous Renate Des Cartes in three books, (I) the institution ... (II) the history of nature ... (III) a dissertation of the want of sense and knowledge in brute animals ... / written originally in Latin by the learned Anthony Le Grand ; now carefully translated from the last corrections, alterations, and large additions of the author, never yet published ... by Richard Blome.

The Seventh Part OF THE INSTITUTION OF PHILOSOPHY. OF LIVING CREATURES In General: And Specially of PLANTS and ANIMALS. (Book 7)

The INTRODUCTION. Of the Division of Living Creatures.

I. The Divisi∣on of Bodies into such as are living and desti∣tute of Life. HItherto we have considered the Nature of Inanimate Bodies, whe∣ther hid in the Bowels of the Earth, or exposed in the Face of the Heavens. And now we pro∣ceed to Living Bodies, viz. Plants and Animals, which are comprehended under this General Notion, because they are endued with Life, and are furnisht with Instruments appropria∣ted to Nutrition, Growth and Propagation. For all Bodies in the Universe are either Living or de∣void of Life. Amongst those that are without Life are reckoned the Heaven, the Stars, Fire, Air, Water, Earth, Metals, Stones and Fossils or things dug out of the Earth: So that of all the Creatures contained in the World, Plants and Animals only are endued with Life.

II. What Li∣ving Bo∣dies are. Now we call those Living Bodies, that have received from the Author of Nature such a Dispo∣sition of an Organical Body, as that by innumera∣ble passages and conveyances it hath, the Alimen∣tary juice, being by motion thrust into them, is by the Soul every way dispersed and distributed, for their Nourishment, Growth and Conservation. They are called Living Bodies from the Life they possess, and Animate Bodies from their Soul.

III. What the Vegetative Soul is. This Soul, a fit Disposition of Parts being first supposed, chiefly consists in the Innate or Inborn∣heat, which is a Heating, but not a Shining Fire, generated in Bodies at their first Production, by means whereof the Alimentary Juice, for their con∣servation, is duly prepared, and distributed through∣out the whole Body, and joined to the several parts of it, for a supply of that which daily wastes away, by which means Vegetation, that is, Nourishment or Nutrition, and Encrease or Growth are per∣formed. And therefore this Soul is called Vegetative.

IV. Why a Bo∣dy is said to live and die. The Life flows from this Soul. For if the Heat be preserved and maintained by convenient Moi∣sture, as its proper Food, then that Body is said to Live; and on the contrary to Die or Perish, when Cold and Driness do so predominate in it, as that the Inborn Heat becomes thereby diminished or quite taken away.

V. There are two Gene∣ral Heads of Living Bodies, Plants and Animals. Now forasmuch as PLANTS and ANIMALS do both of them enjoy the common degree of Life, and resort under Vegetable as under their Immedi∣ate Genus or General Head, we must first consider their Affections, and whatsoever doth in ge∣neral belong to them; as for Example, wherein chiefly the Nature of Living Bodies doth consist; how such as are Vegetable differ from those that are de∣void of Vegetation; what that Heat is whereby they are Cherished and Live, and whence their difference is deriv'd. For there are two General Heads of Living Bodies; the First whereof are those, which according to their outward and inward shape exhi∣bit a substance equally extended; and wherein from the top to the bottom we perceive but one and the same progress of Nature; so that all their parts are nourished, grow and are generated, without any distinction in their operations; their Bodies being as so many Channels and Pipes through which the Food is transmitted, and in which it undergoes several changes. And these are called PLANTS, which draw up an Alimentary Juice out of the Earth by their Roots into the Stem or Stalk, which from thence is conveighed and sub∣lim'd to all the utmost parts.

VI. The Defini∣on of a Plant. A PLANT therefore is a Living Body furnisht with a Skin, Strings, Root, Stalk or Stem, and other Organical Parts, and is nourisht, grows and produceth its like from prolifick Seed, only by means of a Vegetative Soul. So that all these Plants which spring out of the Earth, or grow in standing Pools or Water, or elsewhere, provided they grow and are nourished, whether they have Roots or not, whether they have Leaves or not, whether they have Flowers and Fruit, or have on∣ly a Root, all these, I say, are called Plants.

VII. Plants are divided into Trees and Herbs. But forasmuch as the name of Plant doth not only belong to those Bodies which grow out of the ground by their Roots; but also to all those that grow upon other Plants, or that spring out of the ground some other way; therefore Plants by a general division may be distinguished into TREES and HERBS, as the two members that comprehend all Plants. A Tree is a Plant rising out of the ground with a woody Stem or Stalk, and grow∣ing up to considerable Height. An Herb is a Plant consisting of Leaves and a tender Stalk, never rising to the tallness or thickness of Trees. Some Authors, besides these 2 members, place a SHRUB as a third thing between a Tree and an Herb, but, as it seems, without any necessity, forasmuch as there be no Plants but may be conveniently re∣duced either to Trees or Herbs; a Shrub being no∣thing else, but a Tree, which rising out of the Earth, variously spreads it self into Branches and Leaves from the Root. For a Shrub riseth higher from the ground than an Herb doth. As to Mushrooms, &c. they may be reckon'd amongst those Plants, that grow upon other Plants or spring forth at their Roots. To which also may be referred some Plants, which do not spring out of the Earth, but from other Plants, such as are those small Strings that grow upon Pulse, and being intangled with them are carried upwards into the Air. As for Moss it may be well called an Excrementitious Plant, because from its original Seed it grows upon barren Ground, and Stones it self, in which its spreads its Roots.

VIII. The Divisi∣on of Trees into Wild and Dome∣stick. Trees are commonly divided into Wild and Do∣mestick, or such as are cultivated at home, and those that are Outlandish: Not but that all Trees as to their first original may be called Wild, as ha∣ving grown first wild in the Fields: but because there are many Trees, which men do not take the pains to Transplant and Cultivate in their Gardens, and if they should, yet would not they thereby change their wild Nature, whereas others being Transplanted and Cultivated by the industry of men, are much improved thereby.

IX. The Second General Head of Living Creatures are those we call Animals. The Second General Head of Living Bodies are such as consist of a far greater variety and multi∣plicity of Parts, have peculiar motions, and seem to constitute many whole Bodies, which yet are joined together with that proportion, as to produce proper and necessary motions; so that from these different Parts, certain Machines or Engines do arise, most curiously wrought and contrived, which are called Animals, whose members are not only complete in themselves, but are also joined with that exact Symmetry and Proportion, as to conspire to the Good and Profit of the Whole, and concur to one motion. And notwithstanding that in the Praedicamental Line, and the Genealogy of Things and Modes, an Animal is, according to the common way of Philisophizing, constituted by something Sen∣sitive, which is true too, in a certain meaning; yet we are to take heed that we do not by these means attribute to an Animal such a Soul and Sense, as has Perception; since the Sense of an Animal pure∣ly and alone consists in the impression of the Ob∣ject on the Bodily Organ, which may be done without the Help of a Soul.

X. The vari∣ous kinds. Animals. Animals are divided into such as flie in the Air, swim in the Water, go on the Earth, creep, slide along, or such as are altogether immoveable. They may likewise be distinguisht from the difference of their Generation, Parts, Actions and other such like. And accordingly some are Viviparous, such as bring forth Living Creatures; others Oviparous, which lay Eggs, out of which Animals afterwards are hatched. As to Parts, some have Wings, others Fins, some go on two Feet, others on four or more. And others again want all these. As to their Acti∣ons or Manners, some are Tame, others Wild; some Domestick and Sociable, others delighting in Solitude; some Stupid and Dull, others Quick and Cunning. As to the places where they are bred and live, some are Fiery, others Aquatick or Watry, and others Terrestrial. Some live both on the Earth and in the Water, which are therefore called Amphibious; some are Subterraneous, or li∣ving under Ground, &c.

XI. The Sum and Order of things to be treated of in this Seventh Part. The most Noble and Excellent of all Living Creatures is MAN, for the handling of whom we design the Eighth Part of our Institution, as being the Complement of all Animals, and to express my self, as some of the Ancients have done, the Horizon of Heavenly and Sublunary Creatures. Now forasmuch as these Living Things do agree in some affections, we will here first touch upon those, which are common unto them all; and then in special apply our selves to the Contempla∣tion of Plants and Animals, and shall at large set forth the distinction that is between them.

CHAP. I. How Living Bodies differ from those that are Inanimate, and destitute of Life.

I. The word Life is taken in a threefold significa∣tion. IT appears from what hath been already said, that Living Bodies differ from Lifeless things in this, that the one have Life, and the other are devoid of it. But forasmuch as the word LIFE is Aequivocal, and attributed to things that are said to Live under different Notions; we must first consider what Life is, and how many signifi∣cations it admits of. For the Notion of Life is very various and vagrant, but reducible to 3 Gene∣ral Heads. Sometimes we make use of this word to signifie Simple Existence; sometimes, Active Existence; and sometimes also, Coexistence, or the Duration of one thing with another.

II. What a Life of Simple Ex∣stence is. That is a Life of Simple Existence, when the word to Live is taken simply for Existence: As when BOETHIUS defines Eternity, an All at once and perfect Possession of an Interminable Life. And in the same meaning ARISTOTLE calls the Life of Animals, their Being; because when they die, and cease to live, he thought they ceased to be also.

III. What an Active, or Actuous Life is. An Actuous Life, is a Life of Existence, ac∣companied with Action; and in this Sense Life is taken for Action and Operation. Thus Fire, or a Candle, whilst it sends forth a flame is said to live; and so the Vital Spirits are said, to live in a Body, as long as they are in continual motion, and flow through the Veins and other hidden Channels. Thus we call Spring-water, Living, because it bubbles up, and flows continually; but Dead, when it stands still, and is without motion. In like manner, Love is said to be alive, whilst it is strong and active. So Virgil, in 1st Aeneid:

—with Lively Love Strives to fore-stall.

IV. What the Life of Existence with ano∣ther is. The Life of Existence with another is, when Life is taken for the Duration of one thing with another; or for the Duration of some Substance, in conjunction with some Accident, whereby it is perfected. Thus the Life of Man is commonly said, to consist in the Conjunction of Soul and Body, and his Death in their Separation: As when CATULLUS saith, Let's Live my Lesbia: Where, by the word Live, he understands Exi∣stence in conjunction with Joy and Pleasure. So that Life taken in this Sense, consists in the union of two Substances; or in the union of a Substance with some Accident, from which it borrows some kind of Perfection.

V. Of the difference that is be∣tween Li∣ving and Lifeless things. Living things are chiefly distinguish'd from Lifeless things, by the Life of actuous Existence, or because they are endowed with a certain Effi∣cacy and Activity: For their Life properly con∣sists in motion, which the Purest part of the Blood, if they be Animals, or of the Alimentary Juice, if they be Plants, communicates to the grosser parts of their Bodies: So that we find that Plants and Animals do soon perish, when the Blood by its Circulation ceaseth to quicken the Members, and when the Juice does no more enter through the Pores. For as Bodily Life con∣sists in Motion, so Death consists in Rest or ceasing from Action. But for all this, we must not suppose, that there are any Immaterial Souls in Living Bodies, that perform these motions, and the Fun∣ctions of Feeding and Growth; it being sufficient that their Parts be so disposed, as that the prepared Alimentary Juice may freely enter into their Inward parts, and by its apposition, restore and supply their dissipated Substance. Now all this may be done by Motion alone, provided only that the Parts be rightly disposed, and that there be an equal distribution of the Juice by means of Heat. I say therefore, that Living Bodies differ from Lifeless things, in that the former, by reason of the want of Organs, cannot admit such a distribution of Aliment, for the Restoration and supply of what is lost.

VI. By what force or virtue the Alimenta∣ry Juice is distributed through the Pores of Living things. If so be any one demands, by what Force or Activity this Juice is diffused through the pores and passages of the Body, to all its parts, so as that they grow not only in length, but also in breadth and depth?

I Answer, That this is done by means of Heat, proceeding either from the Sun, or from Fire. For such is the Efficacy of the Heavenly matter, that is, of the first and second Element, that by passing through the thicker Particles of the third Element, it doth agitate them, and in so doing doth produce or excite heat in them; by which means these particles being rarefied, are carried upwards through the Pores of the Roots, to the Stalk or Trunk, and all other parts. Besides, there is in all Living Bodies a certain Inborn or Native heat, or rather a fire that is hot only, without Light; by the assistance whereof the Alimentary Juice is distributed through the whole Body, and joyning it self to it, doth preserve, enlarge and per∣fect it.

VII. Lifeless Bodies are not subject to any cer∣tain figure, as Living Bodies are. Living Bodies also differ from such as are Life∣less or Inanimate; because these latter are not de∣termin'd to any certain figure. Thus Stones may subsist under any figure: Some are 6 Corner'd, as CRYSTAL; some have a crooked Surface, as FLINTS; some have a plain surface, like a Plate, as TALCK; some have the figure of a Lozenge or Quarry of Glass. So likewise Metals, and all other things dug out of the Ground, do not require any One precise figure. But Plants and Animals cannot admit this variety of figures, as requiring a certain and determinate Conformation. For a Plant cannot be of any figure, but must have such a one, as is necessary for the drawing, concocting, digesting, and distributing of its Ali∣ment. And 'tis for this Reason, that Living things only are furnish'd with Organical Bodies, which consist of such Instruments, as are proper to per∣form the several Functions of Life; such as are the Root, the Stem or Stalk, the Branches, the young Shoots in Plants; and the Feet, Belly, Head, Bones, &c. in Animals. Wherefore also a greater Beauty is found in the Bodies of Living things, than in Artificial; for since Beauty consists in Variety, it is evident that in Living Bodies there is a much greater diversity of Parts, than in others, whose parts are not so numerous, nor so fine and curious, nor so exactly and neatly joyn'd toge∣ther.

VIII. Artificial Bodies are not capable of Growth and N••u∣ment. Altho' in an Artificial Engin, or Machin, as likewise in a dead Carkass, or a wither'd Plant, there be many such like Organs, as are found in Living Bodies; according to what Historians relate of that Wooden Eagle, made by REGIO∣MONTANUS,

which did fly in the Air, and shewed the way to the Emperour, as he was going to Nurenberg; and of the Wooden Venus, made by DAEDALUS, which could walk by the Arti∣ficial putting of Quicksilver into the Inward parts of it: Yet for all this, Living Bodies are very distinguishable from such Artificial or Dead Bodies; because they are nourished and grow, by the Ali∣mentary Juice admitted into their Pores; whereas Artificial and Dead things are neither capable of Growth nor Nourishment.

IX. Living Bodies are productive of their like. Lastly, Herein also are Plants and Animals differenced from Metals, and other Dead Bodies, in that they can produce their like, and preserve their kind by a successive propagation of Indivi∣duals; which things dug out of the Earth are not capable of, as being destitute of Seed, or any Virtue whereby to generate an Off-spring.

CHAP. II. The Life of Bodily things consists in Moisture and Heat.

I. Living Bodies stand in need of Heat and Moisture. FOrasmuch as such is the Constitution of Li∣ving Bodies, that they consist of several fibres or small threds, between which lye many large Conduits or Passages, through which the Alimentary Juice is strained, and diffused into all parts; it cannot be question'd, but the Life of Plants and Animals is supported by 2 things, viz. Heat and Moisture, which mutually stand in need of, and assist each other. For Moisture is the food of the Heat: And accordingly Physicians tell us, that Life consists in Moisture, as its Passive; and in Heat, as its Active Quality; and that all Vegetative Bodies do subsist and are preserved by the same.

II. The Fire that is in Living Bodies is Hot only. But to remove all Difficulty that might arise from the word Heat; we are to take notice, that we do not speak here of a perfect Fire, which is both hot and bright, but of that which is hot only; such as is found in Horse-dung, and putrifying Hay: Which is therefore distinguish'd from the Coelestial fire in the Sun, and from the Elementary, which burns upon our Hearths; because it doth not con∣sist as those fires do, of Particles that swim in the first Element, and are tost with a vehement Mo∣tion within themselves; but proceeds from a kind of fermentation, caused by a mixture of Hetero∣geneous little Bodies. Tho' indeed, if we well mind its Operations, we shall find it to differ from the 2 former fires, Solar and Culinary, rather in degrees, than in nature and essence.

III. There is a twofold Tempera∣ment in Living Bodies. The one according to Justice. But forasmuch as Fire is very Active, and cannot long be preserved without food, we find that Moisture is of absolute necessity required for its preservation and support. From hence ariseth the Temperament of Living Bodies, when Heat and Cold, Moisture and Drought, are so temper'd and proportioned, that none of these Qualities hinder each other, but with an agreeing Discord harmo∣nize together. And this kind of Temperament is by Physicians called, a Temperament according to Justice, when these Qualities are so mixed, that the Heat in Living Bodies is qualified by Cold, and the Moisture by Drought, according to the requirings of each particular Nature. Because the same Temperament is not always found in Living things, but is changed according to the variety of Ages, or the several Stages of Life. For in Animals, to every different Age, a different Temperament is appropriated; to Childhood, a hot and moist Temperament; to Youth, hot and dry; to Manly Age, cold and moist; to Old Age, cold and dry Complexion. And these Temperaments are therefore said to be according to Justice, because they of Property and Justice belong to such and such Ages.

IV. The other according to Weight. To this Temperament another is opposed, which is called a Temperament according to Weight, wherein all the Qualities are in an Equal poise; so as Heat doth not exceed Cold, nor Cold, Heat: Moisture doth not exceed Drought, nor Drought, Moisture; but are altogether equal in degrees. But it does not seem probable, that any Body is possest of such a Temperament, neither is there any Cause assignable that might thus temper and poise these Qualities; and therefore this is a Tempera∣ment in Notion only, as GALEN saith, and not Real.

V. The in∣crease of Living things, is from Heat. Forasmuch therefore as Heat and Moisture are required to a due Vegetation of Living Bodies, it happens, that according to the Exuperance of either of these Qualities, a more abundant produ∣ction of Living things is occasioned. Thus in Summer time, when Heat bears sway, abundance of Magots breed in Flesh, Bees in the Carkass of an Heifer, Humming-Bees or Drones in that of an Ass, Hornets in that of a Mule, and Wasps in the Carkass of an Horse: It is in the same Season also, that Dead Flies recover Life. And accord∣ingly it will not be difficult to give a Reason, why Spices grow only in Hot Countries, because they stand in need of a great degree of Heat before they can arrive to that Purity, by a separation of the Hete∣rogeneous particles, that so the Homogeneous may come together, and constitute those Odoriferous Bodies. And therefore, as my Lord VERULAM tells us, Trees planted on a hot-Bank, and exposed to the South and South-East, do bud sooner than others, and bring forth more early fruit. And the same he saith of Trees planted near the Wall of a Chimney, wherein continual fires are kept; and that it is good for the same purpose, to let the Branches of Trees spread into those places where frequent fires are used. Of which we have a preg∣nant Instance in Vines, which according as they are more advantagiously situated, do by a whole Months time, sooner than others, bear Ripe Grapes.

VI. Dung, by its Heat, doth hasten the springing of Plants, and makes the Ground fruitful. It is for this very Reason, that Country-men do Dung their Grounds; not only because the Dung doth fatten the Earth, whereby more plentiful Nourishment is conveigh'd to Plants; but also because by its warmth it comforts and refresheth the Ground, which was weak and languishing by reason of cold. For the Dung of Animals is Salt, and contains an Inward heat. And accordingly we find, that those who desire to hasten the springing and growing of their Plants, do take care very well to Dung their Gardens and Plots of Ground, before they sow their Seed. To this end also they pour stale Urine at the Roots of Vines, to make them more fruitful.

VII. How Moi∣sture is a cause of the increase of Living things. As store of Heat doth conduce to the great increase of Plants and Fruits, so much Moisture also is a great help to the multiplication of them,

when accompanied with convenient heat and warmth. Thus we find, that in Moist places Grass grows thicker, and riseth to a greater height, than in Dry Grounds. In like manner we see, that Herbs will grow in Glass Vials, fill'd only with Water. We find also, that the Hair of Young-men and Children grows much faster and thicker, because Moisture abounds in them: And Trees and Plants, that are much water'd, do thereby thrive the more; for by frequent watring, the Dryness of the Soil is temper'd, and the Roots are softned, and thereby made more fit to suck the Juice out of the Ground, and to send it up to the utmost Branches. So the fittest time for the watering of Plants, is the Evening; because the Cool of the Night following, gives the Moisture leave to sink down to the Roots, and refresh them.

VIII. Mouldiness proceeds from Moi∣sture. How greatly Moisture conduceth to Germina∣tion, may be gather'd from Moss, which delights in moist places, and grows even upon those Rocks and Stones that are continually water'd with Springs. Hence it is also, that Bread that is kept in a moist Cellar grows Mouldy, and many other things that are laid up in moist places.

IX. Heat, when excessive, is hurtful to Living things. As an equal Temperature of Heat and Moisture, is the Cause of the great increase and multiplica∣tion of Living things; so the Excess of either, and more especially of Heat, is hurtful to them, and hinders them from arriving to their due growth. Thus we see that Bodies, wherein the inborn heat predominates, are of a low stature, because it consumes the Moisture too fast, not suffering it to spread and diffuse it self; and so also such Persons, in whom Heat abounds, are com∣monly lean: Whereas on the contrary, those in whom this innate Heat is weaker, and allay'd with Moisture, are apt to grow fat, and spread in bulk; as is evident in Women, who commonly are more Plump and Fat than Men, except Sickness, or any Praeternatural Cause hinder the Effect.

CHAP. III. The Death of Living things proceeds from contrary Principles, viz. from Cold and Driness.

I. Wherein the Death of Living things doth consist. FOrasmuch as contrary Effects proceed from contrary Causes, we may easily conclude, That the Death of Living Creatures are owing to Cold and Driness. For as the Bodily Life consists in the due Temperature of Heat and Moisture; so Death happens to them through the predominance of Cold and Drought, whereby the Vital Principle of inborn Heat, becomes weakned and destroyed. Bodily Life, as hath been said, consists in continual Motion; wherefore when any Cause happens to fore-slow, or put a stop to this Motion, Life must cease also. Now, since nothing is more opposite to Motion, than Rest, wherein the Nature of Cold doth consist, it cannot be question'd, but that where Cold prevails, Death must enter. Thus we see Flies dye at the approach of Winter; and that Frogs, tho' they live in the Water, and are in a great measure habituated to Cold, yet perish in Frosty-weather. For as great Cold doth congeal the Waters, and hinder their Motion; so the over∣slow agitation of the Spirits and Humors in the Body of Man, is hurtful to the Life of the Body; and where it is of long Continuance, quite destroys the same. And in like manner also, excessive Cold causeth the dying of Plants and Trees.

II. Cold dri∣eth as well as Heat. For tho' Heat and Cold be contrary Qualities, yet do they by opposite ways produce the same Effect, viz. Drought. For we find that Clay is dried by hard Frost, as well as by great Heat in Summer: The Reason whereof is, because all liquid and moist Bodies, lose the agitation of their Particles, by Cold▪ and by this means become hard and dry: And therefore it is no wonder, if Clay, which is nothing else but a Mixture of Water and Earth, should grow hard and dry, because the Water which softned it, is by the cold congealed. Seeing therefore that cold works the same effect in Plants, it cannot seem strange to us if Plants perish, when the Juice wherewith they were nou∣rished, is frozen. It has been of Old told us, that extream Cold scorcheth and burns up Plants, by congealing and drying up their Moisture and Ali∣mentary Juice.

III. Why the Leaves of most Plants fall in Autumn. Hence also it is, that in Cold Countries the Leaves begin to fall from the Trees towards the latter end of Autumn; because about that time, the pores of Plants are shut up at the approach of Cold, and the Passages along which the Juice is conveyed, are dried up and contracted.

IV. Heat is hurtful to the Ali∣ment of Living Creatures. And as Cold produceth these Effects in Living Bodies, so doth excessive Heat also; for Heat ex∣hausts the Spirits and Humours, and attenuates and wastes the Bodies in which it doth predominate. For as a Mill, without the assistance of Wind or Water, stands still without any motion at all; so Plants, upon the consumption of their Alimentary Juice, perish; and Animals, when their Spirits and Humours are weakned by extream Heat, languish and are slowly moved. Whence it comes to pass, that when great Heats happen in Hot Countries, at the time when the Ears of Corn begin to break forth, they are stopped in their coming forth; because the Moisture being by the heat dissipated into the Air, the Heat finds nothing to feed upon, or whereby to maintain it self.

V. When the Death of Living Creatures happens. The Death therefore of Living Bodies happens, when Moisture, which is the food and fewel of Heat, is wasted; or when Heat is separated from, and leaves the Moisture, which then ceaseth to be agitated, and distributed to all parts of the Living Body. For as Flesh laid before a slow fire, is roasted, and by exhaling of the greatest part of its moisture becomes quite dried up; so the Tem∣perament of Living Bodies becomes spoiled, when the Spirits and Humours are alter'd and wasted by excess of Heat. Thus Fruits are frequently spoil'd by over-much heat, which scorching their outside, leaves their inward substance raw and unripe; as it happens to Grapes and other Fruits, whose out∣side is often scorched with that heat, which scarcely toucheth their Inward parts: As Bread put into an Oven that is over-heated, hath its Crust burnt up and scorched, whilst the midst of it wants baking, and is doughy.

VI. How Fishes are dried up in the Water. But you'l say, If Driness be the Cause of Death, how can Fishes that live in the Water, ever arrive to that degree of Drought, which may cause their perishing or death? I answer, That the Water in which the Fishes swim, cannot hinder the wast∣ing and drying up of their Natural moisture: As

we find that Flesh, which is suffer'd to boil in a Pot full of Water, till all the Natural moisture be consumed, becomes harder than that which is roasted. Yea, we find also that some sorts of Wood, that have lain long in the Water, are found drier and lighter when they are taken out, than when they were put in.

VII. Excess of Heat is an Enemy to all Bodies. Neither is excessive Heat only an Enemy to Living Bodies, but even to all in general: Thus we find that when the flame of a Candle or Torch is increased, it doth so much the sooner consume and waste the Body that serves it for fewel; and by a parity of Reason, when the Heat either out∣ward or inward exceeds, it procures the Death of Living Bodies: As we find that Plants wither by excessive heat; and that Men, by indulging them∣selves in the drinking of hot Liquors, do hasten their own Death.

VIII. Death sometimes is caused by the want of Food. Sometimes Death happens to Living Bodies by defect of Food convenient; as when Nature ceas∣eth to furnish them with Matter, whereby they might grow and be nourished: For so in Plants, tho' it may be there wants no Moisture for the Heat to act upon, and tho' the Sun have force enough in Summer time, to draw up the Juice out of the Earth; yet is not that Fervescence, or Fer∣mentation of the Alimentary Juice, which is re∣quisite to their Vegetation, always performed alike; for it requires a certain and determinate Season of the Year, which being once past, it cannot after∣wards be expected. An Example whereof we see in Quick-Lime, which upon the affusion of Water causeth an Effervescence; but that being once ceased, it cannot be renewed again, tho' you should pour never so much water upon it. And for this cause it is that ripe Fruits; as Apples, Pears, Plums, &c. do fall down to the Ground, as soon as their Stalk, whereby they were joyned to the Tree, begin to want aliment, and those fibres that held them fast are dried up. And the same is the Reason, why all other Fruits and Grains fall out of their Husks and Pods.

IX. The Destru∣ction of Bodies, is sometimes caused by a too great opening of the Pores. And much like Effects do sometimes proceed from the too great relaxation and opening of the Pores of Bodies: For thereupon the Bodies contained in those Intervals must needs fall down, except that by some means or other their bulk be coextended to the amplitude of the pores wherein they are. Thus, when in the Summer Season the pores of the Skin are more open, the Hides of flay'd Beasts, have the Hairs more easily pluck'd off. Thus likewise it seems probable, that the falling out of the Teeth of Children, is caused by the di∣latation of the Sockets of the Jaw-bone, wherein the Teeth are fixed; for they growing wider, as the Child advanceth in bigness, they can no longer keep the Teeth steady. But in Old People this falling out of Teeth is caused by the defect of Ali∣ment and Moisture; because the fibres, through which the Aliment was used to be convey'd to them, grow dry and are contracted.

CHAP. IV. What is the Cause of that Hardness, which is observ'd on the outside of living Bodies.

I. Whence the Hardness of the Surface of Living Bodies doth pro∣ceed. THe Hardness of Bodies consists chiefly in this, that they resist the Touch, and that their parts are not easily separable from each other. And forasmuch as this Resistance to the Touch is perceiv'd on the outside of Living Bodies; it will be worth our enquiry, What might be the Cause of it, that when their Inward substance is so soft, their outside should be hard. Whereof no other Cause seems assignable, but this, That the Outward parts of Living Bodies, are expos'd to the continual impulse of other Bodies. For it is certain, that the Heavenly matter (under which Name we do not only comprehend the Matter of the first and second Element, but also the Air, with the Par∣ticles of the third Element that are mix'd with it) carries the Earth round; and forasmuch as all these Small Bodies cannot pass through the Earth, or any of the Bodies which belong to it, it cannot be otherwise, but that vast numbers of them must dash against Living Bodies, and by their continual beating upon them, render them hard. For by this impulse, their Outward parts are driven closer together, and so become more Compact and Hard.

II. Wherein the Hard∣ness of any Bodies doth consist. For to speak properly, the Hardness of Bodies is nothing else, but the Rest of many Essential or Integral parts, caused by the Pression of the Air, or of the Subtil matter; which acting only on the outside, doth so much drive those Particles inwards, that they can no more be separated, without a perception of some Resistance. For tho' the Subtil matter doth penetrate all Bodies; yet we are to consider, that the Parts of many Bodies are so great and irregular, that they are able to resist its Action and continue at Rest, and by this means constitute Hard Bodies; because they resist or oppose their being divided, and are outwardly so comprest by the Air and the Subtil matter, that it is oftentimes more easie to move them altogether, than to separate them from one another.

III. Whence the Covers of some Li∣ving Bo∣dies do proceed. This is the Cause of those Coverings, which do invest some Living Bodies; as we find that Acorns have Cups; Nuts have Shells; Beans and Pease, Pods; and Trees, Barks: So likewise Fish have Scales, and some of them hard and stony Shells; as Oysters, Crabs, Lobsters, &c. All which without doubt are formed, by the continual impulse of outward Bodies; much in like manner as we find, that the Palms of the Hands of Delvers and Ditchers, by continual handling of the Spade, grow very hard; and as the Soles of our Feet become brawny and thick Skin'd, by assiduous beating against the Ground.

IV. The same is the Cause of the Hardness in Inani∣mate Bo∣dies. They are the same Causes also that produce Hardness in Inanimate Bodies. For Snow laid near the Fire becomes harder and more compact; and the outside of Bread becomes hardned to a Crust; and so likewise the outside of Flesh roasted, broiled, or fryed, grows harder than the in••ide. Neither can any other Reason be given, why Broath, Boil'd Milk, and other kinds of Supping Meats, presently after they are removed from the Fire, get a skin or film on the top of them, but this, that the agitation of the Heat is diminished by the contact of the cold Air, and in a manner quite stopt.

V. Th Surface of Water is smooth, and more difficulty divided than its inward parts. Hence it is also, that the Surface of all Liquors is smooth and even; for tho' the Parts of Water be uniformly moved, as well as the Air, which immediately toucheth them; yet because the parts of the Water are moved after another man∣ner, than those of the Air; and that the Subtil

matter which surrounds the parts of the Air is quite otherwise moved than that which swims amongst the particles of the water; by this means the sur∣face of either of them becomes smooth, much af∣ter the same manner as when two Hard Bodies are rub'd against one another; only with this diffe∣rence, that this smoothness is with much more ease produced in liquid Bodies, because of the easie and ready Mobility of their Parts. And this is the reason also why the surface of the wateer is divided with more difficulty, than its inward parts.

VI. The Hard∣ness of Bo∣dies some∣times pro∣ceeds from Cold. Cold also conduceth much to the Hardning of several Bodies: for we see that the surface of wa∣ter in a River, by cold is congealed, whilst that which is at the bottom, by reason of the stronger motion of heat, suffers not the least alteration; and so also are many other Bodies sometimes hardned by cold, and thereby attain that degree of firmness, which is caused in them, by other Bodies beating upon them: For frozen Fruit, if it be put into cold water, and set in a warmish place, will ap∣pear covered over with a Crust of Ice, and in like manner the Flesh of Beasts or Fish that is frozen, if it be set in a warm place covered with Snow, there will appear a hard Crust of Ice on the sur∣face of it.

VII. But more naturally from Heat. But tho' cold may sometimes contribute to the hardning of Bodies, yet this effect may with greater Right be attributed to Heat, whose property it is to agitate the parts of Bodies, and bring them closer together, by exhaling their superfluous moi∣sture. Thus a Body exposed to the Beams of the Sun, as by this means it becomes better digested and riper; so likewise it attains a greater degree of firmness and hardness. This is manifest in Apples, Pears, Cherries, Plums and such like, whose out∣side by the Heat of the Sun becomes hardned, and covered with a Skin.

VIII. All these ways are reducible to one general way of Hardning of Bodies. But which way soever this Hardness may be produced in Bodies, it seems that they are all re∣ducible to one general Cause, forasmuch as their outward parts endure the impulse of other Bodies rushing against them and dashing upon them, and by hindring their ingress, do resist and beat them off.

CHAP. V. Of the Different Degrees of Heat in Li∣ving Bodies.

I. There is a different degree of heat in Li∣ving Bo∣dies. First according to the Di∣versity of Age. THO' Living Bodies may be distinguisht ac∣cording to the External Heat that Acts up∣on them, as they are in Countries or Places nearer or farther from the Sun: yet may they much better be differenced by that Internal Heat, which produ∣ceth divers Effects in them with relation to their Age, Sex and Nature. For as to their Age, it is evident that Heat in Living Bodies is not always in the same state and vigor. For in Infants and Youth the natural Heat is much weakned by the abun∣dance of moisture, that it cannot exert its full strength; which is the reason why Infants are so prone to sleep, and apt to shed tears. But in the Height and Vigour of Age, the Heat is more strong and active; and the moisture being much lessened, the Spirits become more hot and fiery. For which cause those who have attained to Manly strength, are more strongly inflam'd and Amorous, whereas in Old Men, by the decrease of heat, and the increase of cold and driness, their natural fa∣culties are much weakned and decayed.

II. Secondly according to the dif∣ference of Sexes, and what the difference of Sex in Plants is. Difference of Sex also produceth great diversity of Heat; for Females are commonly of a more cold and moist complexion than Males. Which difference is observed in Plants; for those are ac∣counted Female Plants, which are more cold and moist, and have less virtue and strength; so that tho' they bring forth Flowers, yet for want of Heat they don't produce either Fruit or Seed. Whereas the Male Plants are more beautiful, as to their outward appearance, and have both Fruit and Seed. And for this cause it is, that the Female Plant delights in the Company and Proximity of the Male; according to what PLINY relates of the Palm-tree, which by some influence proceed∣ing from the Male, doth conceive and become fruitful, and as soon as the Male, which stood near it, is cut down, dies presently.

III. Amongst Animals the Females are colder than the Males. Amongst Animals also the Females are much colder and moister than the Males. As may be gathered from hence, that Males generally exceed Females in Bulk and Stature, as appears in Men, Pheasants, Peacocks and the like. The Males in Birds are commonly more beautiful and pompous for their Feathers. Amongst fourfooted Beasts the Males and Females are diversly distinguisht; thus He-Goats have Horns, which their Females want; and Rams have greater and more crooked Horns than the Ewes. Cocks are adorned with Combs, and armed with Spurs; whereas Hens have in a manner no Combs at all. And in general all Males have a stronger and deeper Voice than Fe∣males, who generally have but a shrill and weak voice. All which effects cannot be better assign'd to any other cause, than to the greater degree of heat which is in Males, beyond that which is in Females. And the same may likewise be gathered from hence, that Males, in their tender years, whilst their inborn heat is overpowered with too much moisture, do much resemble Females, nei∣ther is any difference in their Temper to be dis∣cern'd between them. So likewise guelded Ani∣mals do more resemble Females, for the same de∣fect of heat.

IV. Why Men in the Win∣ter time are more brisk, and Women in Summer. Another instance of this diversity of Heat in Males and Females is this; that Men, during the Winter Season, are more Brisk, and Women on the contrary, in the Summer and hot weather. The reason whereof is, because the Vital Spirits, which are in continual motion in a hot and dry complexion of Body, such as Mens are in the hot season of the Year are more dissipated; but in a cold season are more condensed, and thereby better preserved. Whereas in cold and moist Bodies, such as those of the Female Sex generally are; the Heat of the Summer cherisheth and excites the Spirits; and the cold of the Winter doth render them dull and sluggish.

V. Of the four degrees of Heat that are in Li∣ving Bo∣dies. There is also a distinction and difference of Heat with relation to the different kinds of Living Things. And accordingly Physicians distin∣guish Heat into 4 degrees: They call that the First Degree of Heat, when that Quality is some∣what predominant above the rest that are in the mixt Body: The Second when the Heat sensibly discovers its predominance in the Body: The Third, when it strongly and powerfully displays it

self: And the Fourth when that Quality is preva∣lent in the highest degree. Thus amongst Plants, Borage, Flowers of Betony, Beets, Sweet Almonds, &c. because they impart some small effect of Heat to a well tempered Body, are said to be Hot in the First Degree. Smallage, Betony, Balm, Rose∣mary, Wormwood, Saffron, Sage, Cinnamon, &c. because they produce a moderate Heat, and that very sensibly, are called Hot in the Second Degree. And because others impart a strong Heat to those that take them, as Origany, Hysop, Celandine, Mints, Radish, Mother of Tyme, &c. they are accounted Hot in the Third Degree: And last of all, because Garlick, Pepper, Mustard, Cresses, Pel∣litory of Spain, &c. communicate a much more vehement degree of Heat, they are called Hot in the Fourth Degree.

VI. Animals are distin∣guisht ac∣cording to their seve∣ral degrees of Heat. This Distinction of Heat is not only observable in Plants, but also in Animals. For we see daily that those Excrements which remain after that the Meat hath been digested by the heat of our Sto∣machs, serve for food to Hogs and Hens after ha∣ving past through a new Fermentation in them; and that the remainders thereof being laid to the Roots of Plants, are consumed again by the Heat of the Sun, leaving only the grosser parts behind them. Which different changes could not be wrought upon those Excrements, if there were not different degrees of Heat in the Bodies of Li∣ving Creatures, forasmuch as that which can no further be wrought upon by the Fermentation of our Stomachs, may yet be further altered and di∣gested by a new Fermentation in the Stomachs of other Animals. Thus a Mass of Dough that hath been fermented by Leaven or Yest, tho' it cannot be made to rise again with the same ferment; yet may it for all that undergo a new Fermentation in our Stomachs: Which Alterations, I say, do prove a distinction of Heat, and a different power of dissolving Bodies to be in Living Creatures.

CHAP. VI. The Virtue and Nature of Aliments remain in the Bodies that are Fed and Nourish∣ed by them.

I. The whole Aliment is not chang∣ed into the substance of the thing nourished. THO' Aliment or Food in Living Bodies be digested by the Natural Heat, and by that means becomes changed into their nature, yet it is not so entirely assimilated to them, as not to re∣tain some of its former Nature and Virtue. This appears from our Excrements, which tho' by the heat of our Stomachs they have been separated from the thinner parts of our meat, and as it were changed into a quite different substance, yet re∣tain something of the virtues and qualities of those Bodies whence they have been separated, and of∣ten preserve something of their colour and smell. Thus they who eat any quantity of Black Cherries or Myrtle Berries, will find their Excrements ting'd of a Black Colour. And Sparagus and Turpentine after having passed through the Stomach and other Organs of Nutrition communicate their Odour to the Urine.

II. Some part of the Ali∣ment is kept or re∣mains with the Body that is fed. If therefore so great virtue of the Food do still remain in the Excrements, with much more reason may we conclude, that the same much more abides in the Bodies that are nourisht by, and receive their encrease from them; forasmuch as the more pure and Juicy part of the Food abides with them, which doth most abound in virtue. And tho' Ani∣mals void many particles of their Aliment by Siege, by Urine, by Sweat and by insensible Transpiration; yet cannot this hinder us from con∣cluding that many Particles of Aliment must re∣main in the Bodies of those Animals that are nou∣risht and grow by it. Hence it is that Country People that feed upon Beef, Bacon, Cheese, and such like strong Food, which nourish much, but are somewhat hard of Digestion, are much more strong in Body than those who feed upon Dain∣ties, who generally are weak and unfit to endure labour. Who doth not find in himself a different state of Body when he drinks Wine, than when his ordinary drink is Beer, Ale or Water? And do not those that that fare deliciously and feed high, find themselves more ungoverned in their Passions and Lusts, than those who live abstemiously, and con∣tent themselves with necessary Food?

III. Milk is dif∣ferently qualified according to the dif∣ference of the Pasture the Cows graze in. The virtue of Aliment is more particularly dis∣cernible in the fruits and products of Plants and Animals, which differ, according to the diversity of the matter whereof they are formed. Thus Milk is not always qualified alike, but accord∣ing as the matter of it is drawn from such or such Plants, its virtues and qualities vary. Cows that feed upon Grass yield a very different Milk and Butter from those that eat Straw. It is a matter also of common Experience, that Cows that in their feeding light upon wild Garlick, communicate a strong tast of Garlick to their Milk; and that the flesh of Sheep, which feed upon wild Thyme hath a much more grateful tast than that of others. GALEN makes mention of a certain Me∣dicinal Milk which is very prevalent in the cure of the Schirrus or hard swelling of the Liver; the Cow that yields it being made to feed on some pe∣culiar Herbs conducing to that end. The story also of that Young Woman is well known, who having used herself to the eating of Wolfs-bane (which is a most poisonous Herb) tho' she found no hurt by it herself, yet was the death of those men that lay with her.

IV. Herbs after they are turned to Blood re∣tain their purging virtue. Physicians likewise do observe, that if the Milk of a Goat, that hath fed upon some purging Plant, be eaten by a Nurse that suckles a Child, it will communicate its purging virtue to the Nurses Milk, and purge the Child that sucks it. It is known also that the Milk of Cows, and the But∣ter made of it is far better in the Spring, when Cows feed upon tender Herbs and Flowers, than at other times. So likewise it is observed that the Honey which the Bees gather from Thyme, Sage, Savory and Tree Trefoile, being the Herbs they most of all delight in is the best of all other. For this rea∣son the Honey of Sardinia hath a bitter tast, be∣cause it is mostly gathered from Wormwood. And Historians tell us, that the Honey made about the City Heraclea in Pontus, had a venemous quality, because it was gathered from the poisonous Aco∣nite.

V. The Ground or Soil in which the Vines grow, communi∣cates to the Wine some of its vir∣tue. The same may be also experienc'd in Wine, which being adulterated with Quick Lime, Plaister of Paris, Rocket, Wild Myrtle or Butchers Broom, Jews Lime, Clary and the like, becomes pernicious to the Body of Man. There are also some sorts of VVine which do particularly affect our Disposi∣tions.

It is an Observation of LEMNIUS, that the Common People in Holland, by their much drinking of Poitou Wine, which sends sharp Fumes up to the Brain, are thereby inclined to be very peevish and quarrelsom; whereas those of them that drink Rhenish Wine, are not so. And it is observed, that the Fruits and Plants which are the product of dung'd Grounds are not so good and wholsom, as those that grow, where no such Art hath been used: As likewise, that the Grain or Pulse that grows on such ground, cannot be so long kept from becoming musty, or being eaten by Worms; and that the Beer brewed of such Grain doth sooner turn Sower.

VI. Living Creatures retain the Qualities of their Aliment. The Virtue of Food is also perceiv'd and distin∣guish'd in Animals. For in some parts of Holland, which is a Watry Country, and abounding with fish, they fatten their Hogs with them; which tho' they soon fat them, yet it is observed that the Flesh of these Swine is more flaggy and less firm, neither is it so wholsom; and differs much in Taste from the flesh of those Swine, which have been fed with more convenient Aliment: Because Fish, as GALEN observes, generates a thinner Blood, and more Excrementitious, than the flesh of Terrestrial Animals.

VII. Many Dis∣eases arise from the Qualities of Food. So likewise from the Qualities of Aliments, remaining in the Body of Man, many Diseases are generated; as the Scurvy, the Goat, &c. Thus we find that the Scurvy is an Epidemical Disease in those Countries, where they eat Meat much salted, and dried in the Smoak, and brew their Beer of Brackish Water. And those are commonly troubled with the Goat, who live intemperately and luxuriously, especially if they feed much up∣on salt Meats, and drink much Wine. For as the Learned Dr. WILLIS observes in his Pathologia Morborum, by this means a raw and indigested Chyle is prepared; and then, by the intemperate drinking of Wine, those Saline Dregs, which otherwise would go to the Excrement, and be carried forth with them, being too much exalted, are conveyed into the Blood: To which Enormi∣ties of Diet, if a Sedentary Lifes, Idleness, and Sleeping after Dinner do concur, whereby those Superfluities are hindred from exhaling, or being discust by Labour and Exercise, they will the more certainly produce the Goat, and that in the worst manner.

CHAP. VII. Living things do vary and alter, according to the difference of Place and Time.

I. What the Alteration or Change of Bodies imports. A Body is said to be alter'd, when it suffers any change in the figures of its Sensible or Insensible parts; or when it loseth some Parts, and acquires others. Thus a bruised Apple is said to be changed or alter'd, because many of its parts have acquired another Position; and some of them may have quite changed their former figures. This Alteration is caused two several ways in Living Bodies, either by being removed from one place to another, as from a hot to a cold Country; or on the contrary; or by the different Seasons of the Year, which is the diversity of Time.

II. The Diffe∣rence of Countries, contributes to the variety of Living things. Living things, that are removed from one Country to another, are by this means variously alter'd, being sometimes meliorated, and sometimes again degenerating, as the Climat doth agree, or disagree with them: And this, because of the diffe∣rence of Heat and Cold, Moisture and Driness, that predominates in those Countries; for according as the Climat or Soil of any Country differs, so the disposition of those Bodies that are there differ also. Thus some Plants grow much taller and fairer in some Countries and Soils, than in others. Some Plants being removed to a better Air and Soil, are thereby meliorated and bring forth wholsom Fruits; whereas in their Native Soil, they brought forth deadly and poisonous Fruits. As COLUMELLA acquaints us with a certain Plant, which by being removed from Persia to Egypt, loseth its venemous Quality, and becomes wholsom to those that eat it.

III. Herbs vary according to the di∣versity of the Soil or Country where they grow. Thus Herbs that grow in Barren Grounds, are very different from those that grow in a rich and fat Soil, which are far more large and fair, than the former. Thus Bugloss, Comfry and Avens, change the colour of their Flowers by the Industry of Gardiners, and the Fruitfulness of the Soil where they are planted. Violets also, whose Na∣tural colour is Purple, are changed into a Blew, when they grow in rich Ground. In like manner, some Plants that are armed with Thorns and Prickles, being transplanted to some certain places, lose much of their Prickliness.

IV. Plants de∣generate, when trans∣planted from a fruitful Soil, to a barren. And on the contrary, Plants removed from a fat and rich Ground, to a dry and Barren place, do frequently degenerate. So we find that the Plants brought from the Canary Islands, and other hot Countries, if they be planted in our Northern Climat, lose much of their genuine Virtue and excellence; as we see in the Herb called Master∣wort, which tho' it retain the same outward shape and appearance, yet differs very much in force and virtue, from what it is in those hotter Coun∣tries. Yea, it is reported by some, that the Earth brought from the Fortunate Islands, and other far distant Countries, into Italy, hath brought forth several strange Plants, different from those that grow in Europe.

V. All Plants have par∣ticular places which they delight in. All kinds of Plants affect some particular Cli∣mat and Soil, and especially those places where they sprung up at first, whence they cannot be removed without danger of being prejudiced there∣by. For some love shady and moist places; others, high grounds, and expos'd to the Sun; some de∣light in morish and fenny Ground, others in dry and sandy; which, if they be removed from these places, lose much of their virtue and fairness. Those which delight in hot Countries, will not grow in those that lye far North; neither will those that thrive in cold Countries, live under the Torrid Zone. Thus Wormwood grows plentifully in Pontus; Orris, in Dalmatia; Hellebore, in the Island Anticyra; Sea Purslan, on the Sea-s••••a••. VIRGIL, in the Second Book of his 〈◊〉〈◊〉 does elegantly set this forth:

All Grounds not all things bear, the Alder-Tree Grows in the Fens; with Sallows Brooks agree: Ash, craggy Mountains; Shoars sweet Myrtle fills; And lastly, Bacchus loves the Sunny-Hills.

VI. Those that thrive in Hot Coun∣tries, com∣monly dye in Cold Countries. For the Plants that thrive in Arabia, the East or West Indies, Brazile, &c. being transported to France, Flanders, or Germany, do not grow there without great Pains-taking, and after all do not answer the Virtues of those that grow in those hotter Countries. Yea, the curious lovers of Plants, when they transplant any Herbs or Trees, take diligent observation of their standing in the places where they Naturally grew, what part of them was turned towards the Pole, &c. that they may set it again in the very same manner as it stood before; because they suppose that the change of their former situation may very much hinder the thriving of them, and spoil the inward dispo∣sition of their Parts. See the History of Nature, concerning Plants, Chap. VI.

VII. Change of Place is the Cause of Altera∣tion in Animals also. Much a like Alteration we shall also find in Animals that are transported from one place to another. For we find that Youths, upon any con∣siderable changing of the Air wherein they were born, do shoot up strangely in a few Months time, more than they would have done, had they con∣tinued at home in several Years. Others again, upon changing of their Native Soil, do grow thin and meager, and lose their fresh and lively colour. It is also notorious, that some persons have an An∣tipathy against some places, because that where they were born is of a quite opposite Tempera∣ment.

VIII. Difference of Time and Sea∣son, is the Cause also of altera∣tion in Living Bodies. Neither doth the Difference of Time occasion a less change in Living things, than that of Place. For tho' Plants be nourished all the Year through, yet do not they always shew forth the same effects of their Nourishment; for during Winter they are divested of their Leaves and Seeds, excepting only some few, viz. the Bay-tree, the Yew, the Ivy-bush, &c. which by reason of the clammy Juice where∣with they are nourished, do not shed their Leaves, as the rest do. Accordingly also Care is taken, that such Seeds which can endure the Frosts of Winter, be sown in Autumn; and others again at the beginning of Spring, or a little before the Humour begins to move, lest by the too abun∣dant affluence of it, the Roots should perish. For as some Seeds are spoiled for want of Moisture, so others perish by an overplus of it. Fruits also are subject to Alteration, according to the several Seasons of the Year, most of which are only green in Summer, but attain perfect maturity in Autumn, and losing their former taste, smell, and colour, do acquire new Qualities, and accordingly affect our Senses.

CHAP. VIII. Of Plants; and first of all of their several Parts.

I. The Parts of Plants are either Simple or Compound. HAving hitherto spoke of Living Bodies in General, we come now to the handling of Plants in Particular, to the end that having ex∣plained their Nature, what we have to say concern∣ing Animals may be the more readily understood. The first thing to be considered in Plants, is their Parts, which are either Simple or Compound. I call those Simple parts, which consist of Particles of the same Texture and Constitution; such as are the Juices or Liquors contained in them. The Compound parts are those that are made up of parts of a different Nature; and are also called Organical parts, because they concur to some one Action or other; as the Root, Stalk, Leaves, Flowers, &c. Some whereof are Perficient and Integral; others Conservative of the kind; others Ornamental, and others Defensive. The Parts belonging to the compleating and perfecting of a Plant, are the Root, and Stem or Stalk; those that concur to the propagating of their kind, are the Fruit and Seed; and those that defend them from the Injuries of the weather, and otherwise, are the Bark Thoose. or Prickles, Shells.

II. The Simple parts of a Plant. The Simple or Similar parts are the Juice, or Moisture, the Nerves, the Windpipe, and the Flesh of Plants.

III. Juice or Moisture. The Juice or Moisture, is the liquid part of a Plant, diffused through the substance of it. This Juice is, as it were, the Blood of the Plant, which if it chance to burst through any part of it, whe∣ther of its own accord, or by the heat of the Sun, or by cutting or lopping of the Plant, is called a Tear, because it breaks out of the Tree like a Tear, or Drop. Which Drops are twofold: The first are such as are of a Watry Nature, having something of an Earthly consistence joyn'd with them, and are called Gum; which is that con∣gealed and thick Liquor, that proceeds from the Trunks of Trees, and cleaves to the Barks of them; and the other more oily and fat, which is called Rosin.

IV. The Nerves or Sinews. Nerves in a Plant, are those fibres or strings, which give consistence and strength to the softer Parts of a Plant; and by which the Alimen∣tary Juice ascends. The Spirit contracts the fibre or string, and so drives the Moisture upwards, which descends through the little Bougets or Mem∣branous passages. For in every Plant, besides the Sensible Body, there is a Subtil vigorous Body, the Producer of Motion, viz. the Spirit, which runs through the whole Body of it.

V. The Wind-Pipe. The Trachea or Wind-pipe of a Plant, being also a Similar part, is an open and wide Vessel, consisting of little thin Plates, ranged like the Scales of a Fish, or writhen and twisted together, being for the most part of a Silver colour; and may be easily stretched, prest and bent. In the Trunk or Stem of a Tree they run upwards; in the Leaves they are made like a Net, and take up great Spaces in them; in the Sprouts, Buds, and Shoots they are twisted, and are called by a Learned Man, Vasa spiralia, Spiral Vessels.

VI. The Flesh. The Flesh is another Similar part of a Plant, which is thick, but somewhat soft, and is out∣wardly cover'd with the Bark: Of which here∣after.

VII. The Com∣pound Parts. The Compound, or Dissimilar parts of a Plant chiefly, are the Root, the Stem or Stalk, the Bark, the Pith, the Branches, Leaves, Flowers, and Fruits.

VIII. What the Root is. The Root is the lowest part of a Plant, sticking in the ground, through the passages and pores whereof the Alimentary Juice, being moved by Heat, is driven upwards. This Part is so neces∣sary to Plants, that none can subsist without it. There is one kind of the Herb called Chamoeleon, which wants a stalk; Wheat hath never a branch; the Fig-tree hath no flowers, Jesamin hath no fruit; but there is no Plant without a Root, nay, there are some that are nothing else but a Root,

viz. a Mushrom. For the Root is, as it were, the Mouth by which the nourishment is taken in, or like the Hand by which Plants draw Juice out of the Earth, and send it up into the Trunk or Stem. And to this end it is porous, and full of many loose passages for the humour freely to ascend that nourisheth the Plant. The Roots are very diffe∣rent in their Figures, so that almost every diffe∣rent kind hath Roots of a different figure. In a Fig Tree and Olive Tree the Root is single, and sinks very deep, yet sends forth several little twigs from the sides of it. In Leeks and Onions the Roots are manifold, as consisting of innumerable shreads or Hairs; in Turneps it is Round; in Beets it is without Joints; in Orris it is full of Joints; sometimes it consists of many round knots, as in Birthwort. Yet all Roots generally agree in this, that they end in a Cone, or sharp point; for the upper part of the Root, drawing to it self more Aliment, doth grow to a greater bulk than the lower part.

IX. The Trunk or Stock. The Stock, Trunk or Stalk is that part of a Plant, which riseth up from the Root above the Earth, and transmits the Moisture it receives from it to the utmost parts of it. In Herbs it is proper∣ly called the Stalk; when it is hollow, it is called Calamus the Reed, and in Corn Culmus, the Blade or Straw, and in Pulse Scapus, the Shaft. The Stock or Stem of a Plant, before it be turned in to wood, consists of a spungy substance, somewhat soft, and full of a coagulated Juice, from the abun∣dance whereof its Green Colour proceedeth. If the top of it chance to fall off, it grows so much the thicker, because then it enjoys that part of the Ali∣ment which was appointed for the nourishment of the top, and thereupon dilates its self and grows bigger in bulk. It is common to the Trunks of Plants to become crooked, and to bend one way, when the ground begins to be dry and sapless, and furnisheth a more hard Alimental Matter, than can be well digested by the Tree. Tho' the Stocks of Plants be generally Cylindrical, yet there are some that are corner'd: In Daffodils the Stalk is two-corner'd; in Cyperus, which is a kind of Rush, it is three-corner'd; and in Horebound the Stalk is 4 square.

X. The Bark. The Bark is, as it were, the Skin or Hide wherewith the Plant is cover'd; and the same is manifold in one and the same Plant, viz. the out∣ward, which resembles the Cuticle or thin outward Skin in Man; the middlemost which is thicker like a Hide; and the inmost which is like a thin Membran. And therefore the Bark is reckon'd amongst the Dissimilar Parts of a Plant, because it consists of a great variety of Strings and Fibres, and of several Coats. For it is not the same in all Plants; for in some it is thick, as in the Poplar Tree; in others thin, as in the Bay Tree; in a Reed it is like a Membrane; in a Vine Nervous or Sinewy. In the Spring time the Bark is with ease separated from the Tree, because of the Juice that ascends between it and the Tree, which dissolves that Glew whereby it was before fastned to the wood of it.

XI. The Pith. The Pith of a Plant, which by way of excel∣lence is called the Heart, Brain and Matrix, is that middle part whereby the Aliment is con∣veighed from the Root to the upper parts. The same is also very different; for in some Plants it is soft and spungy, as in the Elder Tree, where it resembles froth; in others again it is harder, as in the Pine Tree, whose Pith is woody. The seminal virtue of the Plant is suppos'd to be lodg'd in the Pith, forasmuch as not only the Branches, but the Fruit and Seed are derived from it.

XII. The Bran∣ches. The Branches are the upper parts of a Plant which spread themselves from the Stalk or the Trunk of a Tree, as so many Arms stretched forth, to which they are joined by a glutinous substance hardned, which they call Nodus or a Knot, and in their sprouting forth from the Trunk make an Angle, which in Latin is called Sinus, resembling the Arm-pit, or the joining of the Arm to the Body. In many Trees the Branches grow without any order, but in the Pitch and Firr Tree they appear in a curious and beautiful ranging; the thinner and utmost parts of the Branches are called Sprigs, which are more tender than the rest of the Branch, having not long been expos'd to the intemperature of the Air or VVeather. The swellings that appear in the Joints of them, are called Buds, as long as they continue round, and are not yet open'd. And the thin tops of the Sprigs are called Sprouts.

XIII. The Leaves. Leaves are the ornament of Plants, and the coverings of the Flowers and Fruit, shading them from the Heat, and defending them from the di∣stemperature of the VVeather or Air. They ge∣nerally proceed from the more thin and tender part of the Bark: so that when the Bark is pluck'd from a Bough, we find that the Leaves stick to it, and are pull'd off together with it. Yea, if the whole hollow of the Bark be pull'd off from a Branch, and the lower part of it be put into water, in the Spring time, Leaves will sprout forth from the upper part of it. The Figure of Leaves is mani∣fold; for in some Plants they are large and broad, as in a Gourd; in others very small, as in a Pine Tree; in some thick and fleshy, as in Purslain; in others nervous and full of Sinews, as in Wheat; in Onions they are hollow like a Pipe; in Aloes partly round, and partly angulous. The Stalk or Stele of Leaves is also various; in those of an Olive Tree it is short; that of Vine Leaves is somewhat long; in Colts-foot and Herbs that grow in Ponds, the stele of the Leaves is very long, because in them it is instead of a Stem or Stalk. Sometimes only one Leaf grows upon one Stele, as in the Poplar and most other Trees, sometimes more, whence those Plants are called 3 leav'd, 5 leav'd, 7 leav'd.

XIV. The Flowers Flowers which are the most beautiful product of sporting Nature, do greatly conduce to the Ornament of a Plant. They consist of a four∣fold substance, or rather of so many parts, viz. of the Knot or Cup, the Leaves, the Threads or Thongs, and the Stalk or Stele.

The Knot or Cup is that part which covers the Flower and keeps the parts of it together; as be∣ing the Base and support of it; and therefore is of thicker and stronger substance, and not so beauti∣ful as the Flower it self.

The Leaves of the Flower compose the Body, and Beauty of the Flower it self, being remarka∣ble for their Tincture, but very fading, and of a very tender Complexion and Texture.

The Threads are those long and slender parts in the middle or Navel of a Flower like Hairs or Threads, which in some Flowers are thicker than

in others, and often have little Spires at the top of them; and are set round about the Stele, which is a long, but thicker part of a Flower, rising up from the middle of the Navel of it.

The Stele is the middlemost part of the Flower, sticking to the Rudiment of the Fruit or Seed. It is called in Latin Stylus, because of its being thin and long. All these parts are very distinguisha∣ble in a Rose and Lilly.

XV. The Diver∣sity of Flow∣ers. Some Flowers want a Stele, as those that grow upon the Bay Tree; some instead thereof have a Stalk, as Saffron. All others generally have a Stele, as appears in the Apple Tree and in a Rose. But more particularly they differ in colour, which in a Violet, is Purple; in a Marygold, Yellow; in a Blue-Bottle, Blue; in a Lilly, White, and in a Rose various, there being Red Roses, Damask Roses, White Roses and party colour'd. Neither do Flowers less differ by their smell: And what is worth our consideration, we find a most grateful odor in a Rose, and none at all in the Plant whence it grows; whereas in Sage, the Flower is without any smell, tho' the Herb it self be very odorous: In Borage we perceive both Plant and Flower destitute of any scent; whereas in La∣vender both the one and the other are odorife∣rous.

XVI. The Fruit. The Fruit as it includes the Seed, and Flesh or Pulp of the Fruit, is the last work, and, as it were, the Masterpiece of the Plant; and to the producing whereof all the other parts of the Plant do concur. Its Fashion or Figure is various; some are partly of a Conical figure, as Pears; others of a solid Elliptick figure, as Olives, Plums, &c. some are Round, but somewhat flatted at both ends, as Apples; some perfectly Round, as Cherries, Grapes, Berries, Correns. They have also diffe∣rent Coverings; for Wheat is cover'd with a sin∣gle Membran; a Chesnut with a thick Skin full of Prickles; an Acron with a scaly Shell or Cup; Almonds and Wallnuts inwardly with a hard Shell, and outwardly with a green Shell or cover∣ing.

XVII. How Plants are said to bring forth their Fruits. Plants are said to bring forth, when they bloom or flourish, and when the Flowers break forth from the Knops or Buds; but the Education or Rearing of their Off-spring is in the Fruit, for the sake whereof a Plant grows, and is therefore call'd the Mother and Nurse of her Fruits.

XVIII. Whether Leaves, Fruits and Flowers be the true Parts of a Plant. It hath been a long controverted Question a∣mongst the Ancients, whether Leaves, Flowers, and Fruits, were to be accounted parts of a Plant. THEOPHRASTUS seems inclin'd to the nega∣tive, as supposing them to be no more the parts of a Plant than the Births of Animals are any part of them; for they being after a certain term se∣parated from their Parents, cannot after that pro∣perly be called Parts of them. But this Contro∣versie seems only to be about words: for if Leaves may not be accounted as the Parts of those Trees, whence they are yearly separated at the Fall, as in the Oak, Wallnut-tree, &c. why may not they as well be denied to the Pine, Olive Tree and such others which never are without Leaves, seeing that those Trees also lose their Leaves, tho' not altogether, but by a continual succession of new ones, shoot∣ing out in the room of the old ones. Therefore those who account only that to be a part of a Plant which always continues with i••, have good reason to bar Leaves of that Priviledge; for otherwise I see no reason, but they may well enough be admitted to be parts of a Plant.

CHAP. IX. Of the Original of Plants.

I. There is Virtue in the Earth, whereby it is impow∣red to bring forth Plants. IT cannot be questioned, but that in the Be∣ginning of the World there was a Power com∣municated to the Earth of producing Plants, and that great variety of Vegetables that are found in all Countries. In the first Chapter of Genesis we find these words, Let the Earth bring forth Grass, the Herb yielding Seed, and the Fruit-Tree yield∣ing Fruit after its kind, whose Seed is in it self after his kind. Now this virtue imparted to the Earth continues still in its full vigor, neither doth any thing spring out of the Earth, but by this virtue. But forasmuch as many Vegetables seem to spring of themselves, whereas others are mani∣festly beholden to Root or Seed, for their Growth or Production; we are to enquire how this twofold Production is performed, and how it comes to pass that some spring as of themselves, whereas others stand in need of a manifest Seed for their Pro∣duction.

II. What those Plants are that grow of them∣selves. Those Plants are said to spring of themselves, which the Earth produceth without the sowing of Seed, and to grow by accident, as the Schools express it. Such as are Purslain, Housleek, Penny∣royal, &c. which, as some tell us, do of themselves grow out of the Earth that is dug up, in a shady and moist Wood, being put into Earthen Pots. PORTA tells us, lib. 2. Phyt. cap. 1. that having exposed some Earth that had been dug up from the deepest foundations of a House, to the Air, within a few days, several kinds of Herbs sprung up from it, familiar to the Soil and Climat of of Naples. And the famous Lord VERULAM assures us, that the Earth dug up from the founda∣tions of Houses, or from the bottom of Wells, be∣ing put into Pots, will after a set season produce several sorts of Herbs. For if you take up Earth not above an Ell deep, it will be fruitful the first year; but if you take up that which lies deeper, it will not produce any thing till after a years time, and sometimes 2 years.

III. The Plants which are said to grow of themselves, owe their Rise to Seeds. Some Philosophers are of opinion, that such Plants as these are produced without any Seeds at all, and that the Earth produceth them by an in∣nate vertue of their own. But that which hinders me from assenting to this opinion is, because I find that all Countries do not produce the same Plants; which could not so happen if there were not di∣verse dispositions in them, proper for their several Productions. But what can these different Dispo∣sitions be, but Seeds; or those first Buds from whence Plants arise? For what else doth the Sun do, when it cherisheth the Earth with its heat, mixeth it with Water, exhales the moisture from it, dries the Particles of it, &c. but work such dispo∣sitions in the Earth, and so fit the insensible parts of it, as that from the due ranging of them, the Roots of Plants, their Strings▪ Ribs and Veins are formed, through which their Aliment may be conveighed, and being sufficiently prepared, break forth in the other parts of it?

IV. What are the Seeds of Plants, that are said to grow of themselves. The Seeds therefore of these Plants, are those Insensible Particles, which by the agitation of the Subtil matter do obtain such a situation, figure, and motion, as are needful to form the first Rudiment of a Plant. And forasmuch as this disposition of parts is not to be found in all Parts of the Earth alike; therefore it is no wonder, that all Plants grow not in all Countries. We are to take Notice also, that there is no difference betwixt these kind of Seeds, and those which are the Product of Plants; save only this, that the Parts of these latter are more closely compacted together, and more or∣derly framed: Whereas those which arise from the various Motion, Spreading, Mixture, and Com∣position of concurring Particles, are not so exactly joyn'd and formed, and therefore Plants are more slowly produc'd by them.

V. The first Trees were produc'd without Seed. Some Authors relate as Miracles, that sometimes tall Trees, yea, whole Woods, have sprung out of the Earth, without Seeds: But they did not con∣sider, that vast store of Seeds, which are hid in the Earth, and are the beginnings and first Draughts of those Seeds that are the products of Herbs and Trees. THEOPHRASTUS ob∣serves, 3 Histor. 2. that the Earth in Crete, pre∣sently after it was dig'd up, did bring forth Cypress Trees, which are also propagated by Slips. Can any one believe, that the first Trees were the pro∣duct of Seeds fallen from Trees? Or, that the Great Woods that are found up and down, were sown by Men? For seeing that the World had a Beginning, and that we cannot admit a progress to Infinite, we must come at last to those Trees which had no such Seeds, whence they were pro∣duc'd, and for the production whereof the Nature of the Climat and Soil were sufficient. For Cin∣namon, Myrrh, Frankinsence, and Cassia, did al∣ways abound in Southern Countries; as the Nor∣thern Grounds never wanted Willows, Oaks, Firr∣trees, Elms, &c. which delight most in those places, and will not without care and difficulty grow else∣where. According to that of Virgil:

The blackest Ebony from India comes, And from Sabaea Aromatick Gums.

VI. Calcin'd Earth pro∣duceth greatabun∣dance of Plants. Some observe, that Earth that is burnt or cal∣cin'd, when expos'd to the Air and water'd with plentiful Showers, doth immediately bring forth great store of Vegetables; because the Pores of the Earth being opened by this means, the Seeds are set free from their Prisons, and meeting together are entangled, and so constitute little Masses, from whence those Plants proceed. It is a thing very notorious, that in Walks that are thick overspread with Sand, the Earth the first Year produceth only knotted Grass, and the following Years a thick and swoln Grass, like the blade of Corn; because the hardness of the Sand or Gravel hath hindred the due coagulation of the Seeds; but as the surface of the Earth comes to be more freed from the Sand, the Seeds can the better come together, and thus produce common Grass; to which Showers do very much contribute, by moistning the Earth, and thereby setting the Seeds that are in it more at liberty.

VII. How Plants are pro∣duc'd from perfect form'd Seeds. As to Plants that are Sown by Men, the Expli∣cation of their way of Production is not difficult. For when, by Example, a Pea or Bean is put into the Earth, and there meets with a due moisture and moderate heat, it first begins to swell, and distends its Skin or Husk, and having at last broke it, the same Causes continuing, do afford it new Matter, and the first beginning of the Plant, which we call the Bud, appears; which by thin Fibres or Strings, spreading it self through the pores of the Earth, and the Parts of it pressing upon it, must needs grow hard; and thus is the Root of the Plant formed. The Matter being thus digested into a Root, being recruited by new Incoms of Heat, and dilated by the same mounting upwards, the tender and green Substance, which is com∣monly call'd the Leaf or Bud, riseth and springs up; which still growing higher, turns to a Stalk: For a purer Juice being now duly prepared in the Roots, doth by degrees ascend from thence into the Stalk, which Motion upwards is much promoted by the pores of the woody Stalk or Stem. More∣over, Heat being active and impatient of Idleness, continually drives the moisture or Juice upwards; and so the Stalk becomes extended, and riseth to a considerable height. Now when the Juice doth not ascend so fast, and that the parts of it, by the agitation of Heat are more depurated, they are by the driving of the Fire carried above the Stalk, where meeting with the cold Air, they are stopt from mounting any higher; where still more par∣ticles of the said Juice joyning them, they swell into a Bud. And whereas the affluence of Heat through the Stalk still continues, is bursts open, or splits the Bud, and by this means makes way for the Subtil matter to break forth, and display it self in the appearance of a beautiful Flower. And lastly, after that the Alimentary Juice hath still attain'd a further degree of Perfection, another Substance succeeds in the room of the Flower, which being hollow within, contains the Fruit, that is, the Pea or Bean, and is a defence to it, against the Injuries of the Air. For in all Natural things there is, as it were a kind of Circle, whilst the Seed of the Plant, under a different respect, is called the Antecedent Principle; and the Fruit the Conse∣quent.

CHAP. X. Of the Nourishment, and Growth or Increase of Plants.

I. The Gene∣ration of Plants, is accompa∣nied with their Nu∣trition or Nourish∣ment. HAving spoken of the Forming of Plants, we now proceed to Treat of their Nourishment, which seems to be nothing else but a continued Generation; because all the Parts of that which is generated would fall away immediately and waste, without the supply of food, that preserves them from perishing.

II. What the Nutrition or Nourish∣ment of Plants is. The Nutrition of a Plant therefore is the distri∣bution of the inwardly received, and altered Ali∣ment, into all the Parts of it; and the transmuta∣tion of it into their Substance, for the supply of what continually wastes and evaporates by the force of Heat. For the Moister parts of Plants, as well as Animals, are in a continual flowing, as is mani∣fest from the Leaves and Flowers that are pluck'd off from them; for these immediately grow limber and wither, by the want of that Juice, which used to distend their Vessels and Bladders.

III. Nutrition in Plants, is not an effect of Choice. Not that Plants make use of choice in attract∣ing of their Aliment, so as to take in that which is agreeable to them, and reject the contrary; for∣asmuch as no such attraction can be found in Natural things: But we must rather conclude, that the pores of the Roots are of such a figure, as are fit to admit those particles that are proper to nourish the Plant, and exclude the rest; after the same manner as the Liver, by transmitting the Gall, and the Kidneys the Urine, do thereby separate them from the Blood.

IV. Heat is necessary to the Nu∣trition of Plants. This will be still more manifest, if we suppose 2 things in Plants, viz. Heat and Pores, which are the Instruments of Nutrition: For by Heat the Alimentary Juice is driven upwards, not only from the Earth into the Root, but also into the Trunk, Branches, and the utmost Leaves: And in this its passage the Nourishment is further con∣cocted, prepared, distributed and coagulated, so as to be fit for the Aliment of Plants. For in every Plant or Vegetable there is something, which with respect to the Earth whence they grow, has the Nature of a ferment.

V. Whence this Heat proceeds. If you demand, whence this Heat proceeds; and what that Agent is which begets a fire in Plants? I answer, That the primary Cause of this Heat is the Sun, whose Rays in the Summer time do continually beat upon the Earth, and the Plants that grow out of it: Neither is the Earth in the Night, or during the Winter, altogether destitute of Heat, but preserves always some por∣tion of warmth communicated to her by the Sun, whereby she fosters the Plants in her Bowels, and assists their Nutrition. Tho' it cannot be deny'd, but that sometimes this heat in Plants is owing to Subterraneous, or any other fires: As we find that Aloes, Onions, the Roots of Saffron and Leeks will grow, being hung up in Rooms, especially where constant fires are kept.

VI. Pores also are neces∣sary to the Nutrition of Vegeta∣bles. Pores likewise are of great use to the Nutrition and Increase of Plants, since they are the passages by which the Juice is received, and through which it is distributed to all the Parts of the Plant. For as the Lacteal Veins, and the Subclavial Branches of the Vena Cava, are necessary for the receiving of the Aliment, and the conveying of it from one part of the Body to another; so likewise there are found in Plants in∣numerable Passages and Channels; like to the Lacteal Veins in Animals, by which the Juice is transmitted from the Root, to the utmost parts. For such is the disposition of Pores in Vegetables, that the Aliment is much more conveniently trans∣mitted by them, than it could be through the free and open Air; for by this means the dissipation of the Alimental Juice is prevented, and its motion is more ready and without interruption: As we find that Bullets move more readily through Pipes, and Smoak through the Funnel of a Chimney, than in the open Air. And hence it proceeds, that Lands that have been often sown, are thereby more exhausted, than those that lye Fallow.

VII. How Plants are nou∣rished. These things being understood, it will be no longer difficult to conceive, how the Nutrition of Plants is performed, and how they are increased; for Vegetables are nourished whilst the Juice is by the Sun, and the rest of the Subtil matter, driven into the pores of the Root, and being there pre∣pared by Concoction, after it hath past several strainings, doth spread it self in length, breadth, and depth. The softness also or tenderness of the Sprout or Sprig, doth much further the conveyance of the Nourishment; because it makes the Pores to be easily widened and distended. For as we find that the pores of Bread, being dipt in Wine or Water, become immediately distended thereby; so likewise the Alimentary Juice, when driven into the little Channels of Vegetables, doth open and extend them: Which doth not happen so in a dead or wither'd Plant; because in it the parts of the Pores, and small threads or fibres, are otherwise dis∣posed, so as not to be able to admit the Juice, which the Subtil matter hath driven into the Roots.

VIII. The Nou∣rishment of Plants consists of a Moisture, mingled with the Fatness of the Earth. The Aliment of Plants must be Liquid, because it would not be fit to be carried upwards, or strained, in case it were dry or hard. Yet is not this Juice a moisture destitute of all Clammy∣fatness of the Earth: For seeing that the parts of a Plant must stick and grow together, and that this cannot be without the entanglement of Hete∣rogeneous particles; it is evident, that Water alone cannot be a fit Aliment for Plants, except it be well temper'd, with a sufficient proportion of the Slimy-fatness of the Earth. And accordingly we find, that Waters in which Salt is dissolved, or mingled with some Fat matter, are most proper for this effect, and make the Vegetables that are watred therewith, to thrive mainly. And it is for the same Reason, that Countrymen do recruit their barren Grounds with Dung, Marle, and the like. For Water alone too swiftly penetrates the Parts of Vegetables, nor stays long enough with them, so as to become their Aliment.

IX. Different Plants re∣quire diffe∣rent Nou∣rishment. Tho' the Aliment of all Plants be Moisture, temper'd with the Fatness of the Earth; yet is not every such mixture fit Nourishment for every Plant. For as Vegetables affect particular places; some delighting in shady and low Valleys, others in high and upland Grounds; some in dry and sandy, and others in moist Ground; some in a fat and rich Soil, and others in a barren and hungry: So ac∣cordingly do they stand in need of a different Nourishment, which when ever they miss of, they soon languish. For the Particles of these Juices being various, they must needs constitute different Liquors, whereof those only are a fit Nourishment for such and such a Plant, which have an affinity with it, by the suitableness of the configuration of their Parts. Thus it is observed, that those Roses smell sweeter, that have Garlick growing near them; because the particles proper to produce a strong and ungrateful Scent, are taken in by the Garlick: So that few or none of them can come to the Rose, to allay or diminish the sweetness of its Odour.

X. The Stocks and Branches of Trees grow every year. The stocks or stems of Trees and Shrubs, with the Branches proceeding from them, are every year increased by new woody accessions; foras∣much as every year, a new round of Fibres is added to the inward Bark or Rind; which being divided in two parts, the outward part of it is added to the Bark, and the Inward part growing harder and harder, before the end of Autumn, acquires the compactness of wood, and separating it self from the Bark, becomes joyned to the Wood, and so increaseth the Trunk or Stock of the Tree. But tho' we find, that the Trunks and Branches of Trees

are encreased this way only, yet must we not con∣clude from hence, as is commonly believed, that the Juice or Sap of a Tree, mounts upwards only betwixt the Bark and the Wood, but also through those Vessels that lie hid in the Substance of the Wood. This is evident in that the deeper any hole is bored into the Trunk, the Branch or Root of the Tree, the more Juice will distill from it, and that proportionably to the depth of the hole; so that out of a hole that ••is twice as deep as ano∣ther, almost a double quantity of Sap will proceed in the same time.

XI. This illu∣strated by the Exam∣ple of a young Chest∣nut-tree. This may be easily understood by the Example of a young Chestnut-tree; for if the Progress of its growth be narrowly observed, we shall find, that after 6 months time, there will be formed in its Bark (which is very thick) 2 rows of woody Fibres; and after 18 months, we shall find 4 of them; and a year after 8, and so on, so that al∣ways the last Rows do inclose and involve the for∣mer, and make, as it were, a Circle about them, which is surrounded with another Circle, and that again with another; whence it follows, that when the Stem of any Plant is cut across, the Section must appear composed of 2 sorts of substances, viz. of these Circles, and of insertions that are disposed or ranged in the said Stock, much like Circles of Longitude and Latitude in a Terrestrial Globe.

XII. How Pants grow and encrease. PLANTS therefore grow or encrease, when greater or more Particles of Alimentary Juice are received by them, than their narrow Pores are able to contain. Hence it is that those Vegetables, the sides of whose Pores are more hard and compact, do not grow so fast as others, whose texture is more loose and open. Thus we find that Peach∣trees, Poplars and Willows grow apace, because they have pliable pores, and so crooked and bend∣ing, that the Particles of Juice that are driven upwards by the agitation of the subtil matter, can neither advance forward, nor return, and con∣sequently they must enlarge and distend the Plant. And for this reason it is that a Vine, frequently watered, thrives and advances so fast; and that the Chrysanthemum or Marygold of Peru in 6 months time grows 18 or 20 foot high; and by the thick∣ness of its Branches seems to challenge the tallest Trees. But on the contrary, Oaks, Medlars, Box, and Pine-trees grow very slowly, because the com∣pactness of their substance, will not suffer their pores to admit sufficient store of Aliment for their speedy growth and encrease. Thus Golden Mai∣den-Hair, Whitlow-Grass, &c. grow very slow: and for the same reason Trees advance little or no∣thing in their growth during the Winter Season, because their pores being then shut up by cold, the agitation of heat is not of strength enough to widen them, and to send up the Juice from the Root through them.

XIII. How the Juice comes to be joined to the Plants, and stay with them in or∣der to their encrease. It may be questioned here, how the Alimenta∣ry Juice, which is forceably driven into the Pores of a Plant, comes to stay there, without being carried upwards into the Air, or without falling down to the Root again.

XIV. Answer. To which I Answer, that this effect may be assign'd to 2 Causes: the First is a special con∣formation of the Pores of Plants; for we may suppose that by the continual ascent and percolati∣on of the Alimental Juice through the pores of the Plant, many of their small Fibres must be bent in such a manner, as to make the passage rough, by which means, tho' the liquid and fat moisture ea∣sily mounts up through them, yet cannot so easily run back again, because of the prominent extre∣mities of the Branchy particles, which oppose their return the same way they entred. Daily experi∣ence confirms this, for we find that when with a Knife we cut or scrape a piece of wood with the grain, that is following the natural position of its fibres, we do it with much more ease, than when we attempt the same the contrary way. The other cause is the Winter Frosts, and the coldness of the night, which do fix and condense the Juice con∣veighed to all the parts of the Plant, and by ob∣structing the Pores, hinder it from subliming into the Air. For it is certain, that in the Nutrition of Plants, Heat and Cold both act their parts, the one being not sufficient to perform it without the other.

XV. The Ali∣mental Juice in Plants is circularly moved. It is to be observed, that as the Blood in Ani∣mals, so likewise the nourishing juice in Plants is prepared by a kind of Circulation. For the Juice that is in their Roots or other parts, being tost by a continual motion, cannot throughly be dissolved, mingled or strained, without frequently returning to the same part again, and being altered by va∣rious impressions. Which Circulation of the Ali∣mental Juice, depends on the Mechanical Stru∣cture of the Fibres, the various disposition whereof performs the same effect, which the Valvulae do in the Veins of Animals; some of them being so formed, that the Juice finds a ready way to mount up between them; and others, so as to afford it an open and free Descent. Which may be proved by several Reasons and Experiments in those Ve∣getables, which are nourished by a thick Juice resembling Milk.

XVI. The Proof of this Cir∣culation in Plants, from those of them that have a Milky Juice. Mr. MARIOTTE assures us that he hath ob∣served, that upon the cutting off the Tops of Milky Plants, and the parts nearer the Leaves, a greater quantity of Juice hath proceeded from them, than by cutting the parts nearer to the Root. That he experienced this in Celandine; and the structure of Fibres in Spurge, and other Milky Plants per∣suades the same; for these Fibres by the help of a Microscope appear white, and are nearer unto the Rind, whereas the Juice in the other Fibres is of a more Watry Colour. Whence it seems probable, that the serous Juice, doth mingle with the other thicker, whether Yellow or White, in certain Pipes appointed for that use, much after the same man∣ner as the Chyle entring into the Veins is there mixt with the Blood, and circulates with it. Tho' it be not yet discovered whether this Juice in Plants be carried in the same Pipes from the Branches to the Roots, and again from the Roots to the Branches; or whether distinct Pipes are as∣signed to these different motions, as the Veins and Arteries in Animals.

CHAP. XI. Of the Division and Difference of Plants.

The Divi∣sion of Plants. A Perfect Plant is by BOTANISTS com∣monly divided into a Tree, a Shrub, an Undershrub, and an Herb.

II. A Tree. A Tree is a woody Plant, in thickness and height exceeding all the rest, whose stock is lasting, and one only by nature, which spreads it self into many Branches and Boughs, as an Oak, Pear and Fir-tree. I say it is lasting or perpetual, because it hath no certain time of duration.

III. A Shrub. A Shrub is a Plant of a mean thickness and height amongst those that are woody, whose Stem is manifold by nature, and which by cutting off its Shoots or Suckers, is easily changed into the nature of a Tree.

IV. An Under-shrub. An Under-shrub is the least of woody Plants in height and thickness, having a lasting Stem or Stalk, which sometimes is single, and sometimes manifold like Brushwood, with a small and sometimes manifold like Brushwood, with a small and slender Leaf, as Rosemary, Lavender, Southernwood, &c.

V. An Herb. An Herb is a Plant which consists only of Leaves, as Harts-tongue, &c. or sometimes of a Stalk, but perisheth away every year, and is not woody till after it be dried.

VI. The Diver∣sity of Plants may be deduced from seve∣ral Heads. The variety of Plants is assignable either to the Soil whence they grow; or to the Pores or chan∣nels through which their Alimentary Juice is con∣veighed; or to their Structure or Figure; or to the Fruits they bear; or to their differing Quali∣ties, or lastly to the Changes and Alterations to which they are obnoxious.

VII. From the Place of their Growth. With regard to the place of their growth, some are upon Rocks, Walls, the Tops of Houses, when the water falling in abundance, doth leave some limosity upon those places. Some grow upon other Plants, or upon great Stones; as Moss which grows upon the Barks of Trees; and Touchwood which sticks to the Oaks and Nut-trees. Some proceed from the rotten Wood or Roots of Trees, as SCALIGER tells us, that Bearsfoot doth, Exer∣citat. 140. Others grow upon Dunghills, as Sow∣thistle, which Hogs delight in, and other such like. Some grow upon the Bodies of Living Creatures, as is related of a Shepherd, who had a little Plum-tree or Sloe-bush growing out of his Breast, because falling by chance upon one of them, he had forgot to pluck out one of the thorns of it which stuck in his Breast, and afterwards sprouted out thence.

VIII. From their different Pores. Plants are also distinguisht by their Pores; for the Alimentary Juice, according to the different structure of the pores it passeth through, acquires a different Temperature and Qualities. According to which different disposition of the Pores, some Plants are more early in their coming forth, and others later. For those that want a Stalk, or have only a short one, are more slowly nourished: others that have a more favourable Texture of their Pores, and the Fibres of whose Stems are more yielding, grow sooner, and to a greater Size and Bulk, especially if the Climate and Soil agree with it. Thus Gourds and Sallows do in a little time encrease to a great Bulk; whereas on the contrary Oaks and Pine-trees, by reason of the straitness of their Pores, are as slow in their advance. And therefore be∣cause the Fir-tree, and others of that nature con∣sist of looser and more open Pores than the Ebone-tree, and other-like hard and compact woods brought from Brazile, they are easily bent, but not without difficulty pulled asunder: whereas the parts of these latter are very Brittle and break up∣on the least bending, because of the very close and compact texture of their Parts. It is also from this various disposition of the Pores, that the same Rain furnisheth nourishment to such a vast number of different Plants, because it is changed according to the difference of the Soil, and the variety of the Pores doth diversly affect the said moisture and alter it, so as to become the proper nourishment of such and such a Plant. To which may be added, that the Juice which is drawn from one part of the Earth, doth furnish it with other Alimentary Particles, than another doth.

IX. How the Juice of the Earth ascends in Plants. But if any one ask, how the Juice ascends from the Root, into the wooden Fibres; they may take this for an Answer, that the Juice ascends in Plants, after the same manner as water mounts up into those Pipes that are made use of in the Ex∣periments of a Vacuum; that is to say, because the weight of the Air drives them upwards. Which effect of the Air is much encreased by the Circular Motion of the Earth, for it being the Property of that Motion, to drive all the most agitated parts far from the Center; accordingly it also drives all the Juices of the Earth into the Pores of the Plants that are more agitated than the Air; whether this their agitation proceed from Subterranean Fires, or from some particular fer∣mentation in the out parts of the Earth.

X. From their Figure. A great variety likewise ariseth among Plants from their Structure or Figure; for some are low, as Onions and other creeping Plants. Others grow to a vast Height, as Cedars whose height and thickness is wonderful; Historians mention one that grew in Cyprus to have been 130 foot high, and of that thickness that 3 men could scarcely fathom it. And so likewise the Fir-tree, Abies, which takes it latin name from Abire, that is, to go away, because of the vast height it oft riseth to. Historians tell us, that in the Ship, that by command of the Emperour CAJUS brought the Obelisk, placed in the Vatican Circus or Pi∣azza, from Egypt, there was a Fir-tree, whose Trunk was as much as 4 men with their stretch∣ed-out-arms could compass. Some grow of a round Figure, as Puffs, others in the form of an Umbrella, as Mushromes. Some have the strings of their Barks extended long-wise, others a-thwart and Cross-wise. Some naturally have crooked Stems or Trunks, as the Vine, others strait and up∣right, as Reeds and most Trees.

XI. From their Fruits. Plants are also differenced according to their se∣veral Fruits: and thus some are called Glandiferous or Acorn-bearers, as the Beech, the Oak, the Cork-tree and the Chestnut-tree, which latter, for thee goodness of its Fruit, excells the rest of the Trees of this sort. Others are Coniferous, bearing a Fruit like a Cone, that is smaller at one end and like a Top; such as is the Cedar-tree, which formerly grew in great abundance upon Mount Libanus, but are reduced to 24 only. So also the Cypress-tree, and the Firr, tho' this is reckoned amongst the Re∣siniferous or Rosin yielding Trees. Others are Po∣miferous, or Apple-bearers, as the Apple-tree, the Citron-tree, which is always green, of a most fra∣grant odor, and its fruit of a golden Colour; the Orange and Lemon-tree, the Pomegranate-tree, so called from the great number of grains of Seed which its Fruit doth contain; and the Apricot-tree, whose fruit, from the golden colour, were by the Greeks called Chrysomela or Golden Apples.

[illustration]

[illustration]

Book. 1. Part. 7. Chap. 1.

G. Freman

I. Kip. Sculp

To the Right Worshipfull S^r. Denis Hampson of Japlow in Buckingham Shire & of Bradwell in Oxford Shire Baronet

This Plate is humble Dedicated by Richard Blome

XII. O•• Nut∣bearing, Berry bearing, or Coa∣bearing. Of Fruit-bearing Trees, some are Nuciferous or Nut-bearers; as the Nut-tree and Almond-tree, which have their Fruit contained in hard Shells; others Bacciferous or Berry-bearers; as the Plum-tree, the Olive-tree, the Mulberry-tree, and the Cherry-tree, which bear a Fruit that consists of a more soft and moist flesh, and cover'd only with a thin Skin: Other Siliquiferous or Pod-bearers; as Cassia, Tamarinds, &c. because their Fruit is contained in Cods or Husks, or in a Juicy-shell, of a longish figure.

XIII. From their various Propensions or Inclina∣tions. There is also a considerable variety in Plants, from their different Inclinations: For some of them have an Antipathy against others. Thus the Vine, and Cabbage or Coleworts, cannot endure the Neighbourhood of one another; and so likewise the Olive-tree and the Oak, the Bay-tree and the Vine, the Olive-tree and Coleworts, the Nut-tree and the Oak are at variance. Not by reason of any inborn Antipathy, as some do imagine; but because when those Plants stand near together, they rob one another of sufficient Aliment, because they are nourished with one and the same kind of Juice; which being taken in by the stronger and more vigorous Plant, the other must needs lan∣guish. And on the contrary, those Plants are said to be friendly to each other, which are nourished by different Juices; so that what is necessary for the Aliment of the one, is never touched by the other. And herein doth the Antipathy and Sympathy of Plants properly consist; according to what we have more largely explained in our History of Na∣ture, concerning Plants. Thus the Fig-tree and Rue thrive in the Neighbourhood of each other, because they delight in a quite different sort of Nourishment; and not by reason of any Consent or Friendship, but by substraction of the contrary Aliment, which the one draws to feed its sweet-scent, and the other to feed its bitterness. And on the contrary, Rosemary loseth part of its sweetness and savour, when it grows in the Neighbourhood of the Bay-tree or Lavender; because both these Plants delight in the same Alimental Juice, and are like Robbers one to another, whenever they stand close together.

XIV. From Arti∣ficial Trans∣mutation. A Diversity is likewise to be found in Plants that springeth from Transmutation; as when Plants are made more fair and beautiful, by the Art and Industry of Gardiners. Thus that vast variety of Gilly-flowers, proceeds from this Cause. And in like manner there is now the Calathiana, a kind of Violets, not only of Blew colour, but also White, Red, and of a mixed Colour, by the Curiosity of Ingenious Florists. For the Industry of Gardiners doth conduce much to the variety of Plants; according to what Virgil tells us in his First Book of Georgicks:

I have seen many would Anoint their Grain, With Nitre first, then Lees of Oil would spread, That the Husk swelling might enlarge their Seed; Then with lent Fire ripen the tender Grain.

XV. From the Negligence and Care∣lesness of Gardiners, &c. And on the contrary, by the Negligence of Gardiners, or some fault in the Soil, Plants degene∣rate, and are turned into others not so good as themselves: So Wheat turns to Darnel, Basil into wild Thyme, Barley into Oats, Turneps into Rha∣dish, as SENNERTUS assures us; Water-mint into Spear-mint; the Blak-Vine into Briony, Spelt into Wheat, and Wheat into Spelt. It is also a common Observation, that if the same Seed be for several years together sown in the same Ground, it will degenerate; according to that also of VIR∣GIL:

When oft the fairest Barly ith' same Ground we sow, Darnel instead thereof, and blasted Oats do grow. The same happens almost to all Plants, when they are transpos'd to different and disagreeing Places: As when Herbs that grow in Pools and Running-water, are removed to the Tops of Hills, or Champion-ground. Thus if the Water flag should be transplanted to Hilly-ground; or the Seed of Lettice, Cucumber and Cabbage, to a Sandy place: And on the contrary, Heath, Fern and the Thorn∣bush, to moist and Marshy-ground; they would soon degenerate to other Plants, and cease to answer to their Names.

CHAP. XII. Of the Propagation of Plants.

I. Plants are propagated by Sowing, Setting, and Grafting. PLANTS may be propagated or multiplied several ways; as either by Seed, or by a Sprig cut, or pluck'd off from the Stock and set into the Ground; or by Graffing.

II. The Soil is to be prepar'd for the Reception Seed. But before that the Seeds of Plants are com∣mitted to the Earth, the Soil must be duly pre∣pared; that is, it must be turn'd up by the Plough, or dug with a Spade, or cut with a Weeding-Hook, or broke with a Pick-ax, and the Clods broke with a Harrow or Rake. All which pains is taken, partly to root out the Weeds and unprofitable Herbs; and partly to make the Ground more light and loose, that the Seeds or Slips may the more easily take root in it, and spread their fibres far and near, and by this means attract a more copious Aliment.

III. The fittest time for Sowing. Nature directs us to the most proper Seed time, viz. when the Seeds have attained their full growth and maturity; or, when by the opening of their Husks they fall to the Ground; or by the con∣traction or shrinking of them are thrust out; or by the Down that grows about them, they are by the Wind scatter'd up and down through the Air.

IV. Of Propa∣gating Plants by Slips or Sprigs. The other way of propagating Plants, is by setting a Sprig or Slip, whether cut or pluck'd quite off, or whilst it sticks yet to its Mother, thrust down into and cover'd with the Earth, till it hath taken root. These Sprigs or Slips may be bigger or less, according to the Nature of the Plant. For some are set from a greater Branch, others from a Slip, others from a Twig, and others from a Shoot.

V. What kind of Twigs or Sprigs are to be Set. The Twigs, Sprigs or Slips that we would set, must be fresh and green: Yet VIRGIL tells us, that the dry Sprigs of an Olive, if set, will grow notwithstanding:

An Olive Branch, tho' dry, will shoot, If set i'th' Earth, and spread its diving Root.

It is also observable, that the more tender any Plants are, the later must their Sprigs or Slips be set, that is, about the middle or latter end of the Spring, in these colder Climats: And if the Weather permits, they must be watered as soon as set; I say, if the Weather permits; for in cold Weather, too much Moisture is apt to spoil them. And so also, if it be a clear Sky, and the Sun shine hot upon these new set Twigs or Slips, they must be shaded, lest the heat of the Sun-beams should scorch and dry them up.

VI. What Graf∣fing is, and how it is performed. In the Second place, Plants are propagated by Graffing: Now Graffing, being taken in the largest Sense, is such an application of a Graff or Bud to its own Stock or Branch, or to that of another Tree, whereby they become united and grow toge∣ther. Now forasmuch as the most part of the Sap, ascends between the Inner Bark and the Wood, the whole Art of Graffing consists in this, that the Inner Bark and Wood of the Stock and Graff do answer exactly one to another; or that the Scion or Bud be so applied to the Stock or Branch, that the inner and outward Bark both of the Stock and Scion may so exactly answer, and make one con∣tinued Body, and one Even Surface, that the Juice may readily and freely flow from the Stock, to the Graff or Bud.

VII. What Graffing is, and to what end it is done. The End of Graffing, is to meliorate the Nature of Plants, by changing them into others. For since there is a twofold Concoction of Food, the one in the Stock, and the other in the Graff; it cannot be otherwise, but that the Alimental Juice, by these different Strainings, must be the better prepared, and partake of new Qualities: And therefore we find, that Plants by Graffing, do not only bring forth larger, but also better Fruit, than the Tree doth from whence the Graff is taken: And it is found by Experience, that the Tree which grows from the fruit of a Graffed-tree, or the Sprig thereof set in the Ground, doth bring forth less and meaner fruit, than doth the Graff it self, from whence it was taken. Hence it is also, that we see one and the same Tree laden with diverse Fruits; yea, and the same Fruit having a different taste, smell and colour, in one part of it, from that it hath in the other, as also late Ripe Fruits to become early Ripe, and such as are Green to be∣come Red.

VIII. There be three ways of Graf∣fing: The First is Infoliation. There be three ways of Graffing: The first is within the Inner Bark, when the Graff is put in between the Wood and the Bark, and is ty'd fast with a Thread or small Cord. This way of Graf∣fing is most proper for Trees that have a thick Bark, and abound with Sap: Because the Bark draws abundance of fat moisture out of the Earth; such as are the Fig-tree, Cherry-tree and Olive-tree. Wherefore, he that would graff after this manner, must have a little wedge, made of some very hard VVood, and drive it in between the Bark and the VVood gently, so as not to rend the Bark, and in that aperture must graff his Scion. This way of Graffing was by the Ancients called Info∣liation, and is still in use with us, where the Bark is thick, and a small cleft to graff in cannot so well be made.

IX. The second way of Graffing is in a The second way of Graffing is, by means of a Cleft made in the Stock, into which the Scion is put, so as that the pith of the one may be joyned with the pith of the other; and then the slit must be stopt up with Clay, and bound up with the Bark and Moss. This way of Graffing is made use of in those Trees that have a thin Bark, and are of a drier Complexion, their Moisture living not much in the Bark, but within the Pith; such as are the Citron-tree and Vine. And this way is pro∣perly call'd Graffing, which must be quickly done, lest the Scion which is to be graffed, should by de∣lay become over dry.

X. The third way of Graffing is called, Inc∣culation. The third way of Graffing is done by Inocula∣tion, wherein the Bark of the Scion that is to be Inoculated, is so joyned to that of the Stock, whence the like quantity of the Bark is taken, that the Buds and Eyes of the one, may exactly answer to the Buds and Eyes of the other. For there is a certain fat clammy Moisture between the Rind and the Stock, by which the strings of the Scion are glewed and joyned to the strings or fibres of the Trunk or Stock.

XI. All other ways of Graffing are redu∣cible to these three. There be other ways of Graffing; as that which is done by Emplastration or Plaistering, whereby some part of the Bark of a Scion, with its Buds, is put into the slit of the Bark of a Stock, and the Bark of the Stock so closed again upon it, as that no mark of the slit remains; and afterwards is plaister'd and bound up. Another way is by Bo∣ring, when the Graft is put into the Hole that is bor'd into the Stock. There is also another way, which the French call En perche, when many little Sprigs with their Buds are graffed into a perforated Perch. But all these, and other such like, are re∣ducible to the 3 ways already mention'd: Foras∣much as all of them agree in this, that the strings of the Sprig or Bud, must agree and answer to the strings of the Stock whereinto they are graffed; and that by this mixture or coalescence, the wound may be cover'd or grow together, leaving the Bark somewhat rough in that place. They agree also in producing the same effect, that is, the meliora∣tion of Plants, by reason of their Coction, both in the Stock and in the Graff, where the Alimen∣tary Juice is further prepar'd and purified.

XII. The Nature of the Graff be∣comes changed in process of time. By this Art of Graffing, not only Trees of the same Nature are mingled, as it were, and united; as Apple-trees with Apple-trees, Pear-trees with Pear-trees, &c. but also any other Trees, tho' never so different in Nature. Yet they who would have their Graffs to thrive, had best set them on a stock of the same kind; because the strings of Plants that are of a like Nature, do better agree together, and have their pores and passages dispos'd in one and the same manner. However it is observ'd, that in process of time the Seed of the Graff doth very much degenerate: The Reason whereof is, be∣cause the Seed proceeds from the Matrix or Pith of the Tree, which being the product of the wild Stock, by degrees affects the Seed, and makes it to degenerate.

XIII. What Pores of the Stock cor∣respond or agree with the Pores of the Graff. Some, it may be, will question how it comes to pass, that the Scion unites with the Stock, seeing that their pores do not answer to one another, but differ in their situation and figure. To which I Answer, That it is not necessary that all the pores of the Stock should agree with those of the Graff, or that every one of both their strings should be united; it being sufficient if the greatest part of them answer to each other, and give way to the passage of the Alimental Juice. As we see that 2 pieces of Glass laid upon one another, tho' all

the pores do not exactly agree, do notwithstanding transmit the Light. For we must not imagine, that the Graff is joyned to the Stock, into which it is graffed with the same firmness and evenness, as its own connatural Parts are; since it hath often been found, that in an Old tree, the Part that hath been graffed on it, hath been torn off by a strong Wind, tho' for many years together, it had been united to it no otherwise, than as if it had been a Connatural part of it. For in order to the con∣veyance of the Juice from the Root to all the parts of the Tree, it is not necessary that all the Pores should exactly agree; because we find that the Earth affords Nourishment to Plants, not∣withstanding that their Pores do not every way agree with those of the Earth. And tho' we should grant, that such a conformity of Pores should be necessary for the common Nourishment of the Stock and the Graff; yet I see no reason, but that the same conformation may be wrought in process of time, because the Sap that comes from the Root hath power of making to it self Channels and Passages, as hath been hinted before: For the Fire, by the motion whereof it is driven upwards, thrusting it forwards, helps it to make these Passages and Channels for it self.

XIV. In Graffing, many things are to be ob∣served To the end that Graffing may be duly perform∣ed, we must take heed, First, That the Scion to be Graffed, be not too soft or tender; for then, because of the tender texture of its strings, it will not be able to bear the hardness of the Stock into which it is Graffed. Neither on the other hand must it be too dry; for in that case it will not unite and grow into one with the Stock. Secondly, That the Graff be taken from a fruitful and good Tree, and, as near as may be, of the same kind; as the Graff of an Apple-tree, upon the Stock of an Apple-tree. For if they be of different kinds, the Fruit thereby becomes spoiled; as if one should graff an Apple-tree upon a Willow or an Ash, the Apples will be found like to a Crab or Wilding. Thirdly, That the Scion be without any delay graffed, lest the Air entring into the Pores, should hinder their growing into one. Fourthly, That the Stock be duly slit, lest the slit being made too deep, should hinder the closing of it up again. Fifthly, That the Graff be so cut, as that the Woody part of it may joyn with the Wood, and the Bark of it with the Bark of the Stock. Sixthly, That the Stock on which we intend to graff, have stood in the ground for some Months, lest in case it should not be well rooted, it might not furnish Sap enough to feed its young Nursling. Seventhly, The top of the Scion is to be cut off, that by beating back the Juice it may swell and grow bigger. Eighthly, That when the Graff is put into the slit, the place must be pasted about with Wax and Gum, or with Clay and Moss, to keep out all external Moisture Ninthly, That a fit Season of the Year be observed; which is, after the Winter Solstice, and after the Blowing of the West Wind; that is▪ from the 7th of February to the Spring Solstice. Tenthly, It is also to be noted, that some Trees are altogether unfit for Graffing; as the Oak, the Fir-tree, and other Resiniferous-trees; because the Oak, by rea∣son of its hardness, will not be slit; and when slit will not grow together again: And Resiniferous-trees, because of their clammy Liquor, have their pores so obstructed, that the Juice cannot be readily conveyed to the Graff. And, Eleventhly, That the parts of the Scion may retain the same situa∣tion when graffed on the Stock, as it had before it was cut off from its own Tree: As by Example, If the Graff, before it was cut off from the Tree did lean towards the South, in Graffing it must likewise be turned that way. See the Natural History concerning Plants.

CHAP. XIII. Of the Colours of Plants.

I. What Co∣lour is. AS to our present purpose, it is sufficient for us to know, that Colours are nothing else, but certain modificatious of Light, caused in Bodies by the different disposition of their Surfaces. Whereof we have a manifest proof in cutting of an Apple, the inner parts whereof appear white at first; but soon after turn yellow, and lastly become of a brown Colour, according as its outward parts are more dried. Such a modification of Light does especially belong to Plants, since that all their parts are ting'd with some Colour or other, and are remarkable for their whiteness, yellow, red Colour, &c. yea, and sometimes are successively green, yellow, red or white, according as the Tex∣ture of the little particles, whereof they are com∣pounded, is changed, and the disposition of the surface alter'd. The Matter therefore in question is, What that is in Plants that makes the Light reflected from them to acquire such and such Modi∣fications, which impress these Sensations on the Eye.

II. Why the Roots of Plants are commonly White. The Roots of Plants are generally white; be∣cause they contain much Spermatick matter, which being comprest by the Earth that lies round it, and bindred from flying up into the Air, is forced to return into the substance of the Plant; where, by the warmth of the inner part of the Earth, it is concocted anew, and being coagulated into a kind of frothy Substance, doth reflect the Light on all sides, and so produce a white Colour. For the Reason why Snow and Froth are white, is, because they consist of little round Bodies, which from every point reflect the Sun-beams. For the smaller these Bubbles are, the more white doth the Subject appear; for seeing that every one of them, from all their parts reflect the Light, it must needs fol∣low, that the more there are of these, within that determinate Space, the more Rays will be reflected; that being a white Colour, which comes nearest to the Nature of Light. Hence it is that Liquor, tho' it be of never so black a Colour, turns white as soon as it is turned to Froth; as appears in the froth of Ink; and therefore it is no wonder that the Root of a Plant being cover'd with Earth, ap∣pears white, because it consists of clammy Humours, which by the warmth of the Earth is easily turned into little round Pellets.

III. For the same Rea∣son a Lilly is White. And it is for the same Reason that a Lilly is white; because the surface of it riseth into Bub∣bles, from all the several parts whereof it reflects the Light. For in a Lilly, the Alimental Juice is very exactly percolated, and its substance being well concocted, turns to round pellets or bubbles. In like manner as we see, that our food becomes turned into Chyle, when after digestion in the Sto∣mach, it is resolved into little round Bodies; which

Chyle afterwards in the Breasts becomes turned into Milk. The Reason therefore of the whiteness of a Lilly is, because the little Skin wherewith its Substance is covered, consists of round Pellets, as is manifest to those that look upon it through a Mi∣croscope.

IV. Whence the Red Colour that is in Flowers proceeds. Some Flowers are Red as Roses, and Tulips, because their parts are so disposed that the Globuli of the Second Element, which constitute Light, are by them more swiftly whirl'd about than they move to right lines. Wherefore whensoever the light in any Body is so modified, that its Aethereal Globuli are more swiftly turned round, than they move right forwards, than the surface of those bo∣dies from whence the Light is reflected appears Red. Thus a white Flame, when smoke comes to it, turns Red. The Sun through a Mist, the Planet Mars by night, the Moon in the Clouds, a glowing Coal, and many other things are Red. Some Fruits therefore as Cherries, Grapes, Mul∣berries, &c. are of a Red Colour, because the Juice whereof they consist, having never been exactly strained, and therefore containing several Particles that are not sufficiently digested, makes those Fruits to appear of that colour, by reflecting the Light accordingly.

V. The Cause of the Yel∣low Colour that ap∣pears in the Leaves of Plants. A Yellow Colour is peculiar to the Leaves of Trees and Fruits, whilst they are ripening; be∣cause having lost the moisture, which gave them their Greeness, they now contain nothing but such a Juice, as is well strain'd and prepar'd; which makes their outside to rise into greater Bubbles or round Bodies, which because they leave great intervals between them, must needs cause a great variation in the Reflexion of Light. For if you look upon Yellow Bodies with a Microscope, you will find them wholly rough and uneven, and full of innumerable protuberances; by which means the Light reflected from them becomes so modified, that the whirling about of the Globuli is somewhat more rapid than their motion to right lines. For the Yellow Colour mediates betwixt White and Red; which may be demonstrated to the Eye from the mingling of Liquors; for if you mix any White and Red Liquor together, the result will be Yellow. And the same will be if we twist a Lace or Girdle of the smallest White and Red Threads.

VI. The Blue Colour is peculiar to some Flow∣ers. Blue is the peculiar Colour of some Flowers, be∣cause the Juice that nourisheth them, is in such a manner concocted and percolated, that from thence such a degree of Darkness and Transparency re∣sults, as produceth such a Reflexion of the Rays, that the Globuli of them, have more of a straight, than of a circular motion. For a Blue Colour comes between a Black and Red; as appears in the Air, which in the day-time looks Blue, by reason of the Bodies that are tost up and down in it, and reflect the Rays to us. And forasmuch as these Rays are but few in number, and the Shades many, therefore it is necessary that the Heaven should appear of a middle colour between Black and Red, that is of a Blue, in the day-time. This will be made manifest to us by mixing a very fine Red Powder, with another that is Black, or by laying a black Glass upon a red Glass, and look∣ing through them, for by either of these ways we shall find a Blue Colour produced.

VII. The Gene∣ral Colour of Plants is the Green Colour. The most common colour belonging to Plants is the Green, which is observed in all of them as well at their springing out of the ground, as in their growth. The cause of this Colour is the abundance of moisture that is in Plants, when it is but slightly strained and elaborated. Hence it is that those Herbs and Leaves have more of this Greeness by how much the more they abound with moisture, and less of it, as the moisture is less, and better digested. This Green Colour is mixed of Yellow and Blue; which may be made out by se∣veral experiments; for if we look upon the Sky, which is Blue, through a Yellow Glass, it will ap∣pear Green; so likewise if we lay a Blue Glass upon a Yellow, and look through it upon any Ob∣ject, it will appear Green: and so we shall find that by mixing a Blue and Yellow Colour'd Liquor together, the mixture will be Green.

VIII. What is the Cause of that varie∣ty of Co∣lours that is in Tulips. There be many Flowers that are of divers co∣lours, as Tulips; which cannot proceed from any other cause, but the different concoction of the Alimental Juice; because the matter is better pre∣served and purified in the great Bulbous Roots of Tulips; and better strained through their long and thick Stalks, wherein also it is the better concocted and distributed. But yet it cannot be expected that Tulips every year should retain the same colours; for the temper of the weather chang∣ing considerably every year, it cannot be other∣wise but that thereupon a different concoction, pre∣paration and distribution of the Alimental Juice must follow, and consequently the colour also be changed. Yea, we find sometimes that Tulips, in one and the same year do change their colours, and that such as before were White, turn Red, and the Red, White. When streaks of a Purple Colour ap∣pear in a white Tulip, it is a sign that the thicker parts of the Juice do cause an obstruction, where∣by the free motion thereof to the utmost parts of the Flower is hindred.

IX. Why Leaves and Flow∣ers change their Co∣lours. And the same may be said of the Leaves and Fruits of Trees changing their colours. For the Leaves are Green at first, by reason of the plenty of Moisture, and the Juice that is not throughly ela∣borated or prepared; and from this Green Colour they are changed into a Reddish, and lastly from that to a Yellow; because the Moisture, which at first was the cause of the Green Colour, being di∣minished gives way for the Red Colour to succeed, and afterwards flying all away, they are thereby changed into a Yellow Colour, till at last extream driness turns them White. In like manner Fruit, as it comes to be ripe, quits its Green Colour; which becomes changed into some other; because the Juice, which before was raw, as wanting due preparation, when the Fruit grows ripe, becomes depurated and percolated to perfection: so that the contexture of parts being by this means changed, it is no wonder that the Fruit loseth its green Co∣lour, and becomes Red, or Yellow, or of a Colour mixt of both.

CHAP. XIV. Of the several Tasts of Plants.

I. What Tast or Savor is, and wherein consists. BY the word Tast or Savor, we understand that virtue in Bodies, whereby they are able to produce in us the sense of Tast. Which vir∣tue consists in the Particles of Bodies, inasmuch as they are sufficiently diluted, subtil and agitated

to enter the pores of our Tongue, and to move those Nerves, wherewith the Instrument of Tasting is is furnish'd. For tho' Taste be properly in the Mouth, and that the Tongue or Palat is formally that which tastes; yet it may be said, that the things themselves, which are taken into our Mouths, are the Causes of the said Taste, and according to their several magnitude, figure and motion, do produce different tastes or savours. So that things savoury, or endued with taste, are said to be such, only because they move the Filaments of the Nerves of our Tongue in such a manner, as is necessary to produce in them the sense of Tasting. And forasmuch as sensible Objects cannot affect those Nerves, except they be endued with a cer∣tain motion, figure, and magnitude; therefore to these three we must assign all the diversity of Tastes or Savours we meet with in any Ob∣jects.

II. Why some Fruits are insipid. This is evident from the Insipidness we some∣times find in Plants, and their several parts. For if we enquire into the Reason why some of them are Insipid, and do not affect the Tongue or Palat, we shall find the Reason to be, because they do not furnish such Particles, as by the assistance of Moisture can enter the Tongue, and strike its Nerves. Thus we find, that when Grapes are first knotted, they impress no affection upon the Tongue, and do only touch the outside of it, without entring its pores; because the particles of Juice, which come up from the Root to compose them, do stick close together, and are not easily separated. Daily Experience also teacheth us, that Water is in a manner wholly insipid, because its Particles are so thin and subtil, that they can affect the Organ of Taste very little or nothing. In like manner Air is void of all Taste, because it floats only upon the Spittle, and the Parts of it, by rea∣son of their extream lightness and subtilty, can make no impression upon the Tongue.

III. What is required to make a thing sapid or savoury. That a thing be savoury, it is necessary for its Parts to be separated from each other, that so joyning themselves to the Spittle in our Mouths, they may variously affect the Nerves of our Tongue. Now this is done by means of Heat, the Property whereof is, to resolve Bodies, open their pores, and to make a ready way for the Moisture to enter. Whence it is, that when Fruits tend to Maturity, by means of the heat of the Sun, recon∣ciling their driness and moisture together, various Tastes are imprest upon them, according to their different degrees of Maturity: First, an Astringent taste, then a Harsh taste, afterwards a Sowr, and last of all, a Sweet taste; and if the Heat be too great a smart or biting, and bitter Taste.

IV. Why Sloes have an Astringent taste. An Astringent taste we find in all unripe Fruit, and more especially in Sloes, which with great harshness and astringence affect the Tongue, as if they prick'd it with Pins and Thorns; because they consist of keen and stiff Parts. For the Juice whereof they consist being not well strained, con∣tains many stiff and inflexible little Bodies, such as are the particles that compose Salt; so that it is no wonder that they exasperate the Tongue, and astringe or contract the same.

V. Onions and Pepper have a smart and biting Taste. In Onions, Ginger, Pepper, Mustard-seed, &c. we perceive a smart and biting Taste; because the particles of these Objects do prick the Tongue, and cause the same Division in it, which Fire would, if applied to it. The Reason is, because they consist of long, thin, and stiff particles, which make the Bodies whereto they belong dry and stiff. But being boil'd in Water, they lose their Acrimony; for that the Moisture penetrating them, dissolves their Salt and other smart little Bodies, and opening their pores, carries them away. Yea, some of these may be so macerated or soaked, as that by quitting all their Biting and Harsh par∣ticles, they may become sweet, and at last in∣sipid.

VI. How Sweet∣ness is pro∣duc'd in Ripe fruits. We meet with a Sweet taste, almost in all Ripe Fruits, which with great smoothness and evenness affect the Tongue. For in Ripe Fruits, by the continual heat of the Sun, the Alimental Juice is very exactly and throughly strained, and the par∣ticles that before were entangled, are resolved, by which means they readily enter the pores of the Tongue, and affect it with a pleasing Titillation. This Taste is most pleasant and grateful to young Children, the small strings of whose Nerves are more fine, small and subtil; but is not so accepta∣ble to those who have a thicker Texture of Nerves, being affected by what is acrimonious, and there∣fore look upon a sweet Taste, to be unpleasant.

VII. A Sowr taste proper to Limons. A Sowr taste is found in Limons, Sorrel, and the like, which do prick and cut the Tongue. It is felt somewhat in the same manner, as a smart or biting Taste, saving only that Sowr things are accompanied with a sense of constringent Cold. The Reason is, because this Savour consists in subtil and sharp Particles, which do easily penetrate the Organ of Taste, and pierce it like so many Thorns. And therefore we must conclude, that these Bodies consist of longish and stiff particles, somewhat like Needles: Which we shall readily admit, if we consider that all Fruits, before that they come to their full Ripeness, are of a Sowr taste; which could not be, if that Taste did not include something that is common to them all. Now we can meet with nothing that is common to them all, except that Disposition of Parts, seeing they consist of an Earthy Juice, which did cleave to the long and thin pores of the small Twigs, whence these Fruits do grow.

VIII. Whence that Bit∣terness that is observed in Rotten Apples, doth pro∣ceed. A Bitter Taste is perceived in some rotten Pears and Apples, &c. in the eating whereof the strings of the Nerves are unduly affected, and unplea∣santly vellicated. For Pears and Apples, when they begin to putrifie, get rough, uneven, and prickly particles; because then the more subtil and refined particles fly away, leaving none but the grosser and thicker behind them. For Putrefaction is such a Resolution of Parts, by which things be∣come worse than they were before. Hence it is that they who drink Wine, immediately after they have eaten a tainted Apple, and tending to putre∣faction, do perceive a Bitter taste; because the Wine mingling it self with those putrid particles, conveighs them to the inmost pores of the Tongue. This Bitterness is sometimes occasion'd by too great Heat, when it is continual, and acts for a long time together upon Fruit. So that if Fruits, after their full Maturity, should continue long upon the Trees, it is not to be question'd, but that by being too long expos'd to the Heat of the Sun, their particles would become so rugged and twisted, that none would be left in them, to affect the Tongue with a Sweet taste, but would all ex∣asperate

and bite it. A confirmation whereof we have in Flesh, which by too great heat of the Fire becomes scorched and burnt, and by this means acquires a Bitter taste, as doth also the Crust of Bread that is burnt, by being baked in an over∣heated Oven.

IX. Mint Tastes are found in some Fruits and Plants. Neither are these simple Savours or Tastes only found in Plants and Fruits, but also compound Savours; as the sweet and sowr Taste which is commonly found in Fruits, that are not yet arrived to the utmost degree of Maturity: As when some of their parts are longish and stiff, which prick the Tongue; whereas others, more smooth and pleasant, softly flowing over the Nerves of the Tongue, do only produce a kind of pleasant Titillation on the Tongue. Another Taste is that which is Harsh and Sowr, which is that we perceive in those we call rough Wines. Another, Sowr and Astringent, which taste is found in the Juice of unripe Grapes, called Verjuice; the Cause whereof is this, that the particles which constitute the Grapes, are by the Heat of the Air separated from each other, and so acting independently, they produce both a sowr and astringent Taste.

CHAP. XV. Of the Odour or Scent of Plants.

I. Wherein Taste and Scent do agree. ODours, or Scents, have some affinity with Tastes, as being much deriv'd from the same Principles. For as Taste consists in those little Bodies which penetrate the Tongue and Palat, and diversly affect them, according to their various Magnitude, Figure and Motion; so Odour consists in those particles which, flying in the Air, do enter our Nostrils, and variously affect the same. There is also another Resemblance between them, in that they are in a manner denominated alike, and are distinguish'd by the same Differences. For as Tastes or Savours are chiefly distinguish'd into Astringent, Smart or Biting, and Sweet: So of Odours or Scents, some are sweet; as in Musk, Roses, Orris, &c. Others smart and stinging; as in Brimstone: Others, stinking or nasty; as in Bugs, and some Excrements: Others, sharp, as the Scent of Spike, &c.

II. How Sa∣vours and Odours differ. But yet Scents and Tastes differ in this, that they do not consist in the same parts, nor affect the Organs after one and the same manner. For the particles that are productive of the sense of Taste, are moist; whereas those that cause Odours, are very dry and subtil. They differ also, in that a savoury Object cannot move the sense, except it touch the Organ; whereas a scented Object strikes the Organ at a distance: So that the Tongue, by its Moisture, takes out the Taste from the Object; whereas the Nostrils only admit the Odour transmitted to them from the Object.

III. The Nature of Odours consists in the efflux of Particles. Whence we may conclude, that the Nature of Odours consists in the Efflux of certain particles; which being diffus'd in the Air, enter the inmost parts of the Nostrils, and there affect some Nerves derived from the Brain. This we perceive in Frankincense cast upon Coals, and any other Per∣fume, which evaporates in the Air, and is disperst into innumerable particles. Whence it is that Hard Bodies, which in their compact Nature afford no scent, when put to the fire yield an Odour; because, by the forceable motion thereof, some of those particles are set at liberty, and diffused through the Air. 'Tis for this Reason, that Spanish Wax, which we make use of to seal Let∣ters, doth yield a sweet Scent, when put to the fire; as also that one Stone rubbed against another; and Iron violently struck by another Iron do send forth a smell, which before this motion was not perceptible. From which Instances it may appear also, that the Odours of Flowers consists in an Exhalation or Evaporation of some of the parts of them, which is the more evident, because when that is gone, they remain void of all smell.

IV. Why som•• Bodies have no Scent at all. Neither must we conclude from hence, that all manner of Effluvia that proceed from Bodies, must impress the sensation of Odour; for besides the emanation of particles, it is required that they move the Organ, and that in such a manner as is fit to produce this sense. For the particles of some Bodies may be so very fine and small, that they can∣not sufficiently move the Organ: Thus we find, that neither the Air we draw in, nor the Vapours that arise from the Water, do excite any sense of Smelling in us. And on the contrary, some Effluvia are so gross, that they cannot reach the Organ of Smelling; or if they do, are more apt to spoil it, than to produce any sense of Smelling in it.

V. The diffe∣rence of Odours de∣pends on the variety of Parts, that flow from a Body. The Diversity of Odours, for the most part, de∣pends on the same Principle, whence the variety of Savours doth proceed; that is, from that difference there is in the magnitude, motion and figure, of those particles that breath out from Odorous Bodies. Which we shall more readily assent to, if we con∣sider that there is some Analogy or Resemblance between savoury and odorous Objects; and that those which agree in taste, do generally agree in smell also. Thus all smart and biting Things to the taste, are also observ'd to have a sharp and stinging Smell; and bitter Things, to have a scent that partakes something of Bitterness. The Reason whereof is, because the same Particles, which being mingled with Moisture, produce Taste or Savour▪ when exhal'd into the Air, and entring our Nostrils create the sense of Smelling. In like manner Bo∣dies that are insipid, are commonly also destitute of scent. Thus Unripe Fruits, which have no more than an imperfect Taste (and the same may be said of Flowers) yield little or no Odour. I said, that it is so for the most part, because it sometimes happens, that there is not this agreement between the Taste and Scent in Objects; as appears in Roses and Myrrh, which tho' they yield a pleasant smell to the Nostrils, yet have a bitter and unplea∣sant Taste.

VI. Why Odou•• are more perceives in Hot Seasons and Cli∣mat. Nothing more conduceth to the production of Odours, than Heat; because it readily opens and resolves Bodies. For as we see that Smoak is excited by Fire, and that the more subtil parts of the Wood are carried up into the Air: In like mannner Heat divides the parts of Bodies, dissolves their Texture, and makes way for them to fly abroad. For we observe that fruits and flowers smell by so much the more, as their Juice is better prepared by Heat, and more throughly digested. A Lilly, the more it hath been concocted with a lasting heat, the more odorous it is. Sweet Woods and

Spices, the hotter the Countries are they grow in, the more strongly Sweet-scented they are; as ap∣pears in Frankinsence, Storax, Myrrh, Balm of Gilead, &c. Because the Juice of Plants in those Countries being exceeding well digested, is the more easily resolv'd into an Odoriferous breath or steam. Wherefore it is not to be wondred at, that the Plants that grow with us are not so odorous, as those that grow in Arabia, and other hot and dry Countries; because the Concoction cannot be per∣fected for want of Heat, the superfluous moisture hindring the more dry particles from exhaling into the Air. Hence it is that most things, when dried, do acquire a stronger Odour; and for the same Reason, Ripe Fruits are more and better scented, than those which are unripe. This proves all Odo∣rous things to be hot, and that they suffer a con∣tinual efflux of their parts. And therefore those who would preserve the Sweet-scentedness of Musk, do wrap it in Cotton, which doth entangle its Effluvia, and hinder it from exhaling too fast. Accordingly also we find, that in Colder weather scents are dull and weak, because Cold stops the Pores of Bodies, and by keeping their parts at rest, hinder them from breathing out in Exhala∣tions.

VII. Flowers smell more sweetly at a distance. Flowers are observ'd not to smell so sweet near at hand, as at a distance, if it be not too great. The Reason is, because they who put the flowers to their Nostrils, do take in many Heterogenous parts of Herbs, which are mingled or entangled with those of the flower, but are not able to ac∣company them at any distance, but are soon scat∣ter'd in the Air, or fall down, because of their Thickness. Hence it is that a small quantity of Civet smells sweet, whereas a greater quantity of it rather stinks, and offends the smell. To which we may add, that the Odorous Exhalations scatter'd in the Air, become there strained and defoecated of their more gross and impure parts; as we see that Water mingled with Wine, doth dull and weaken the smell, as well as the strength of it; and there∣fore it is no wonder, that an Odorous Exhalation, that hath been diffused through the Air, is more grateful, than that which we draw from the Body it self, apply'd to our Nostrils.

VIII. Perfumes waste con∣tinually. Forasmuch as Bodies continually send forth some of their Particles, we must conclude they cannot but waste by degrees. So we find, that those Sweet-scents that are excited by Heat, do waste by degrees, and at last lose all their Odour. But those Perfumes which do not stand in need of this Excitation by fire, as Musk and Civet, do not so soon consume, but continue their scent for a long time, without any sensible diminution; because the agitation of their particles is very moderate, and consequently but a few of them are dispersed or lost in the Air.

CHAP. XVI. Of the Diseases and Death of Plants.

I. What is the Death of Plants. FOrasmuch as Contraries discover each others Nature, and that Life and Death are Con∣traries, it will not be difficult to find out why Plants do perish; and what the Cause is, why they cease to be nourished; to grow and increase; and to express it in one word, why they die. For seeing that the Alimentary Juice is the immediate Principle of Motion in Plants, and that their Life doth consist in the due distribution thereof by Heat; it evidently follows, that the death or perishing of Plants must consist in the defect of this Alimentary distribution.

II. How many several ways Death may hap∣pen to Plants. But because this Defect may proceed from many Causes, we will first speak of the Distempers to which they are subject, and shew how many several ways their Vital functions may be perverted. For besides the undue disposition of their Parts; as when the Top of them is too much bended down towards the Earth; when they are full of knots, and when the distribution of their Aliment is in∣terrupted by callous Bumps; when their parts are separated; or when they exceed, or are defective: I say, besides these, there are many other ways whereby they may be brought to their end; as by an undue Temperature, when they are either choaked with too much Moisture, or consumed by too much Heat; when they are shut up and grow stiff, by extream Cold; or wither and pine away, by too much Drought. The Ancients reckon up those Distempers of Plants, which are described as followeth.

III. The effect of Rubigo or Mildew, upon Pulse and Corn. The Disease called Rubigo, or Mildew, in Pulse and Corn, is caused by a Dewy Moisture, which falling upon them, and continuing there, for want of sufficient Heat of the Sun to draw it up, doth by its biting sharpness, or Acrimony, scorch and corrupt the inmost substance of the Seed. This Disease also seizeth Vines; but may easily be prevented by cutting them later in the year; for the late pruning of them, makes them to flower so much the later, which generally prevents this Evil, because it seldom happens towards the latter end of the Spring. Moist and Dewy places are most subject to this Damage; as Vallies and shut up places, where the Winds have not their free Course; High ground being not subject to it.

IV. What Ro∣ration is. Roration; which is a distemper of kin to that of Mildew, is, when by too much Rain or Dew, Vines are blasted in their flowering, and bring forth only small and dwindling Grapes. And after the same manner other Plants are also spoiled, whilst they are yet young and tender, and not sufficiently rooted.

V. Uredo. Uredo, happens either when the Sun with too great heat scorcheth the Leaves and Clusters of Grapes, before that the Rainy or Dewy Moisture is shak'd off from them; or when Rain or Snow, lying upon the Tendrils or Buds of the Vine, is by Cold congealed to Ice.

VI. Carbuncu∣lation. Carbunculation, is the blasting of the new sprouted Buds of the Vine, in the Spring time; because then the Vines are in danger to be smitten, either by the excessive Heat or Cold. For by too much Heat, the Texture of the strings or fibres of the Vine become so dissolved, as that thereby the Native disposition of the pores becomes wholly changed; and again by Cold it is so com∣prest, that the pores thereby are shut up, and leave no passage for the Alimentary Juice.

VII. Vermicu∣lation. Vermiculation is nothig else, but the Infestation of Plants by Worms; which Evil is very incident to Apple-trees, Pear-trees, and Fig-trees. For as Men, and other Animals, are subject to breed Worms, so Plants are obnoxious to the same distem∣per,

especially such as bear sweet Fruits, for such as bear bitter or sharp Fruits (excepting only the Olive-tree) are never troubled therewith. The manner of these Insects infesting Plants is decla∣red to us by MALPIGHIUS; It is yet more wonderful, saith he, that commonly, by means of one or two Eggs of a Flie left upon the Leaf of a Vine, Oak, or other like, the whole Leaf be∣comes drawn together like a Purse about the said Egg, and so withers; yea such is the strange force of one of these Eggs, that not only the Leaf on which it is laid, suffers thus, but the infection being communicated to the Stalk of the Leaf, and from thence to the sprig that sticks to it, and the Leaves that are on it, the whole Branch is twisted and writhed together, and so withers and dies.

VIII. Defluvium. Defluvium, is a distemper whereby Trees, in the Spring-time especially, lose their Barks, by reason of some sharp humour, that dissolves the Glew whereby the Bark was fastned to the Wood, where∣upon they wither and die, being deprived of their Barks; except this Decortication be not round, but long-wise only, for then it is no prejudice to the Plants, unless it be very great indeed, especially in Resiniferous-trees whilst they are budding. This Distemper also proceeds sometimes from too much Drought, which young and tender Trees not being able to bear, they do easily shed their Leaves and Fruit.

IX. A Wound. A deep wound made in any Tree kills it, except the Firr, Pine and the Turpentine-tree, which de∣light in being wounded, and by this means become fruitful, whereas they were Barren before: for they abounding with a Fat and Clammy Humour, do void part of it by the wound, and thus being unloaden of some of their superabundant moisture, are afterwards better nourished, and advance more in growth.

X. How Plants Perish by a Natural Death. Plants, as Animals, perish two several ways, viz. by a Natural or Violent Death. Plants die naturally when Aliment is no longer transmitted to them from the Root; or when the Heat, that drives it upwards, and distributes it into all parts, vanisheth. For Heat, as is before mentioned, is the Principle of all motion in Plants, and therefore when that ceaseth, all the Functions of Germinati∣on and Nutrition must needs cease with it.

XI. How many ways Plants may d•••• a vio∣l••nt Death. Plants, may divers ways die violently; as first by a wound received; whereby we are not only to understand Cutting, Slitting, Pulling off the Bark, Boring or Lopping off the Top, but also Bruising, half Breaking, Tearing, &c. For tho' a Plant, whilst it is pluckt up out of the Ground, doth not suffer any wound, yet because the Passa∣ges whereby it drew in its Aliment, are stopt up, the parts that are towards the top must needs wi∣ther, and those that are near the Root must be choaked with the too great abundance of it.

XII. By over∣much Heat. Plants also perish by too much Heat, when the Earth is parched by the Heat of the Sun, and all the Moisture or Juice dried up. Whence it is that young and tender Plants, do much sooner perish than those that are grown; for by reason of their tenderness the Heat more easily penetrates their Pores and opens them, and so makes way for the Juice to get out. Moreover their Roots being not so deeply fixed in the ground, when their moisture is exhausted, they cannot so readily draw in more, to restore the Alimental Juice, they have lost.

XIII. By ex∣tream cold. In like manner Plants perish by great Cold, which is very destructive to them when it is exces∣sive, and especially when it comes after great Rain; for since the particles of Water, that insinuate themselves into the Bladders of Plants, do very much distend them, they can no longer contain themselves within their Bounds, but breaking out beyond them, do spoil the connexion of their parts, whence follows their total destruction. Accord∣ingly we find that Plants by great Cold are parch∣ed and scorched, much in the same manner as if they had endured the most scorching Heats of Summer. We might now proceed to the answer∣ing of some Queries, as why Trees that are pluckt up by the Roots, and Branches that are lopt off from the Tree, do continue to live for some time, and do not die presently; why Wild Trees are longer liv'd than those that grow in Gardens and Or∣chards; but having fully spoken to these in the IX. Chapter of my Natural History concerning Plants, I thither refer my Reader.

CHAP. XVII. Of Animals, or Living Sensitive Creatures.

I. What an Animal i••, AS Nature proceeds from simple things, to those that are more compound, and from meaner and viler things to those that are more noble; in like manner having now treated of Plants, that are a meaner kind of Living Creatures, I proceed to Animals, who besides the Life which they have common with Plants, are partakers of a kind of Sense and Motion. For so Animals are usually de∣fined Living Bodies, furnished with variety of Organs, and endued with Sense and Motion. I say, Living Bodies, because they consist of such a contexture of sensible and insensible parts, that they cannot only recover the parts they have lost, but being excited by objects, can agitate themselves by various motions. So that the matter of an Ani∣mal are its Parts, or those Bodily Substances, that complete its Body, and are designed for the due per∣forming of several Actions. And the due and be∣coming Union of these Parts, whereby an Ani∣mal, both in respect of his sensible and insensible Parts, viz. Fibres, Nerves, Passages or Conduits Valvules, &c. is so disposed, as to be able duly to exert his several actions, is his Form. What their Sense is, shall be declared anon.

II. Wherein the Life of Animals doth consist. The Life of Animals consists in a due disposi∣tion of Parts, and intense Heat, whereby the Ali∣mentary Juice is digested, attenuated, changed and agitated. For the Parts of Animals are not so disposed, that the Alimentary Humour which is conveighed through them from the lower part, is from thence by an uniform tenor diffused every where, without any sensible heat, as in Plants: for in Animals there is a Part, which contains an en∣closed Fire, to which the Alimentary Juice being conveighed by the Veins, doth there undergo an effervescence, and then from thence is driven through the Arteries, to moisten and quicken the whole Body; till after having circulated through the whole Body, it return again through the veins out of the Arteries to the same living Fire, there to be heated and recruited a-fresh.

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Book. 1. Part. 7. Chap. 17

G. Freman Inv.

I. Kip

* 1.1 This Receptacle of Fire, in perfect Animals is the Heart, which is the most hot of all the rest of their Parts. Which Heat residing in the Heart, is called Natural, because it doth not presently va∣nish like to that heat, which is found in inanimate or lifeless things; but is preserved in the coldest Season, and as long as the Life of Animals doth continue. And accordingly it is said to be the first part that lives, and the last that dies in Ani∣mals.

IV. This Natu∣ral Heat is various, ac∣cording to the diffe∣rence of Age. Altho' this Native Heat do continue till the Death of the Living Sensitive Creature, yet it is not always in the same state, for as it encreaseth all the while Animals grow up to their perfection, so after that the same is attained, it decreaseth again and grows weaker, till it be wholly extin∣guisht. At the beginning of Life, when the more solid parts of the Body are yet soft and tender, they do not so much resist the motion of the Fluid parts, as when they are come to their full growth, and so because the fluid parts are less foceably mo∣ved, the heat excited by them is so much the weaker also. But in Old Age, when the more solid parts of the Body, and those more especially through which the Alimentary Juice or Chyle is strained, in order to the making of Blood, begin by degrees to grow harder, and have their pores less crooked and winding, the native heat must need thereby be changed and grow weaker.

V. Wherein the Power of Sense and Motion that is in Animals doth consist. The Faculty therefore of Sense and Motion (which by some is called the Sensitive Soul) in Animals consists in a due disposition of the Parts, viz. their Nerves, Muscles, Spirits, Fibres, Joints and of their other Organs; by the help whereof Animals become differently affected from outward and inward objects, and are carried from one place to another. For all Animals (Man only except∣ed) are a kind of Watches or Clocks, which by a fit adaptation of their parts, have a Bodily Prin∣ciple of Motion in themselves, as long as they are well disposed, and have whatsoever is required to perform and exert the several actions to which they are design'd. For all the Effects we perceive in Animals (Man excepted) have no other cause or Principle but the Body, neither is their Sensitive Soul any thing, but the constitution and affection of their Bodily Organs, and the Spirits or the pu∣rest parts of the Blood, fitted to the Animal Life, and the exercise of the Senses.

VI. What kind of Fire it is that is lodged in the Hearts of Animals And forasmuch as Heat is the Principle of all Motions in Animals, and that whatsoever belongs to Life or Sense is to be attributed to its continual motion; we must enquire, what this Fire in the Heart is, and what its Effects are. This Natural Fire then, which Physicians generally adscribe to the Blood, is hot, but without Light, and not much unlike to that, which ariseth from the mix∣ture of two Liquors, viz. Oyl of Tartar, and Oyl of Vitriol. The Reason is, because after that the greatest part of the Blood, which hath been rare∣fied in the Ventricles of the Heart, is conveighed thence, through the Arterial Vein and the Aorta, that Blood which still remains in the same Ventri∣cles, and that which is a-new conveighed into them, from the Ear-Lappets of the Heart, have the same respect to one another, as the foresaid Li∣quors; the one being instead of a Ferment or Lea∣ven to the other, to dilate and warm it.

VII. How this heat in the Heart comes to be perpetual. The Cause of the Perpetuity of this heat in the Heart is, partly because it is closely shut up and pent in there; and partly because this Fire is nou∣rished and fed in the Heart by the Blood of the Veins, generated of the Alimental Juices, heated by a kind of Fermentation, and running into the Heart: yet so, as that at the same time this Fire doth also in its turn impart a heat to the Blood, and thereby preserve the Fluidity and motion of it.

VIII. The First effect of the Fire in the Heart, is the Dilata∣tion of the Blood. The first effect therefore of this Fire is the Di∣latation of the Blood, contain'd in the ventricles of the Heart, together with the warming and atte∣nuating thereof. For it is common to all Liquors, that when they are distilled drop by drop into a very hot Vessel they presently swell and are dila∣ted. Now the Blood being thus rarefied, wants a greater space, and therefore breaks forth from the Heart, much in the same manner, as the wa∣ter resolved into Vapours, bursts forth from an Aeolipyle; and the Blood that comes to supply the place of the former, rarefies in like manner as the former, and is extended to a far greater space.

IX. Whence the Pulse of the Heart and Arteries doth pro∣ceed. From this successive Ingress and Egress of the Blood into and from the Heart, not only the Heart, but all the Arteries together, swell and are depres∣sed; whence follows the Pulse of the Heart and Arteries, which is as often repeated, as any new Blood enters into the Heart, and the Arteries are extended. For as soon as any part of the Blood enters into the hot Heart, it presently swells and becomes dilated, by which means it puffs up and distends the Heart, and endeavours to get out. Which since it cannot obtain through the same ways by which it entred into the Heart, because of the different situation of the Valves or Flood∣gates of the Heart, it forceth open the other Val∣ves that favours its escape, and so gets out.

X. The Blood is carried throughout the whole Body of the Animal. And this is the true cause of the Bloods Motion throughout the whole Body; for seeing that the Arteries and Veins that are fill'd with it, are con∣tinuous, and do not in the least hinder it from con∣tinuing its Motion, it cannot be otherwise, but that it must alternately, or by turns, with force break forth from the Heart, and from thence be driven into the Arteries and Veins. And it is by this means that the Blood derives the Heat it hath ac∣quir'd in the Heart, to all the other parts of the Body. For the more frequent this motion of the Heart and Arteries is, the more Heat we find in our selves, and in so much the less time the Blood is carried to the utmost parts of the Body.

XI▪ The conti∣nual moti∣on of the Blood is the Cause of the Ani∣mals growth. By this constant Circulation of the Blood all the Parts of the Body are nourished; because the thin∣ner and purer parts thereof, being separated from the Excrements, are added to the parts, taking up the place of some particles which they drive away thence, or also grow and encrease, when greater or more particles of Blood come to restore the parts, than can be received into their narrow Pores. And therefore we find, that whilst a Body suffers a continual loss of Blood it is not nourished, but wastes away, and consumes.

XII. By the same motion the Animal Spirits are generated. By this perpetual Circulation of the Blood, the Animal Spirits are also generated, which are the most subtil and swiftly moved particles of the Blood, which like a most subtil Wind, or rather like a most pure Flame, do continuallv mount up to the Brain, fill its Cavities, and from thence through the Nerves, penetrate into the Muscles,

and impart motion to all the Members. For we need not to seek for any other Cause, that makes those parts of the Blood, of which the Spirits are generated, to mount up towards the Brain, rather than to betake themselves elsewhere; but this, be∣cause all the Blood that proceeds from the Heart, doth by a Right line tend that way. And foras∣much as in the Brain there is not room enough to contain them all, and the passages they are to go through are very narrow, the more subtil only of them get through, whilst those that are weaker and less agitated, are diffused throughout all the other parts of the Body. And therefore we see, that the Heads of many Animals do move after that they are separated from their Bodies, open their Eyes, and bite the Earth, tho' indeed they be desti∣tute of Life.

XIII. How the Animal differ from the Vital Spirits. The difference between the Animal and Vital Spirits is very small, or to speak properly none at all. For the Animal Spirit is nothing else, but the Vital better depurated, and freed from its grosser Particles in the Brain. Yet they are distinguish'd in this, that the Vital Spirit, being diffused with the Blood throughout the whole Body, doth pro∣mote and execute the Vital Functions, viz. Nutri∣tion, Accretion, and Generation: Whereas the Ani∣mal Spirits, collected in the Brain, and from thence diffused through the Nerves into the Organs, are chiefly subservient to the Animal Functions, viz. Sense and Motion.

XIV. Why the Animal Spirits are unequally distributed through the Body. But here it may be demanded, why these Ani∣mal Spirits, do not always flow alike from the Brain into the Muscles; but are very unequally distributed, so as that frequently many more Spirits are sent to some Muscles, than to o∣thers?

I answer, That this proceeds chiefly from two Causes: The First is, the unequal agitation and figure of those Spirits, and the Parts that compose them. Which inequality may proceed from the various Dispositions of the Heart, Stomach, Spleen, and all other parts, which contribute any thing towards their Production. Or from the different matters of which the Spirits consist; as may be seen in those that have drunk a great deal of Wine; that the Vapours of the Wine swiftly entring the Blood, mount up from the Heart to the Brain, where they become turned into Spirits; which being stronger, and in more abundace than those that commonly are there, may be able to agitate the Body in many various and wonderful manners. The other Cause is the Variety of those Motions, which are excited in the Organs of the Senses by their Objects. For it may be easily conceiv'd, that the figure and peculiar agitation of the Parts, which constitute the Spirits; or the Action of Objects upon the Organs of the Senses; or the Inclination of the Animal to this or the other Motion, deter∣mining the Spirits to enter into this Nerve rather, than into another, cause the Spirit to run into one Muscle, rather than into another: For such is the make or structure of the Muscles, that they swell upon the entring in of the Spirits, and conse∣quently are contracted, and so by drawing those parts of the Body to which they are fastned, effect the motion of them.

CHAP. XVIII. What the Souls of Brute Beasts are.

I. The Defi∣nition of a Brute Beast A Brute Beast is by the Peripateticks com∣monly defined to be an Irrational Animal, or an Animal endued with Sense. Yea, they make them almost Rational, as supposing that some plain Foot-steps of Reason are observable in Beasts. But we on the contrary are persuaded, that a Beast is a meer Automaton or Engin; that is, an Animal destitute of all Knowledge, and conse∣quently may be thus defined: A Beast is an Ar∣tificial Engin or Machin of GOD, furnish'd with a various and wonderful structure of Organs, containing in it self a material Principle of Life, Motion and Sense. For herein Beasts do differ from Men, that these have an Immaterial or In∣tellectual Substance joyned to Matter; which the former have not.

II. What ha•••• persuaded some, that Beasts make use of Reason. It cannot be deny'd, that there are some Actions in Brutes, which have a great resemblance with those that are in Men; whence some have con∣cluded, that they had the use of Reason, tho' in an inferiour degree, in comparison of Men. How comes it to pass, say they, that when a Dog in hunting comes to a place where 3 Ways meet, having laid his Nose to 2 of them, he immediately casts himself along the third? How can it be conceiv'd, that Birds should be able to build their Nests, with such extraordinary Artifice and con∣venience for themselves and their young, if they be wholly destitute of Discourse and Reason? These and other Actions of Animals, have racked the Brains of several, and forced them to allow some foot-steps of Reason to brute Beasts. But this Question will be easily determin'd, by supposing 2 things.

III. Brutes 〈◊〉〈◊〉 not expres their own Thoughts. First, That no brute Animals, how perfect soever they be, can express their Thoughts (if they have any) by Words: Which yet all Men, how dull and stupid soever they be, can do; neither are any of them so far distracted, but that they can discover their Affections by Words. The Reason of which difference doth not proceed from the Organs, seeing that several Animals, such as Parrots and Jackdaws, utter Articulate words, and yet for all that can never attain to our way of Speaking, that is, they can never manifest to others, that they understand what they pronounce. Whereas on the contrary, persons that are born Deaf, and to whom Nature hath deny'd the use of Speaking, can by signs discover their Concep∣tions to others, and make known what they desire or refuse, by their Gesture, Eyes, and the like. Now the want of this in Brutes, doth not only argue a less degree of Reason in them, but also strongly prove them to have none at all.

IV. There are no signs taken up at pleasure, to be found in Brutes. In the Second place, we must suppose that the Signs which have been invented by Men to repre∣sent their Conceptions, do differ very much from those Natural Voices and Signs, which are genuine Expressions of Bodily Affections: Wherefore seeing the former are not to be found in Beasts, and that they are not able any way to express their Minds: neither must we allow them to have any use of Reason.

V. Whether Beasit do Discourse together If any one will say, That Beasts do discourse and talk together; this they must prove before we can believe them: For seeing they have Or∣gans

that are much like ours, why should they not be able to communicate their Thoughts to us, as well as to one another? And tho' in some cases they act with extraordinary industry and exact∣ness; yet cannot we from thence infer, their act∣ing according to Reason, for otherwise they would excel us in many things; but only this, that Na∣ture works in them according to the disposition of Organs: In like manner as a well-wrought Watch, doth more certainly and exactly distinguish the Hours, than we possibly could do with all our Study and Endeavour.

VI. The Soul of Brutes consists in the Dispo∣sition of their Or∣gans. I conclude therefore, that there is no Soul in Brutes, besides the Disposition of their Organs, and the figure of their Bodies; and that all their motions depend only on the Influence of their Spirits, and the due Disposition of their Organs. Neither will this seem strange, if we consider, that even all our Actions, which we perform, without minding or giving heed to them, are produc'd by the same Cause, as Respiration, the Motion of our Heart, the Digestion of our Meat, and the like. For all these do not appear in the least different from those that are done by Engins. This is evident from one Instance, viz. that those who fall from on high, stretch forth their Hands to save their Heads, which they do without any assistance of the Soul; but only because the structure of our Body is such, that the sight of an imminent Fall, being convey'd to the Brain, drives the Animal Spirits into those Nerves, that move the Arms and Hands: Seeing all this is done without the least advertence in the Soul. And thus we see the Reason, why a Sheep flees at the sight of a Wolf, even because the Light reflected from the Body of a Wolf, doth so agitate the strings of the Sheeps Optick Nerves, and consequently the Brain, that thereby the Animal Spirits are so driven into the Nerves, as to put the Members destinated for running into motion.

VII. This con∣firmed by several places of Scripture. This Doctrin may be confirmed from several places of Scripture, which plainly asserts, that the Soul of Beasts is their Blood; Levit. 17. 14. For the Life, or Soul, of all flesh, is the Blood of it. Gen. 9. 4. But Flesh with the Soul thereof, which is the Blood thereof, shall ye not eat. Deut. 12. 23. Only be sure that thou eat not the Blood, for the Blood is the Soul. From whence we may evi∣dently conclude, That the Life of Animals con∣sists in the continual flowing of the Blood and Vital Spirits to the Brain, and other parts of the Body. And therefore, that we need not search for any other Cause of those motions we find in Beasts, but the Influence of Spirits, and the Dispo∣sition of their Organs.

VIII. How Dogs light upon the true Trace of the Hare. As to that Objection, That Dogs, after they have laid their Noses to two Ways, without any further haesitation, betake themselves to the Third; we say▪ that this is not done by them from any Reasoning. but only because in that third Way they meet with the Scent of the Beast, which they did not find in the two other. Neither doth the building of Nests argue any force of Reason to be in Birds; because all the Nests that are built by Birds of the same kind, are all of them built after one and the same manner, which would not be so, in case they acted according to the dictates of Reason: For we find that Men who act so, build their Houses with the greatest variety, according to the different Suggestions of their Rational Faculty.

IX. How Life and Sense may be allowed to Beasts. Neither do we altogether deny Life to brute Beasts, but freely allow them such an one; the Activity whereof proceeds from the disposition and structure of their Bodies. Nor Sense neither, if it be only taken for a Bodily Affection of the Members, out∣wardly and inwardly fitly disposed and aptly joyned, to perform this or the other motion. We grant also, that Beasts do many Actions by Nature, like to those which Men perform of Choice and deliberately; but withal assert, that the various and sudden motions of Beasts, do not argue them to have a Knowing Soul, but only a most curious and exactly proportionate composure of Parts, so as that the least thing is sufficient to put it in motion: And that this is possible, we prove by that Wooden Statue of Venus, which was so Artifi∣cially made by DAEDALUS, that it could walk up and down: And by the Wooden-Dove, made by ARCHYTAS of Tarentum, which did fly about in the Air.

X. Whether Apes are to be ac∣counted Rational Creatures. You'l say, that Apes do many things that mani∣festly prove them to have the use of Reason; as appears in that when they go out to fight, they observe exact Military Order, and range their Armies as Men do; as also, in that they bury their dead, and perform many other such like Actions, which demonstrate them to be, in some degree, Reasonable Creatures.

To this I Answer, That all these Actions are performed by Monkies naturally. For as Watches point the Hours, so Beasts perform their Actions by Instinct: Neither is it a matter of greater wonder, that Monkies do marshal their Armies, supposing it to be true what Historians relate of them, or bury their Dead; than that Dogs and Cats, after they have voided their Excrements, scrape up the Earth round about, to cover them from the Eyes of Men; tho' indeed they seldom do it to any purpose; that is to say, so as to hide them wholly. Whence it is evident, that they act meerly by Instinct, and without any advertency of what they do; and that there is nothing more in them, than there is in any curious Clock-work or Machin.

XI. If Brutes have a Soul, it must be Immortal. Conclude we therefore, that Beasts perform all their Actions, whether Sensitive or Motive, only by the Texture and Disposition of their Parts, without any thing of Thinking, tho' in the most imperfect degree imaginable. For if we allow Brutes to be endued with Understanding, be it never so mean and imperfect, then we cannot deny them the Priviledge of a Soul; and so shall be forc'd to own, that Monkies, Dogs, Foxes, &c. have Souls, as well as Men: And if we grant this, we must also allow, that this Soul is Spiritual and Immortal; because Thinking, wherein the Essence of the Soul consists, is not a Mode of the Body, neither doth in the least depend on it.

XII. If Brutes have Souls, they will not be di∣stinguish'd from Men. Moreover, supposing the Souls of Beasts to be Spiritual and Indivisible, it will follow that they are also Immortal: Neither is there any Argument drawn from the Light of Reason, whereby we can prove the Immortality of Human Souls, which will not as well prove the same concerning the Souls of Beasts. Besides, if we allow Knowledge to Brutes, we must also make them capable of Religion; for to imagin a Knowing or Thinking

Creature, without being under an Obligation to obey GOD, and pay Religious Duties to him, is repugnant. For if the Souls of Beasts be Know∣ing, they will in the first place know themselves; and it is impossible, but that by knowing them∣selves they should be led to the knowledge of their Creatour. Which Opinions would pave a ready way to Atheism.

This Question is discust more at large in my Dissertation, of the want of Sense and Knowledge in Brutes; to which the Reader may have re∣course.

CHAP. XIX. Of Fourfooted Beasts and Reptils, or Creeping things.

I. The Divi∣sion of an Animal into Ra∣tional and Irrational, is no true Division. AN Animal is commonly divided, in the Schools, into Rational and Irrational, as into two Members that take in the whole Nature of Animal, and comprehend all its several species. But since ARISTOTLE himself doth not ap∣prove of this Division, because one of the Terms of it is a Privation of the other; for he declares, that all Divisions so exprest are illegitimate; none will think strange if we reject it for the same Reason. For the word Irrational, or Unreasonable, repre∣sents no positive Idea, which yet is requisite to constitute the difference of several species or kinds. Besides, every Division must be exprest in such terms, as do explain and lay open the Natures of the things divided; whereas by Negative terms, neither any Attributes nor Properties are declared; and consequently the Division of Animal into Rational and Irrational, is to be rejected, and to be reckon'd amongst those which are good for nothing else, but to render the Nature of things dark and obscure.

II. Of Ani∣mals, some are Terre∣strial, some Volatile, and others Aquatile. An Animal therefore may more commodiously be divided into Terrestrial, Volatile or Flying, and Aquatile or Swimming, from the places where they live, and the motions they exert.

III. What a Terrestrial Animal is. We call those Terrestrial Animals, that live on the surface of the Earth; whereof some be Four∣footed, that go upon four Feet; and others Reptils, which wanting Feet, do move themselves by Creeping. Fourfooted Beasts do go by setting their Feet one before another, after the same man∣ner as other Animals that have 2 Feet, or more than 4. To the performing of which progressive motion are generally required Toes, Feet, Shin∣bones, Legs, which together with the Nerves, Muscles, Tendons, Ligaments, Gristles and Mem∣brans, constitute the Organs of Progressive motion. The Bones belonging to this Organ are in several places joyned by Articulation, the round Head of the one being lodg'd in the Hollow of the other. The Toes consist of many Joints, to which the Instep is joyned, and to that the Heel, and the Bone call'd Navicularis or Cyboides; the Leg is joyned by articulation with the Ankle, and the Thigh with the Hip-bone, and the Shank or Leg. Progressive motion therefore is performed, when one of the Legs standing still upon the ground, the other is thrust out forwards: For the Legs are not moved both together, but by turns; so that whilst Animals go forwards, the Muscles act their several Parts, and the Thigh is turned in the Hip-bone, and the Ankle about the Leg.

IV. Circum∣stances ac∣companying the Progres∣sive motion of a Man. Whence it follows, that a Man▪ for Example, cannot walk directly in a Right line; because as he goes, he rests himself sometimes on one Leg, and sometimes on another, so that both his Legs or Feet are not moved in a Right line, but according to 2 Parallel lines, which seem to be Right lines. It follows also, that a Man that goes or walks▪ doth continually rest or stay himself upon the Earth; because one of his Feet doth always stand firm on the Earth, till the other comes to take its turn: Whence it follows, that it is only the Foot that stands still, that makes the Bulk or Trunk of the Body to move forwards. It follows also, that the advancing Foot moves as fast again, as the Trunk of the Body: For seeing that the Body ad∣vanceth continually, and that the Feet advance only by turns, one half of the time must be al∣low'd for the Resting, and the other for the Ad∣vancing; and that consequently the Foot that ad∣vanceth, by moving as fast again, doth compensate the delay of its resting.

V. Of Foure footed Beasts, some are Viviparous▪ and other•• Oviparous. Amongst Fourfooted Beasts, some are greater; as the Horse, Elephant, Camel, &c. Some of a mean Bigness; as the Dog, Lion, Sheep, Cat, &c. Some Little; as the Rat, Mouse, &c. And of these, some are Viviparous, that bring forth living Births; and others, Oviparous, that lay Eggs.

VI. What Ani∣mals are Viviparou••▪ and what Oviparous. Those are Viviparous, that bring forth a living and perfect Animal; and Oviparous are those that lay Eggs, whence an Animal afterwards is hatched: Such as are the Crododile, the Lizard, Frogs, Tortoises, whether of the Land or Sea. It is matter of Wonder, that the Crocodile, so vast a Creature, which commonly grows to the length of 15 Cubits, should proceed from an Egg no bigger than that of a Goose. Lizards, whether those of the greater sort, that are green, or those other that are distinguish'd with shining Stars, are propagated by Eggs. The Tortoise of the Earth, lays Eggs with a Yolk in them, which it covers with Earth, and by the warmth thereof are hatched; whereas the Sea-Tortoise covers hers with the Sand of the Sea-shoar. Serpents also are Oviparous, and commonly lay their Eggs in Horse∣dung, or near to the heat of an Oven or Furnace, because they cannot hatch them themselves, as Birds do.

VII. How Rep∣tils move forwards. Amongst Reptils, or Creeping Animals, are the Viper or Adder, the Asp, and the Snake: All which resting upon one part of their Bodies, shoot forth and advance with the other. Yet all Reptils do not perform their Progressive motion after the same manner: For Snakes creep by raising their Bodies into Rings, the former whereof advance, whilst the hinder rest, and support the motion of the other: For by the first of these Rings the Body is extended; and by the hinder, they contract themselves in more close Rings, and as it were gather up themselves. Earth-worms also creep by a Waving motion, that is, by contracting and un∣folding themselves; so that whilst one part of their Body rests, the other is moved. To this way of Creeping may also be referr'd that of Snails, who by means of their glutinous Moisture, are fixed to the Bodies they creep upon, and by this means advance themselves. The Cause of all these Motions are the Animal Spirits, which being

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[illustration]

Book. 1. Part. 7. Chap. 20.

G. Freman In.

I. Kip Sculp.

To the Worshipfull Chichester Graham of Norton-Conyers in the north Rideing of york-shire Esq^r. And to Anne his Wife, daughter and Heyress of Thomas Thweng of Kilton Castle in Cleaveland in the Said County Esq^r. deceased

This Plate is humbly Dedicated by Richard Blome.

[illustration]

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G. Freeman Invent:

M Vander Gucht. scul.

CHAP. XX. Of Flying Animals, or Birds.

I. What Birds are, and why the Eagle is said to be the King of Birds. FLying Animals are commonly called Birds or Fowl; and are distinguish'd from others, for that they fly in the Air. The Eagle is ac∣counted to be the King of them, because of the Strength of his Body, the Height of his Flight, the Sharpness of his Sight, and the Nobleness or Gene∣rosity of his Temper.

II. The various kinds of Birds. There are innumerable Kinds of Birds; and forasmuch as it is next to impossible to speak of all the Individuals of them, I shall content my self to enumerate their Principal kinds, as they are distinguish'd according to their several ways of Feeding. Some are Carnivorous, or such as feed upon Flesh, commonly called Ravenous: And these again are of two kinds, viz. such as have Crooked Bills; as the Eagle, the several sorts of Hawks, &c. Others have a more strait and sharp∣pointed Bill or Beak; as the Raven, the Jack-Daw, Mag-Pye, Crow or Rook, &c. Another kind are Vermivorous, or such as feed upon Worms; as the Nightingal, Wood-Cock, Snipe, Wood-pecker, Titmouse, Wren, &c. Another Baccivorous, or such as feed upon Berries; as are the Thrush, Black∣bird, the Starling, &c. Others are Granivorous, that feed upon Corn and other Seeds: And of these again, some love to be scraping and tumbling in the Dust; as Cocks and Hens, the Peacock, re∣markable for his beautiful Tail, the Bustard and Partridge. Others love to wash and dip themselves in Water; as amongst Singing-Birds; the Linnet, the Ligury, the Lark, &c.

III. All Birds go upon two Feet only. Birds have only two Feet, and those either plain and flat; as Swans, Ducks, Geese, and all Water-Fowl: Or else have their Claws sever'd and divi∣ded; as Eagles, Sparrows, Swallows, Pigeons, &c. Some Report, that the Manucodiata, or Bird of Paradise, hath no Feet, but always hovers in the Air, and is never found upon the Earth, but when dead: But Reason and Experience evince the falshood of this Story. For all Animals stand in need of Sleep, which these cannot take in the Air, especially being always in a hovering mo∣tion.

IV. That the Bird of Paradise hath Feet. And as to those who imagin, that the Birds of Paradise take their Rest hovering in the Air, by reason of the Lightness of their Body, and the Largeness of their Wings and Feathers, and never fall down to the ground till they be dead; I would fain know of these Men, why they do not fall down to the ground when they are asleep, as well as when they are dead; forasmuch as in Sleep all the Senses are lock'd up, and all motions of the Members cease? But that all Doubt may be taken away in this Point, let us consult such as have been Eye-witnesses. ANTONY PIGAFESTA, a Famous Traveller, in the Diary of his 〈…〉〈…〉 then sell to Strangers, or stick them in their Caps or Helmets, for Ornaments sake.

V. Birds pro∣ceed from Eggs. Birds are the Product of Prolifick Eggs, that is, such as have been invigorated by the Male, and presuppose the fruitfulness of the Female. For as an Egg without the Cock's Treading is addle; so the Hen, by producing that Cavity which is in the Yolk, doth contribute likewise to the fruitfulness thereof. This will be the better understood by distinguishing the Egg into 2 Parts, viz. into the Yolk and White. The Yolk is of a yellow Colour, tending to Red, as being nourished by Blood; which is manifest from those small Veins, that are disperst throughout its outward Coat or Membran. Besides this Coat, there is also another very thin one, by means whereof the Yolk hangs to the Cluster, so called, and covers the whole Yolk, and conveys Veins and other Vessels to it, by means whereof the Alimentary Juice is transmitted. The White is the more Outside▪part of the Egg, yield∣ing copious Nourishment, but somewhat of a colder Temperament, and not so easie of digestion as the Yolk: It consists of a fibrous or stringy Matter, and therefore is easily coagulated, grow∣ing hard with the least heat. At the Broad-end of the Egg a little Hollow is found, where the Chicken begins to be formed; and this proceeds from the Hen only. Besides these, there are found in Eggs 2 Specks, call'd by us the Cock's Threadles, in which the plastick or formative Virtue of the Egg is supposed to consist, according to the Opi∣nion of the Common People; but it is a Mistake, seeing they are found in all Eggs, as well in those that are addle, as the prolifick. An Egg therefore becomes fruitful, when the Seed of the Cock is joyned to that Hollow or Scar in the Egg before∣mention'd, which proceeds from the Hen. For it is not to be question'd, but that the Seed of the Cock doth reach the Womb of the Hen, and as it were, takes root in the Cells thereof; whence the Rudiment of the Chicken afterwards buds forth.

VI. The Pro∣gress of the Form∣ing of a Chick, the 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5th Day. When the Hen therefore sits upon the Egg, and excites the Bud, or prolifick part of it by its heat, the strings or fibres become dilated or extended into several concentrical Rounds or Circles, and the Chicken becomes formed by degrees. For the second day of the Hens sitting, the Hollow that is at the broad end of the Egg, begins to be dilated, and becomes a Bubble, the thinner particles of it being exhaled by Heat, those only remaining that constitute that most clear water, wherewith the Bubble is filled. On the Fourth day a Purple Spot, or Reddish point appears, which is the Rudi∣ment and first beginning of the Heart, and from whence a short time afterwards proceed many little Veins of the same colour, but almost invisible by reason of their fineness and subtilty, and which afterwards end in the Umbilicary or Navel Vessels. On the Fifth day there appear in this Rudiment of the Heart, 2 Ventricles, and as many Ear-lappets; and because the Ventricle or Right Cavity is con∣tracted,

when the Ear-lappet that is joined to it is dilated, they seem to be 2 Bladders. The same day, there appears something in the likeness of a Worm, joined to the little Vein, to which the round little Body is annexed, but bigger than it, being distinguisht into 4 Bubbles filled with a most clear and Christalline Liquor. Which 4 Bubbles do represent both the Eyes, the Brain, and the Cere∣bellum or hinder part of the Brain.

VII. What is formed in the Chick the succeed∣ing days. On the Sixth day the Feet and Wings of the Chicken are formed, the Coats and Membrans of the Eye begin to appear, as likewise the first be∣ginnings of the Lungs and Liver. Also the Bill or Beak and all the Guts and Inwards. At the same time the Chicken begins to move it self a little, and to lift up its Head. Then also the Rudiments of the Bones begin to be formed, appearing like so many thin Spider Webs. On the Seventh day all the parts begin to appear more distinct, and so encreasing every day till the Tenth, wherein all its parts are compleated. For the Head then appears greater than all the rest of the Body; and the Eyes bigger than the Head; and in this state the Chicken swims on the Colliquamentum or dissolved White of the Egg. After the Fourteenth day, all its mem∣bers appear still more distinctly: for then it be∣gins to be covered with Feathers, the inwards be∣gin to be hid, and the hinder part of the Brain be∣gins to be pent up in the Skull; the Chicken be∣gins to Peep or Cheep, and being no longer able to bear the straightness of his pent up Room, after having first consum'd the White, and afterwards the Yolk also, it breaks through the Shell and comes forth.

VIII. It is proba∣ble that a Chick and other Ani∣mals, are not formed by Parts, but all to∣gether. This is the Progress our Eyes discover in the forming of a Chicken, because it appears such to the unassisted Eye. But when we take in the Verdict of the Microscope, as MALPIGHIUS did, there will appear to us in every Fruitful or Prolifick Egg (for in the Addle, no such thing is to be found) before the Incubation of the Hen, the first Rudi∣ments of the Chicken; in like manner as some∣times, even without the assistance of a Microscope, we can discern the first Lineaments of a Plant in the Bud of it. This is very evident in a Tulip, for if in the Winter time we view the Bud of it, either with a Magnifying Glass, or only with our bare Eye, we shall not only see the Leaves, which afterwards turn Green, but also those that constitute the Flower of the Tulip, with the Tri∣angular part of it enclosed in the Grain, and last of all those little 6 Pillars, which surround it, at the bottom of the Tulip. And accordingly it seems probable, that as a Flower contains a Flower, so an Animal contains another whole and compleat Animal, tho' sometimes the same be not discovera∣ble, but with the assistance of a Microscope.

IX. How Birds do fly in the Air by the Help of their Wings Birds with the help of their Wings, keep them∣selves up, and move in the Air; because the Air resists the swift agitation of their Wings, and op∣poseth their descent or falling down. For tho' the Air be very pliable, and ready to give way to other Bodies, yet it indeed makes a great resi∣stance, and like the Water, opposeth the entrance even of Heavy Things. For we see that when Boyes skin Stones along the surface of a smooth River or Pond, the Water resists them, and makes them by several rebounds leap up from the Water which opposeth their entrance. Yea many times the Bullets discharged from great Guns are seen to graze along, and rebound from the Water, so that sometimes men that are walking on the Bank or Shoar are sometimes wounded and killed, by Bullets so rebounding from the Water. And in the same manner are Birds borne up in the Air, and tho' they be heavier than it, yet by the spread∣ing and continual beating of their Wings, they are supported in the midst of it.

X. Two things are requi∣red to the Flight in Birds. To the flying of Birds 2 things are requisit, First the spreading of their Feathers, the single Hairs whereof are so intangled, that the Air can∣not enter through them without some difficulty, from whence the resistance ariseth. Secondly, the expansion of their Wings, and their beating of the Air with them, and that either leisurely, as Kites do, or more frequently like Doves, or very fast as the Felfare. And accordingly by the Prevalence of this resistance, the force of Gravity is overcome, and the Body of the Bird continues poised in the Air.

XI. How Birds move them∣selves this way and that way. Moreover forasmuch as Birds do not only press the Air, and hover in it, but also move up and down; it is necessary that the Wings which bear them up, be thrust backwards; that so by the re∣sistance of the Air behind them, they may be for∣warded in their progressive Motion. For the stru∣cture of a Birds Wings is such, that the hollowness of them forward, and their prominence backward, do both concur to beat back the Air. A Resem∣blance whereof we meet with in those that swim, who if they do only press the Water, with their Belly and Hands, without beating it back with their Feet, they cannot move forwards; no more than a Ship can advance if the Water be only di∣vided by the Oars, without they be thrust or mo∣ved backwards. Birds therefore in order to their moving forwards, and passing this way and that way, must beat back the Air behind them. And whereas some Birds fly much more swiftly and strongly than others, as the Swallow, the Pigeon and the long-winged Hawks; the reason thereof is, either the more advantageous make and frame of their Wings, or the strength of their Muscles wherewith they move them, or the proportion of Heaviness or force that is in their Bodies.

XII. Birds are not moved in the Air, as a Ship in the Wa∣ter. We must take notice that Birds do not move in the Air like a Ship or Boat in the Water. For a Boat or Barge being driven by Oars is pusht for∣wards, whilst the Oars thrust against the Water, which resists, in a manner, as much as if all its parts were in rest. Neither do Birds shake their VVings towards their Tails, as Oars drive the VVa∣ter towards the Stern, but do bend them down∣wards. The Tail of Birds serves to incline their flight upwards and downwards, but not side-ways, neither is it to them instead of a Helm, as is com∣monly believed; for it doth not perpendicularly cut the Air, as the Helm of a Ship doth the VVa∣ter, but hath an Horizontal Situation; and when a Bird turns side-ways yet his Tail continues straight stretched out; and therefore we see that Birds fly tho' their Tails be cut off. Birds there∣fore are poised in the midst of the Air, as a Ship in the VVater, to wit in the Center of their Gra∣vity. And like as a Vessel that hath his Oars more swiftly plied on the right side, turns about the Center of its Gravity towards the left: So like∣wise a Bird whilst he beats the Air, chiefly and

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Book. 1. Part. 7. Chap. 21.

G. Freman. Inv.

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mostly with his Right VVing towards the Tail, his fore-part by this means is turned towards the Left. As when those who swim, by bending their Right Arm, and spreading their Right Hand, drive the VVater towards their Feet; and by the same means turn themselves about towards the Left-hand.

XIII. The Tail of Birds only moves up∣wards and down∣wards. And that we may the better apprehend how the Tail of Birds serves them to turn downwards or upwards: Let us suppose a Bird AB, whose Cen∣ter of Gravity is C, flying Horizontally from G to F, and that in flying he rear his Tail BH; this suppo∣sed, it is manifest, that the Air, which resists the Tail BH, makes the whole Body of the Bird turn about the Point C, that it may take the situation LK, wherein the Head raiseth it self from A to L; and on the contrary, when the Tail is turned * 1.2downwards to BI, the resisting Air makes the Body of the Bird to turn about the same Point C, for to take the posture NO, wherein the Head of the Bird doth lower it self from A to O.

CHAP. XXI. Of Swimming Animals, or Fishes.

I. The Whale is the grea∣test of all Fishes. FIshes, because they live in the Water, and move themselves by way of Swimming, are called Aquatiles. The most bulky of these, and as it were the Prince of them all, is the Whale, very common in the Indian Sea, to whom PLINY assigns the largeness of 4 Acres, which make out in length 960 Foot. PARAEUS makes mention of one that was taken in the River Schelde, 10 Miles from Antwerp, in the Year 1577, which was 58 Foot long, 16 Foot high, and its Tail 14 Foot broad; the distance from his Eye, to the entrance of his Mouth, 16 Foot; his Under-Jaw was of 6 Foot furnish'd with 25 Teeth, to which in the Upper-Jaw were answering so many Cavi∣ties, wherein, upon the shutting of his Jaws, they were hid. A Whale is distinguish'd from other Fishes, in that it hath, besides Lungs, Kidneys, Arteries, Bladder and Genitals, a great Pipe in the fore-part of its Head instead of Gills, by which with great force it spouts again out the Water it receives into its Body.

II. The Diffe∣rence of Fishes with respect to the several places they delight in, and their coverings. There be many differences of Fishes taken from the coverings of their Bodies, or from the Place they delight in. With regard to the Place some are Sea-fish, others River-fish, and others such as delight in Lakes and Ponds. With respect to their covering, some are Scaly, some covered on∣ly with a Skin, and that either with a smooth, or rough one. Amongst Sea-fish some are called Lit∣toral, because they delight in the neighbourhood of the Shoar, such are amongst the Scaly Fishes the Roach, and the Trout, &c. and of the smooth skin'd Fishes, the Mackrel and the Eel; others are called in Latin Saxatiles, because they delight in Stony Places, as the Gilthead, common in the Sea of Crete, the Gudgeon, the Hornback, some pass from the Sea into Rivers, as the Salmon, the Lam∣prey, &c.

III. Fishes are propagated by Copula∣tion. Some have been of the opinion that Fishes were not generated by Copulation, but that the Female swimming before did scatter her Spawn, which the Male following her did impregnate, by pour∣ing his Milt upon them. But this is a mistake, for Fishes do copulate, which would be altogether in vain, in case the foresaid opinion were true. Besides how can we conceive that the Spawn or Eggs of the Female Fishes, should be sprinkled with the Milt of the Males, seeing that it would by mixing with the water lose all its virtue. Nei∣ther can we build much upon ARISTOTLES Authority in this Case, forasmuch as he doth not prove it by any Experiment. And in his 3d Book de Animal. Cap. 7. he owns the thing to be doubt∣ful. Fishes therefore are generated by Copulation as all other Oviparous Animals are: but to what purpose would this Copulation be, if the Male doth not by his Emission render the Eggs of the Fe∣male fruitful? Besides, it is observed that the Males abound with Milt at the same time that the Fe∣males abound with Spawn or Eggs, and that then is the time of their Copulation. And it is at the same time that the Males follow the Females, not that they may besprinkle the scattered Eggs, but that by their repeated Copulation, they may im∣pregnate other of the Females Eggs that are ready to be Spawn'd: as we see that to the same end a Cock doth often tread the Hen: for seeing that Fishes, above other Animals, do abound in Eggs, they can never all of them be impregnated by one act of Copulation. From this way of Generation we are to except the Dolphin and the Whale, which are not Oviparous, but bring forth living Births, and therefore their way of Copulation is different, and their Breasts are filled with Milk, contrary to the nature of other Fishes.

IV. Many Mon∣sters are found a∣mongst Fishes. Amongst Fishes there be many that are called Monstrous, as the Hippopotamus or the River Horse, because it resembles a Horse, yet not so much in Figure, as in its Bulk. For it hath Ears like a Bear, and a Mouth wider than that of a Lion, with very great Eyes, and a very short Neck, or none at all; it hath the Tail of a Swine, with short Feet, and a divided Hoof like a Hog. ARI∣STOTLE describes this Animal Lib. 2. Hist. Ani∣mal. thus; The River-horse, saith he, which Egypt brings forth, hath the Mane of a Horse, a round Hoof like a Pipe or Tube, a flat Snout, and an Anckle like those that divide the Hoof in two, Teeth somewhat prominent and sticking out, the Tail of a Swine, the Voice of a Horse, the bigness or bulk of an Ass; the thickness of his Hide be∣ing such, that they make Hunting-staffs of it; and all the inward parts of it resembling those of an Ass or Horse; which is the account PLINY gives us from Aristotle. The Sea-calf is also accounted a Sea-monster, for it differs from all other Fishes in the shape of its Body, insomuch that ARISTO∣TLE ranks it amongst 4 footed Beasts. This Monster hath short Arms, without any Elbow; and for the rest hath some resemblance with our Bodies: It consists of many Bones, and is covered with a thick Hide, full of dark couloured Hairs, drawing towards an Ash-colour: the Head of it is but little with respect to its Body, and its Neck is long, which it can stretch out, and draw in at its pleasure; it hath no Ears, but instead thereof only some open holes; its lower Jaw resembles that of a Wolf, but the upper is much broader than those of the same Animal; his Nostrils are ve∣ry like that of a Calf, his Teeth like those of a Wolf, and his Eyes are of a changeable and un∣certain colour. A Thornback also is a very deformed

and monstrous Fish, but being so commonly known, there is no need to insist upon the Description thereof.

V. The Peripa∣teticks fol∣lowing their Ma∣ster, deny all Respi∣ration to Fishes. Forasmuch as Respiration is ordained by Nature for the Cooling of the Blood, and to send away the va∣pours and smutty steams proceeding from the Body, which would otherwise stop the Blood from entring into the left Ventricle of the Heart, if they were not emitted out; it hath been a question contro∣verted amongst the Antients, whether Fishes and other Animals that want Lungs do breath or no. This is commonly denied by the Perepateticks up∣on their Masters Authority, who by no means will allow any Respiration in Fishes.

VI. Fishes breathe by the draw∣ing in, and letting out of their Breath. But our Modern Philosophers and Physicians, tho' they cannot allow Fishes such a Respiration as is performed by the Contraction and Dilatation of the Midrif, and Lungs, since they take for grant∣ed that Fishes (except Whales and Dolphins) have no Lungs, yet neither do they deny them such a Respiration as consists in the drawing in of Air or the like Halituous Matter, in order to the cooling of their Blood. Pliny joins with this opinion, Lib. 9. Cap. 7. because, saith he, instead of Lungs they have other Organs for Breathing, and instead of Blood some other Equivalent humour. Neither do we want reason wherewith to back this opinion; for the end of Respiration is the cooling of the Heart, and the cherishing and refreshing of the Vital Spirits: now both of these are necessary to the preservation of the Life of Fishes. Besides, why were Gills given to Fishes, but that through them the Water, either alone by it self, or mingled with the Air, might be conveighed to the Heart, and afterwards cast out again? But who will not be convinced that Fishes must take in the Air by Respiration, when we find that they die without it? For if Fishes be shut up in a Vessel with a narrow Mouth, full of Water, they may be kept alive there for many Months, if the mouth of it be kept open, but if it be shut up they die immediately, which would never be if they did not stand in need of Air, or if Water alone were sufficient for the cooling of their Heart.

VII. The Respi∣ration of Fishes pro∣ved by Ex∣periment. And what is very observable herein, is that as soon as the Vessel is stopt the Fish get themselves up to the top of the Water, to take in some Air, which they do not do whilst the Vessel is open, but play up and down the Vessel. Wherefore RON∣DELETIUS in his 4th. Book of Fishes, Cap. 9. saith, that the greatest Fishes, and those that have Lungs do draw in the Air together with the Wa∣ter; and cast it out again by the same Pipe, where∣by they draw in their Breath: and in this manner do Whales, Dolphins and Whirlpools (a Fish so cal∣led) draw their Breath. Others perform this Respiration by the Lungs, only without the assi∣stance of a Pipe to cast out the Water, as Sea Tor∣tises or Tortles, and those of Rivers and Lakes; as also Sea-Calves, who have wide Nostrils, and a very strait Windpipe, by which means they spout out the Water again through their Nostrils, but retain the Air. All other Fishes that have either open or closed Gills, do with them draw in the Air, and at the same time cast out the Water. Oysters which are covered only with a very thin Skin, seem to breath through the Pores thereof. And in a Word, all Animals living in the Wa∣ters, according as their heat is more intense or remiss, or according as their Spirits are more or less copious, so they have a several way of Respiration.

VIII. The Life of all Ani∣mals is pre∣served by the Air. Neither indeed is there any Animal in the Uni∣verse, which is not preserved by the Air, as is ma∣nifest from the Pneumatick Engine of Mr. BOYL, in which whatsoever Animals are put, excepting only Oysters and Crabs, die immediately. The same thing is yet more evident in Insects, in whose Rings 2 Holes are discernible; which when they are stopt with Oil or any other glewy or clammy Li∣quor, so that the Air cannot have its free entrance, the Animal presently begins to languish, and after some Convulsive Motions expires.

IX. Why a Man cannot breathe un∣der water. But you will object with ARISTOTLE, that if the Air do penetrate the Water, and reacheth to the very heart of Fishes; why then for the same reason a Man may not as well fetch his Breath un∣der Water?

I Answer, that the cause thereof is, because Man living in the Air, doth continually attract it very copiously, whereas that portion of Air which is in the Pores of the Water, is very in∣considerable if compared with that which Men na∣turally take in, and therefore is not sufficient to answer that end. Moreover, for want of Air the Water is drawn into the Lungs, and there being no way to cast it out, because of other Water still coming in, it oppresseth the Heart, and choaks a Man. Whereas Fishes are furnisht with Gills, by the help whereof they cast out the VVater, nor suffer it to come to their inwards, but the Air on∣ly, whereby the heat of their Heart is allayed and their Vital Spirits preserved.

X. How Fishes swim. The Swimming of Fishes, doth somewhat re∣semble the Flying of Birds: for their Fins are in∣stead of VVings, as also their Tail. These consist of Membranes, joyned together by long Fibres, and which can be distended or contracted and turned every way.

XI. What in∣struments the Fishes use to move themselves in swim∣ming. There are in all Fishes, Bladders full of Air, which according as they are comprest or dilated, so the Fishes are poised on the waters. For it hath been observed that a Fish, whose Airy Bladder had been broken in the empty Recipient of the Pneuma∣tical Pump, could never, during a whole Months time, that it lived in a Fish-pond, rise to the top of the water, but was fain to keep at the bottom of it. According therefore as Fishes do contract or dilate the said Bladder, so they encrease or di∣minish the bulk of their Body, and accordingly also do diminish or increase their weight; and by this means they can either dive to the bottom of the water, or mount to the top of it. Much after the same manner as Glass Bubbles, or Figures hang∣ing in a Glass Tube full of water are made to go down to the bottom, or to come up to the top at pleasure.

XII. What use the Fishes make of their Tails. A Fish by moving of her Tail advanceth swift∣ly, and rests when that motion ceaseth; so that the shaking or turning of her Tail is the chief cause of her motion; for when she shoots forwards directly with her Belly, she turns the other half of her Bo∣dy sideways, and whilst she strongly beats the water with her Tail, she at the same time moves her body forward, much after the same manner as a Boat, which the Oar drives forwards, whilst it obliquely strikes the water that is behind it. A Fishes Tail also performs the use of a Helm, by turning the Fishes course to the Right or Left.

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Book. 1. Part. 7. Chap. 22▪

G. Freman. Inv.

I. Kip Sculp.

To M^r. Iohn Ieffreys only Son and Heyre of Iohn Ieffreys of Llywell in Brecknock shire, and of the Citty of London Esq^r, by Elizabeth his wife.

This Plate is humbly Dedicated by Richard Blome.

* 1.3 Thus by Example, the Fish ABC, that is about to move it self, turns its Tail DFC, to the Right G, and that so, that whilst the part moved BC, turns about its Center B, it doth not continue strait, as the Ray of a Circle; but bends it self 2 several ways towards B, viz. by advancing her side F towards the Right-side G, and by turning the utmost part of her Tail D to the Left, by which means the VVater does but little resist her. After∣wards, her Tail turning again by the force of the Muscles, it drives the VVater from G towards F, as an Oar would do: Whence it follows, that the Fish must advance from C to A, and then its Tail being again moved from C to H, as we have said that it was moved from F to G; and being after∣wards turned again, it drives the VVater from H towards C, and by this means makes the Fish advance in a strait Line from C to A; by the repeating of which motions of h••r Tail, the Fish continues swimming along.

XIII. Of Flying Fishes. Amongst Fishes there are some that fly; as the Sea-Swallow, and the Sea-Hawk, so called, which have fins joyned to their Gills of that length, that they reach almost to their Tails. These sometimes fly in such vast Shoals in the Air, as PLINY tells us, that they encumber Vessels in their Course, and sometimes make them sink. But they never fly high in the Air, but keep close to the Surface of the VVater; so that some question, whether the Sea-Hawks fly or swim. They continue thus hovering in the Air as long as their Fins are wet; and as soon as they are dry, fall down again into the VVater.

CHAP. XXII. Of Insects.

I. Four kinds of Bloodless Animals. ARISTOTLE reckons up 4 kinds of Bloodless Animals: Such as are soft, as the Polypus or Pourcoutel, the Cuttle-fish, &c. Such as are cover'd with a hard Shell, and difficult to be broken; as the Crab, Lobster, &c. Such as are cover'd with a Shell that is brittle and easily broken; as Cockles, Perwinkles, and other small Shell Fishes; and of these there is so great a variety, with respect to figure and colour, that they cannot all of them be reckon'd up. And, Lastly, Insects, so called from the Intersections and Divisions of their Bodies; which also are styled by ALBER∣TUS MAGNUS, Annulata, as consisting of several Rings.

II. The great variety of Insects, with rela∣tion to the place wherein they live. The Variety of Insects is very great, with re∣spect to their Food, the quality of their Bodies, and the Place in which they live. As to the Place, Hairy and Red VVorms are generated in the Snow: Fire-flies, which some suppose to be Crickets, in the Fire. Which I have spoke of in my History of Nature, in the Part that treats of Animals. In the Sea, the Sea Scolopendra, and VVater-Flea: In Fresh-waters, Leeches, Horse-Leeches, &c. In the Earth, Earth-VVorms; be∣tween the Barks of Trees, VVood-Lice; in Fig∣trees, a certain Worm called Cerasses; in the Service-tree, Red and Hairy VVorms; in Vines, the Worms called Butyri, &c.

III. The diffe∣rence of Infects, with respect to their Parts. As to their Parts, some Insects have no feet, others have. All VVorms are without feet, as well those which are generated in the Earth, as Earth-VVorms; as those that breed in the Bodies of Ani∣mals, especially in their Guts. The VVeevil, that breeds in Corn, another that is found in Beans, &c. Amongst those that have feet, some have 6; as the Pismire, the stinking Bug, the Flea and Leuse: Others have 8 feet; as the Scorpion and Spider: Some 12; as that of Canker-worms, which is called the Geometrician, because it hath 6 feet in the fore-part of his Body, and as many in the hinder-part, and raiseth up his Back in the form of a Bow or Arch, going like one that measures Land: Some have 14 feet; as all other sort of Canker-worms, which in the fore-part of their Bodies have 6 feet, and 8 in the hinder part.

IV. Of the Ge∣neration of Insects. As to the Generation of Insects. The general Opinion formerly hath been, that they were not produced by a true Generation, but deriv'd their Pedigree from the Corruption of Animals, or other things. But Experience hath informed us of the contrary: For if we put a piece of Flesh into a Bottle, and then stop it; the Flesh shut up there will never breed any VVorms; but if we leave the Bottle unstopt, it will be full of Worms in less than 4 days, in the Summer time. We find also, that Butter∣flies, after Copulation, do lay a vast number Eggs, whence Canker-worms are hatched.

V. All In••••••ts proceed from Eggs. So that we may rationally conclude, that all those Animals which seem to breed of themselves, and are found in Cheese, in Fruits, in Trees, in Flowers, and in Men, are the product either of Eggs, or such like Seed, left by other Animals. The production and process of which, may be fully illustrated by the Generation of a Canker-worm. For Canker-worms, as all other Worms, are generated from a Seed, or from the Eggs of Flies or Butter-flies, which by the heat of the Sun are hatched into Worms; which, after they have changed their Skins several times, turn to Canker-worms, and then to Aurelia's or Bodies without motion, cover'd with a Shell, and in which no di∣stinction of Parts appears; and these again are turned into Butter-flies, or Flies. For it some∣times happens, that from the same Canker-worms and Worms, Aurelia's do proceed; whereof some are turned into many Flies, and others into single Butter-flies. Out of a Worm therefore a Canker-worm is formed; because, as a Plant doth not immediately bring forth branches, flowers, leaves and fruit, but by degrees, and each of these in their due Season; so these Worms, by degrees, arrive to a further measure of perfection. For certain it is, that these Worms do often change their Skins. A Canker-worm therefore is changed into an Aurelia; because the Trunk of its Body being swoln, and its Members almost formed, it so happens that all his Coats and Coverings begin to grow dry, and fall away of themselves; as Flowers fall from Trees, and Feathers from Birds; which when the Aurelia perceives, it either wraps it self in a Leaf, or with a glutinous Liquor proceeding out of its own Body, it most artificially weaves a strong Covering for her self; where it continues shut up, as in an Egg, till it receive new Members, Head and Wings, and so become turned to a Butter-fly.

VI. Flies and other In∣sects, pro∣ceed from Worms. And the same is to be said of all other Insects, that h••ve Wings. For Flies proceeding from Eggs or Seeds, by some Changes as have now been mentioned, do attain to the Perfection of their Nature; for first they are Worms, then they turn to Aurelia's, and out of them Flies do pro∣ceed.

For as a Canker-worm is to a Butter-fly, the same respect or relation a Worm hath to a Fly. And so likewise Lice, Fleas, Bugs, and other such like Insects, are generated of Eggs or Nits, or of other Insects already produced. For all those Animals which are commonly said to be generated out of putrid Matter, that is the Corruption of other things, are produced by Copulation; as we see that Flies do Copulate when August is past, and thereupon they bring forth not Worms, but Eggs, which are found in great abundance upon the Leaves of Trees, in the appearance of a black smutty Matter; which afterwards, by the Heat of the Sun are hatched into Worms, but such as are immoveable, and answering to the Aurelia's of the Canker-worms, which afterwards are changed into Flies.

VII. How Cank∣er-Worms become changed into Butter-flies. This Metamorphosis is not so difficult to con∣ceive, if we suppose that those Parts which seem to be produc'd anew, are only made visible, as having before been hid. For when Canker-worms, by Example, become Butter-flies, it is easie to con∣ceive, that the wings and feet they get, and which makes them appear to have been changed into new kinds of Things, are not newly produc'd Parts, by obtaining of a new form, which they had not before; but that these Parts were indeed before, and only wanted a sufficient Magnitude to render them visible. After the same manner as it happens to Plants, where the flowers and fruits do not unfold themselves, but by degrees, and some time after the Leaves; tho' all these Parts be at once actually together in the Plant, before they appear to be there. Insects therefore, as well as other Animals, are generated by the Coition of Male and Female; which latter lays Eggs, out of which afterwards their Young are hatched by the heat of the Sun.

VIII. How the Eggs of Insects are preserved in the Winter Season. But here it may be demanded, How these Eggs, whence we have said that Canker-worms and Flies are hatched, are preserved all the Winter over, so as that the next Year they may produce Animals. ALDROVANDUS, in his Treatise De Insectis, supposeth that those Eggs only are preserved, which are in those Leaves that are hid in the Cavities of the Barks of Trees, where they cannot suffer any damage from the Injuries of the Air or Wea∣ther. Thus I my self, saith he, have observed Eggs fastned to the hinder part of Fig-Leaves, whence, towards the End of August, little Canker-worms did proceed. They were wrapt up in a thin Downy substance, to preserve them from being hurt by the Ambient body; which Canker-worms afterwards falling down, were not dash'd against the Ground, but continued hanging in the Air, like Spiders, by a very fine Thread. When they lay their Eggs on the Under-side of Leaves, they do so fold the said Leaves that no Rain can hurt them, making as it were a Covert over them. I have also twice taken notice, that a Canker-worm, which I found amongst Cabbage-Leaves, did first lay yellow Eggs, wrapt up in a thin Downy matter; which, after she had laid them, became changed into an Aurelia of the same Co∣lour, as she had before when yet a Canker-worm, viz. yellow, green and black; and, which seem'd strange to me, afterwards flying Animals pro∣ceeded from these Eggs, so very small, that they could scarcely be discerned by the Eye; such as are commonly found in the Bladders that are on the Leaves of the Elm-tree. So far he. Tho' there be some Country-men that tell us, That these Eggs are not only kept between the Barks of Trees, but that many Leaves fill'd with the Eggs of Butter-flies, are many times found hid in the Earth, where they are preserved all the Winter, till by the heat of the Sun, at the return of Spring, they be hatched into Insects.

CHAP. XXIII. Of the Death and Destruction of Ani∣mals.

I. Of t••••ee kinds of Death. AS in the First Chapter of this Part we re∣duc'd the Notion of Life to 3 Heads; so here, that we may understand how Animals may be said either to dye or perish, 3 sorts of death or dying are to be distinguish'd. First, There is a Death of Simple Annihilation, which is oppos'd to the LIfe of Simple Existence: Secondly, Cessa∣tion from Operation, which is the Death that is oppos'd to the Life of Actuous Existence: And, Lastly, the Separation, or Dissolution of one part from the other, which is oppos'd to the Life of Existence with another. By the first manner of Death, those things dye, which by ceasing to exist altogether, fall into nothing: Things dye the second kind of Death, when they cease to act: And the third way, when their Parts are separated, and exist distinctly from one another. But forasmuch as no Substance can be annihilated, it remains only for us to enquire, how Animals come to cease from all Operation, and how the connection of their Parts comes to be dissolved.

II. The Death and Perish∣ing of Ani∣mals is designed by Nature as well as their Gene∣ration. But before I come to Treat of these, I shall first lay down this Truth, That Death is as much the intention and design of Nature, as Life is. For who will say, that Corruption is less Natural, than Generation? For tho' nothing seems to dye without reluctance, and some force put upon it; yet is not Corruption therefore to be accounted less Natural or disagreeing with the Laws of Na∣ture. For tho' Corruption be contrary to parti∣cular Nature, as procuring its Destruction; yet is it very consentaneous to Universal Nature, which never undertakes the Generation of any thing, without the fore-going Corruption of another, as not being able to create, or to produce a thing out of Nothing. Wherefore seeing, that the Beauty and Perfection of the World consists in Variety; and that it is much more for the Dignity of the World, that many things in process of time should appear and act their Parts on this great Theatre, than to represent always one and the same Face of things: The Divine Wisdom hath so order'd it, that Old things should make way for New ones; and that those things, which for some time have acted their Parts on the Stage of the World, should withdraw to make room for others. But if any one shall think it a hard case for him to leave this World, let him consider, that he himself could never have enter'd this World, but by others making room for him: For if all our Ancestors had been Immortal, they would have been increased to that number, that there would have been no place left for their Posterity.

III. When and how Death happens to Animals. Having said thus much to comfort us, and make the state of our Mortality more tolerable, we now assert that Death happens to Animals by the extinguishing of the Fire, that is in their Hearts. For in the Hearts of all Animals, as long as they are alive, there is a kind of Continual Heat, which we before call'd a kind of Fire that is hot without shining, and which Physicians do own to be the Bodily Principle of all motion in the Members of Animals. And therefore no wonder, if this being once extinct, Life, Sense and Motion be likewise destroyed.

IV. How this Heat comes to be weak∣ned in the Body of Animals. For tho' this Native Heat be strong and effi∣cacious at the beginning, yet in the process of Age it loseth strength, and grows weaker and weaker; so that Animals, after they are come to their full growth, are at a stand, and soon after their strength decays; and at last, by the defect of this Heat they dye; as the flame of a Wick, for want of Oil is extinguish'd. But yet there is a difference betwixt the flame of a Lamp, and the Life of Ani∣mals; because the former is continued, as long as it is supplied with Oil: But the Life of Animals cannot be maintained by perpetual Aliment, because Animals dye not for want of Aliment; but because their Heat grows so weak, that it can no longer change the Food into the Substance of the Body. And therefore Physicians tell us, that the Heat which Nature hath afforded us, for the Mainte∣nance and Support of our Bodies, doth conspire their destruction. For tho' it preserves us, foras∣much as by feeding upon Moisture, it affords strength and vigour to our Members; yet at the same time it also lays the foundation of our De∣struction, whilst by continual consuming of our Moisture it self becomes debilitated, without re∣storing, as much as it doth consume: And accord∣ingly it follows, that when the Moisture is con∣sumed, the Body must consume and waste like∣wise, and the Heat it self be extinguish'd.

V. Why the utmost parts of the Body first grow cold in those that are ready to dye. Now that Death proceeds from the decay of Heat, daily Experience teacheth us in Dying per∣sons: For we find that the Extream parts of their Body first begins to grow cold, till at last their Breast and Heart it self be deprived of it. For since the Heat which is disperst through the whole Body, proceeds from the Arteries, inasmuch as by thinning the Blood that is in them, it generates those Spirits which communicate Motion to all the Parts of Man's Body; it must of necessity follow, that when the motion of the Arteries and Heart grows weak and languishing, this Weakness must first affect the Capillary Veins, as being both small and weak, and at the greatest distance from the Heart, the Fountain of Heat.

VI. An Obje∣ction from the motion of Animals, after their Heart is taken out their Bo∣dies. It may be you will Object here, That some Ani∣mals, after that their Heart hath been taken out of their Bodies, have notwithstanding performed the functions of Life. ARISTOTLE al∣ledgeth the Example of a Tortoise, which when his Heart is taken out, doth nevertheless walk about, though be be but small, and of a weak and slow Body. Some Historians also make mention of some per∣sons, who have spoke after that their Heart hath been pluck'd out of ther Bodies. Now, whence could these Actions or Words proceed, if the Heart, by its heat, were the sole Principle of all Bodily motion, and if it were the first thing living, and the last that dies?

VII. The Cause of this Motion. To which I Answer, That the Actions per∣formed by Animals, after they are deprived of their Heart, are to be attributed to an Influence derived from thence; inasmuch as by the Arterial Blood convey'd to the Brain, the Spirits for a short time continue their begun motion, and by entring the Nerves, produce a motion in the Tongue, or other Parts of the Body. Thus we find that Insects, after they have been cut to pieces, do for a long while continue their motion, by reason of the strength and vigour of their Animals Spirits, which cannot so soon exhale out of the Joynts of that Expansion, which is in them instead of a Back-bone, and wherein the said Spi∣rits are contained. And as to that which was added, that the Heart is the first thing that lives, it is to be noted, that this is not to be understood of the time in which the Birth lives, shut up in the Mothers Womb; but after it is come forth from the same. For it is manifest, that the Birth in the Womb, doth not so much live by a Life of its own, as by that of its Mother; and that its Arte∣ries do not beat from the motion of its own Heart, but by that of its Mother. Wherefore tho' the Heart be not the Principle of all motions, that are performed in the Body before the Birth; yet is it the Principle of all those that are exerted after∣wards.

VIII. By what means Men that have been drown∣ed, are re∣stored to Life. The Natural Heat therefore last forsakes the Heart, whether in a Natural or Violent Death: For being the chief Principle of all Corporal motions, it is more strong and vigorous there, as in its Fountain, and makes the greatest Resistance against any Force put upon it. Thus one that hath been Drowned, if he be timely taken out of the Water, and laid with his Head hanging down∣wards, that by the voiding of the Water out of his Mouth, his Midriff may no longer be clogg'd by the distension of his Stomack from the great quantity of Water he hath taken down, and that by this means his Breast and VVind-pipe, being freed from that which stopt and opprest them, be restor'd to their former freedom, the Person re∣turns to life again; because there was still some Force remaining in the Heart, whereby it was able to recommence its former pulsation. In like manner, a Person that is starved with Cold, being timely restor'd to warmth, Recovers again; be∣cause the Vapours, that were congealed in his Breast, begin to be dissolved and discust by the inward Heat, which was not yet wholly extinct, being assisted by the outward.

IX. The diffe∣rence be∣tween a Natural and a vio∣lent Death. Wherefore this is the only difference that is between a Natural and a Violent Death; as by Hanging, Beheading, &c. that a Violent Death is performed in a moment, or a very short time: Whereas a Natural Death comes on by degrees, and by slow advances, dissolves the Tye that is between the Parts: But in both of them, the Heat and Fire in the Heart is alike extinguish'd, and takes its flight into the Aethereal Air, as the An∣cients were wont to express it. Accordingly SENECA, in his 66th Epistle, saith; The Death of all Persons is alike; tho' the ways by which it makes its approaches be different, yet it ends and terminates in one and the same thing. No Death is more or less than other; for it hath one and the same measure and manner in all, that is, the termination or putting an end to Life.

Notes

• * 1.1

  III. What kind of Heat it is wherein the Life of Animals doth consist
• * 1.2

  Figure 60.
• * 1.3

  Figure 61.