TIAN, or TIĀN, is a Chinese word that means the heavens . Chinese scholars use this noun to refer to the Supreme Being , creator and guardian of the Universe. The Chinese of the same sect of the literati still refer to this divinity with the noun cham-ti or chang-ti , which signifies sovereign or emperor ; these denominations gave way to great debates between the Jesuit missionaries and the mandarins who belonged to the sect of the literati. The former never wanted to accept the name tian , which the scholars gave to the divinity, because they accused them [the Chinese scholars] of atheism, or at least of creating an idolatrous cult to the material and visible heavens. They wanted God to be referred to as tien-tchu , lord of the heavens. In order to calm the suspicions and qualms of the missionaries, whom he liked, Emperor Kangxi issued an edict or a solemn declaration, which he had published throughout his entire empire, by which he made it known that it was not to the material heavens that they would offer sacrifices or address their wishes; instead they only worshiped the sovereign master of the heavens and that the name chang-ti was meant to refer only to the Supreme Being. Not content with this declaration, the Emperor had a large number of the most distinguished mandarins of the empire as well as the most skilled among the literati, sign and confirm it. They were very surprised to learn that the Europeans had suspected them of worshipping an inanimate and material being, like the visible sky; they then declared in the most authentic manner that the word tiān , as well as chang-ti , would be used to refer to the Supreme Lord of heaven, the beginning of all things, the provider of all goods, including providence, omniscience, and kindness, that give us all that we possess.

Due to an incomprehensible fate, such formal declarations were never able to reassure the fearful consciences of the missionaries; they believed that the emperor and the literati had explained themselves in this way only through a condescension and weakness to which, however, nothing could obligate them. They continued to suspect them of atheism and idolatry, however incompatible these matters appeared; and they constantly refused to use the words tiān and chang-ti to refer to the Supreme Being, instead preferring to convince themselves that the scholars did not truly believe what they professed, and accusing them of mental restrictions, which, as we know, were already authorized in Europe by a few theologians known to the missionaries. See L’Histoire de la Chine by Father du Halde. [1]

1. Jean-Baptiste du Halde (1674-1743), The General History of China, 4 vols., trans. Richard Brookes (London, 1739-1741).