Horology. The craft of making machines that measure time. The measurement of time must have been the object of men's searching in the most remote past, since it is necessary for ordering the phases of life. It does not appear, however, that the ancients had any knowledge of horology , unless the term is applied to the designing of sundials , the making of clepsydras or sand-glasses , water clocks , etc. It seems likely that the first means used to measure time were the daily revolutions of the sun; thus the time elapsed from sunrise to sunset was called a day , and from sunset to sunrise a night . It must have soon been realized that this measurement was faulty, since this kind of day was longer in summer than in winter. It seems that the next measurement was the time from the sun's highest point above the horizon (called noon ) till its return to the same point. But because men's needs increased as they became better educated, they had to have time divisions that were smaller. Therefore, they divided the time between two noons, or one revolution of the sun, into twenty-four parts or hours, which gave rise to sundials with hours marked by lines. This in general is the origin of time measurement by the motion of the sun. Plainly, this method was subject to many difficulties, for the hour could not be observed during the night, or when the sun was hidden by clouds; this gave rise to the invention of clepsydras or water clocks, etc.

The last method of measuring time, imperfect as it is, was used till the end of the tenth century, which is the period when clocks were invented: motion relayed by gear wheels, speed governed by an escapement, wheels driven by a weight, and time shown by a hand on the shaft of a wheel, on a dial divided in twelve equal parts. The hand makes one revolution in twelve hours, or two revolutions from noon of one day till the following noon. Once these clocks were available, the first ones being installed in the towers of churches, skilled and intelligent workmen improved on these discoveries, adding a train of wheels beside the clock whose function was to strike a bell with a hammer indicating the hour shown on the dial. With this addition the hour could be known during the night without the aid of light, very useful in monasteries because until then the religious had to observe the stars during the night in order not to miss the hour of service, which was not very convenient for them. Therefore, the invention of mechanical clocks was attributed to the monk Gerbert, who became archbishop of Rheims around 991, and then Pope with the name Sylvester II. This invention was used until 1651. See the Abrégé chronologique de l'histoire de France , by Président Hénault, tome I, p. 126.

When this kind of clock had been achieved, smaller ones were made for use in bedrooms, and eventually skilled workmen made portable clocks, which were called watches . At this time the spiral spring originated, replacing the weights used in clocks to drive the mechanism; weights are not suited to a portable device constantly subjected to motion and tilting, etc., which would hinder the action of a weight. Watches were also made with alarms.

These discoveries truly mark the beginning of the craft of horology. The accuracy of measuring time attained by means of clocks and watches was infinitely less than the precision of sandglasses and water clocks. Admittedly, it was one of the great discoveries of that era, but it was nothing compared with the perfection reached by horology in 1647, when the great mathematician Huyghens transformed the craft with his splendid contributions. He applied the pendulum to clocks to regulate their motion, and a few years later he added a spiral spring to the balance of watches; this had the same effect on the balance as gravity had on the pendulum.

The machines became so accurate through these two additions that they surpassed old clocks by as much as the latter surpassed clepsydras and water clocks.

Once Huyghens had applied the pendulum to clocks, he observed that wide swings of the pendulum took longer than narrow swings; consequently, since the force of the weight on the pendulum decreased when the friction on the wheels increased and the oil thickened, the clock would necessarily gain. To avoid this difficulty, he sought a means of making the swings of the pendulum isochronous, or of equal duration however great the arc. For this purpose, his research discovered the property of a curve called cycloid , which is that when dropped from different heights along this curve, an object will take the same time falling. Huyghens added a strip curved in a cycloid on either side of the thread suspending the pendulum, so the wider the pendulum swung, which should have slowed the period, the shorter the pendulum became, which accelerated its motion. As a result, whether the pendulum made wider or narrower swings, the time of its oscillation remained the same. Although the results did not bear it out, the theory is nonetheless admirable, and to it we owe the perfection of our clocks; although the cycloid is no longer used, the theory taught us that small arcs are not much different from small cycloid arcs, and if the swing of the pendulum is limited, its time of oscillation will change by a tiny amount even though the power may even be doubled.

The conical pendulum, called the pirouette , is another invention of M. Huyghens. Instead of oscillating in the same plane, it describes a cone instead [and always turns in the same direction], [1] through the action of the wheels. This pendulum is so designed that it can describe wide or narrow arcs according to the power, so the circles it describes in the air are larger or smaller depending on the power. Nevertheless, although the pendulum describes unequal cones, the period of its revolutions does not change, for either the power is less, and centrifugal force causes the pendulum to describe a smaller cone, or the power increases and centrifugal force causes the pendulum to travel in a larger circle, so the period of its revolutions is always the same. [This results from the property of a certain curve along the thread that carries the pendulum.] The isochronous [revolutions] of the pendulum are based on a theory I have always thought admirable, like that of the cycloid; although neither method is being used, we must try to follow their spirit in machines for measuring time, since their accuracy can be based only on the isochronous beats of the regulator, whatever it may be. Huyghens's title to these inventions was contested, as he says himself in his book, De horologio oscillatorio . I shall relate his own words.

"No one can deny that sixteen years ago there was no knowledge, written or oral, of applying pendulums to clocks, much less the cycloid, which addition no one disputes to me as far as I know.

But it was sixteen years ago (in 1658) that I published a book on the subject, so the date of publication differs by seven years from that of the writings that attribute the invention to others. As for those who would attribute the honor to Galileo, some say the great man had turned his research in this direction, but it seems to me that they are doing more for me than for him, by tacitly admitting that he was less successful in his research than I. Others go further and claim that Galileo or his son did indeed apply the pendulum to clocks, but how likely is it that not only was such a useful discovery not published when it was made, but that it was not claimed until eight years after my book was published? Is it said that Galileo may have had a particular reason for keeping silent for some time? In that case, there is no discovery that cannot be disputed to its author."

Applying the cycloid to clocks, although admirable in theory, did not have the result M. Huyghens expected. The difficulty of drawing such a curve exactly must have been a factor, but the chief cause has to do with the thread required for suspending the pendulum; the thread was subject to the effects of humidity and dryness, and it could support only a light bob. It made a wide swing and so met great air resistance, its surface area being greater because its size was small. For these reasons this bob tended to cause variations in the clock, the more so as the driving force or weight that kept the machine → going was increased, which produced friction. Furthermore, the whole theory of the cycloid concerns the oscillations of a free pendulum, one swinging independent of the repeated action of clockwork. Such a pendulum can only measure time for a few hours, and when it is applied to a clock its oscillations are disturbed by the impulse of the escapement that maintains the motion. Depending on the nature of the escapement, deadbeat or recoil, the oscillations are faster or slower, as we shall demonstrate. Therefore, the cycloid was abandoned, although it produced a great improvement in pendulum clocks, showing that small arcs are essentially no different from small sections of the cycloid; if the pendulum describes a small arc, the oscillations will be isochronous, even though the arc may increase or decrease through change in the driving power.

Dr. Hook was the first to use small arcs in England, which allowed the use of heavy bobs. At the same time one Clement , a London clockmaker, made pendulums with heavy bobs that described small arcs. Since then, this principle has been followed by all clockmakers desiring to make good mechanisms. M. Le Bon, in Paris, was one of the first to do so: he made bobs weighing as much as 50 or 60 livres , and today M. Rivaz has adopted the same system.

We may judge how far astronomical clocks have been improved in design and construction by comparing to what they were when Huyghens conceived them. The first pendulum clocks made according to these principles went 30 hours with a six- livre weight that dropped five pieds . I have just finished one that goes a year with a two- livre weight that drops five pieds .

The advances made in horology have not altered the principles even in a hundred years; the pendulum is the best regulator for clocks, and the balance wheel controlled by a spring is the best regulator for watches.

Until Huyghens, horology could be considered a mechanical craft requiring only labor, but his discoveries applying geometry and mechanics made the craft into a science, where labor is only secondary, and the chief part is the theory of moving bodies, including the loftiest parts of geometry, arithmetic, mechanics, and physics.

The great precision with which the pendulum divides time encouraged and gave rise to some good observations, which brought about new divisions in machines that measure time. The 24th part of the day, the hour, was divided into 60 parts, called minutes ; the minute into 60 parts, called seconds ; and the second into 60 parts, called tierces ; and so on. So the daily revolution of the sun, first divided into 24 parts, is now 86,400 seconds, which can be counted. Following these divisions, clocks were made that showed minutes and seconds: the ← machine → was designed so that the wheel carrying the hour hand made a revolution in twelve hours; another wheel made a revolution in one hour and carried a hand that showed the minutes on a dial ring divided into 60 equal parts, each one being a minute and 60 of them an hour. Finally, to show the seconds, the ← machine → was designed so that one wheel made a revolution in one minute; the arbor of this wheel carried a hand that showed the seconds on a ring divided into 60 parts, each one being a second and 60 of them a minute. These divisions were also added to watches.

As soon as machines were made that precisely divided and showed the time, clockmakers eagerly devised various mechanisms, like alarm clocks, clocks showing the date, the day of the week, the year, the phases of the moon, sunrise and sunset, leap year, etc. Among all the additions made to clocks and watches, two are especially ingenious and useful: the first is repetition , a mechanism in a watch or a clock whereby one may know the hour and the quarter-hour at any time of the day or night. The other is equation clocks and watches. To recognize the worth of these productions, it must be understood that after much observation astronomers discovered that the daily revolutions of the sun, measured from noon to the following noon, are not always the same, but longer on certain days of the year and shorter on others. The time measured by clocks is uniform by nature, so these machines cannot follow the variations of the sun. Therefore, a mechanism was devised whereby the minute hand turns at a steady rate, while a second minute hand follows the variations of the sun. Finally, the grandest machines produced by horology until now are orreries and planispheres .

An orrery is a ← machine → designed to show and imitate at every moment the position of the planets in the sky, the place of the sun, the motion of the moon, and the eclipses; in short, it represents our solar system in miniature. Thus, according to the latest theory accepted by astronomers, the sun is at the center of this ← machine → , which represents the sphere of the universe. Mercury revolves around the sun, then Venus in a larger orbit, then Earth with its moon, then Mars, then Jupiter with its four satellites, and finally Saturn with its five satellites or small moons. Each planet is carried on a ring concentric with the sun, and the various rings are driven by the gear train of the clock , which is hidden inside the ← machine → . Each planet in the ← machine → uses and imitates perfectly the revolution period that the astronomers have determined. Thus, Mercury travels around the sun in 88 days, Venus in 224 days 7 hours, Earth in 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 12 seconds. The Moon revolves around the Earth in 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3 seconds, Mars in 1 year 321 days 18 hours, Jupiter in 11 years 316 days, and Saturn in 29 years 155 days 18 hours. The orrery is not a modern invention; Archimedes, who lived two thousand years ago, built one that imitated the motions of the stars. Several orreries have been built in recent years, but the most accurate one known is the one located at Versailles; it was calculated by M. Claude-Siméon Passement and constructed by Louis d'Authiau.

Clocks have also been made that show the motion of the planets, as the sphere does, with the difference that in the machines called planispheres the revolutions of the planets are shown on the same plane by openings in a dial, beneath which wheels turn representing the heavenly motions.

Horology has benefited from a large number of inventions that space precludes reporting here. The reader may consult works on horology , like the treatises by M. Antoine Thiout, Fr. Jacques Alexandre and Jean-André Le Paute. M. Thiout's book in particular describes a large number of machines very ingeniously designed for the easy performance of all aspects of the handwork. There are all kinds of such pieces; the book is really a collection of ← machine → tools for horology .

The preceding contains a few of the topics included in horology ; their range shows how much knowledge is required to master this science.

Horology being the science of motion, it requires a knowledge of the laws of motion; its practitioners must master geometry, mechanics and physics; they must know arithmetic and have not only a talent for grasping the spirit of principles, but the talents required for applying them.

By horology I do not mean the usual trade of routinely making watches and clocks, as they have been made, without knowing the basis of it all; these are the tasks of a workman. On the contrary, designing a ← machine → according to principles, according to the laws of motion, using the simplest and sturdiest means, such is the work of a gifted man. Therefore, in order to train a horologist for possible celebrity, his natural gifts must be gauged, and then he must be taught mechanics, etc. We shall treat in detail what we consider necessary for his guidance.

He will be shown a few machines, and their operation will be explained, for example: how time is measured; how wheels act on each other; how their revolutions are multiplied. Following these basic concepts, he will be shown the necessity of knowing arithmetic to determine the revolutions of each wheel; of geometry to determine the rounding of the teeth; of mechanics to determine the forces to be applied in order to drive the ← machine → ; and handcraft, to put into practice the principles and rules prescribed by these sciences. Thereafter he will study both machines and the sciences he must learn, taking care to make handwork only secondary to this knowledge. When dealing with regulators for clocks and watches, their properties must be explained in general; how they can be made in order to achieve the greatest accuracy; what determines it; the necessity of knowing how fluids resist bodies in motion; how they impair accuracy; how to increase accuracy as far as possible. He must understand the friction of air; how to reduce it as far as possible; the friction of two bodies moving against each other; its effect on machines; and the way to reduce this friction to the least amount possible. He will be shown the various properties of metals; the effects of heat, how it expands them, and cold contracts them; the obstacle resulting for the accuracy of timekeepers; the ways of avoiding the variations thus caused; the usefulness of physics for these various matters, etc. After he has been gradually brought thus far, he will be told of machines that imitate the motion of the planets. By making him simply feel the beauty of these machines, he will be shown the necessity of having some notions of astronomy. In this way, the machines themselves will make him love this craft; learning the sciences will seem less difficult because he will see their absolute necessity, as well as that of joining this knowledge to handwork, in order to make his machines according to the rules laid down by theory. As for construction, I think it suitable for him to begin with clocks, because the parts are large, which gives an opportunity to perform all kinds of operations and combinations.

The great variety of procedures also accustoms the mind to seeing machines on a large scale; as for practice itself, there are certain precisions found only in clocks that could also be applied to watches. Once he has understood machines, he will have a clear understanding of their principles, and once he masters the handwork, he will easily go on to making watches; the same spirit that guides the designing and making of clocks can also apply to watches, which are simply small versions of clocks.

Just as understanding of theory is gained gradually, the hand acquires skill only through practice, but that comes about faster when one has a clear idea of the projected work. That is why I recommend beginning with the study of science before moving on to handwork, or at least following both at the same time. It is essential to study the principles of the craft and to get the habit of working with precision, but this is still not enough. A general knowledge does not give mastery of horology ; the rules one learns may apply to an existing ← machine → or others that are similar, but conceiving methods that have not yet been used, and designing new machines, are beyond those who know only the rules and do not have that gift that comes only from nature. That talent is not acquired by study, which only refines it and helps it to develop; when the gift of sciences is added to nature's, one cannot fail to design very good things.

It will be seen from this survey that thorough mastery of horology requires the theory of science, the skill of handwork, and the talent for design, three qualities that are not easily fostered in the same individual, the more so because until now the making of clockwork parts has been considered most important, whereas it is the last; to such an extent that the best-made watch or clock will be very inaccurate if it was not made according to good principles; while if the principles are sound, it will perform quite well even though of average quality.

I am not saying that skilled work should be neglected, on the contrary, but I am convinced that it is just secondary, and the man who makes must only follow the man who designs. My wish is that the hand and the mind should each be valued for its worth, and I believe I am the more entitled to say this because I need fear no suspicion of disparaging what I do not possess. I have proven myself as a maker of watches and clocks, and in very difficult areas; in any case, I can convince the most skeptical with facts.

I feel I must emphasize this because most people who dabble in horology are far from thinking it requires any knowledge but turning and filing. This is not entirely their fault; their prejudice comes from the way in which learners are trained. A boy is assigned to a clockmaker for eight years, which he spends running errands and roughing out some clockwork parts. If by the end of this time he manages to make a movement, he is assumed to be quite clever. However, he is quite often ignorant of the use his work is put to. With his knowledge he tries for the title of master; he makes the required masterpiece or has another make it for him, he is passed master, opens a shop, sells watches and clocks, and calls himself a clockmaker. It may therefore be seen as a miracle if a man with such an experience ever becomes skilled.

Those who practice horology are commonly called clockmakers . It is useful to distinguish the clockmaker as understood here from the craftsman who possesses the principles of the craft; they are absolutely different persons. The former usually practices horology with no knowledge of the fundamentals, and he calls himself a clockmaker because he practices a part of that craft.

The latter, in contrast, grasps this science in all its scope; he could be called a mechanic-architect . Such a craftsman does not practice one part; he designs watches and clocks, or other machines he wishes to make. He determines the location of each part, their motions, the forces to be employed, and all the dimensions; in short, he builds the building. As for the execution, he chooses workmen who are able to produce each part. This is the way to consider horology , and to expect good machines from it, as we shall demonstrate shortly. Now we shall speak of each workman employed in the production of watches and clocks, and they are very numerous; each part is made by different workers, who do the same thing all their lives.

Practice or handwork is divided into three branches, which include all the workers employed in clockmaking .

First are the workers who make great tower clocks, etc. They are called heavy clockmakers .

Second are the workers who make pendulum clocks, called clockmakers .

Third are the workers who make watches; they are called fine workers .

1. The workers who build large clocks are like locksmiths and mechanics. They make all the parts of these clocks themselves, and forge the frames which carry the wheels. They also forge the wheels of iron and the pinions of steel; they cut the teeth of wheels and pinions once they are laid out correctly by filing, a very long, hard task. It takes more than a workman to lay out this kind of work, for intelligence is required to arrange the wheels efficiently, matching the strength of the wheels to the forces they must overcome, not making them heavier than necessary and increasing friction. The construction of these machines depends on the locations where they are installed; operating the hands is not easy: the overall size of the ← machine → , the wheels, etc. is related to the size of the hands it is to drive; and the bell used to strike the hours determines the weight of the hammer, which determines the strength of the wheels.

To construct these kinds of machines efficiently, it is necessary to possess the theory of horology ; the same workmen also make clocks for castles, halls, etc.

2. Here are the details concerning the workers making clocks.

1. The first task assigned to the workers making clocks is what is called the blank movement, consisting of the wheels, pinions and detents. These workers, called ebauche makers , only rough out the work; the requirements are hardness in the wheels and pinions, uniform size and spacing of teeth, and their correct shape and rounding.
2. The finisher completes the teeth and rounds them, finishes the pivots and makes the holes for them to turn in; he makes the gear trains, the escapement and the action of the strike or repetition movements. He fits the hands or finishes them, fits the pendulum or bob, and sets the clock going. It remains for the mechanic, the clockmaker, to examine the action of the ← machine → , to see if the wheels are well made as well as the pivots, if the escapement makes the pendulum describe the suitable arc, if the weight of the bob and its arc are suited to the driving power, and if the strike or repetition perform.
3. The wheel cutter is a woman who cuts teeth in clock wheels and does only that.
4. The spring maker makes clock springs; he does only that. He is required to make them very long and of good steel, the thickness decreasing gradually from the outer end to the center, and tempered enough to retain its elasticity, but not so much as to break. The force of the spring as it unwinds must be as even as possible, and the coils must not bind as they unwind.
5. The bob and weight makers for clocks; they also make steel clock hands.
6. The engraver, who makes brass dials for clocks with second hands, etc.
7. The polisher is a worker who polishes the brass parts of the clock movement; the finisher polishes the steel parts. [2]
8. The enamelers or clock dial makers.
9. The workers who silver brass dials.
10. The sculptor, who makes the movement mountings and bezels for bracket clocks.
11. The cabinetmakers, who make the cases with inlaid and other decorations. Clockmakers must guide the cabinetmakers and sculptors in case design; since they are none too able to design themselves, they do well to consult architects or good draftsmen.
12. The gilders, for the bronzes on cases.
13. The gold painters, who color the bronzes on clock cases, bracket clocks, dials, etc.; this paint imitates gilding.
14. The founders of clock wheels and various other parts used in movements.
15. The founders who make bells, turn and polish them.

These are the workers who make ordinary clocks. Others prefer to specialize in musical clocks.

Equation clocks and other complex machines are made by various ebauche makers, finishers, etc., and are supervised and designed by the horologist.

Workers employed for watches.

1. The ebauche maker; like the clock workers, he makes wheels and pinions, which requires about the same care. These workers make trains for ordinary watches only.
2. The train maker; he makes wheel trains for watches or repeaters only.
3. The motion work makers, who make that part of the repetition located under the dial, so designed that when the button is pressed, the hour and quarter shown by the hands are repeated.
4. The finisher is the worker who finishes the work of the ebauche maker. There are two kinds of finisher: the one who finishes the movements of plain watches, and the one who finishes the wheel train of a repeating watch. Both finish the wheel pivots and teeth. When the watches have a verge escapement, the finisher makes it as well. The finisher matches the fusee with the spring, he fits the movement to the case, winds the gilded watch, and sets it going. Then the horologist examines it: the wheel trains, the size of the pivots, their fit in the holes, the adjustment of the balance spring, the escapement, the weight of the balance, the even action of the fusee, etc. He himself corrects the parts that are not according to the rules, thus giving the ← machine → its soul; but first it must have been made according to the right principles.
5. The makers of cylinder watch escapements. They make only the escapement, that is the balance wheel and the cylinder staff on which they mount the balance wheel; they fit the regulator and the spiral spring. Since no escapement known compensates or is expected to compensate for variations in power, these technicians who have escapements made must prescribe the design and dimensions of the escapement: set the number of beats, the size of the arc it is to describe, and the weight of the balance relative to the design of the movement and the power of the spring; as we shall see, these relationships alone determine the accuracy of watches.
6. The watch spring maker. He makes small springs only.
7. The watch chain maker. She obtains this ingenious assembly from Geneva or London.
8. The spiral spring maker. She also obtains spiral springs from Geneva. A good spiral spring requires great care, and its quality is essential to the watch. It must be of the best possible steel, which must be well tempered so that it recoils as far as it is driven, or as nearly so as possible.
9. The enameler, or dial maker.
10. The makers of hands.
11. The engravers, who decorate cocks, rosettes, etc.
12. The gilders, women who only gild plates, cocks and other parts of watches. They must be careful in heating the parts not to soften them.
13. The polishers, women employed in polishing the brass parts of a watch like wheels, etc., that are not gilded.
14. The workers who polish steel parts like hammers, etc.
15. The wheel cutters, women.
16. The shapers of fusees and escape wheels. The accuracy of an escape wheel depends above all on the accuracy of the ← machine → used to shape it, and the care taken in cutting the teeth. It essential, therefore, to be attentive in this, since it also contributes to the going accuracy of the watch.
17. The case makers make gold and silver cases for watches.
18. The box makers.
19. The engravers and sculptors employed in decorating watch cases.
20. The enamelers who paint the figures and flowers that decorate the cases. Horologists are free to decorate their watch cases, with no detriment to the quality of the inner movement; for this purpose they must choose skilled artists, engravers and enamelers.
21. The workers who make the gold chains for watches, men's or women's; jewelers make them as well as clockmakers. I shall not discuss here the very great number of workers who are specialized exclusively in making the tools and instruments used by horologists; it would require much space, and it is only secondary to the craft.

This division of labor in the making of clockwork pieces shows that a skilled horologist must limit his activity as follows:

1. Studying the principles of his craft, making experiments, supervising the workers in his employ, and examining their work as it is produced.

2. Plainly, each part of a clock or watch must be perfect, since it is made by workers who make nothing else their whole lives. A skilled man must be required to make his watches and clocks according to correct principles, based on experience, to employ good workmen, and examine each part as it is produced; he must correct defects when necessary. Finally, when everything has been made, he must assemble the parts and fit them together harmoniously, giving the ← machine → its soul. Therefore, such a craftsman must be able if necessary to make all the parts contained in watches and clocks himself; only then can he supervise and direct workers, and he cannot correct their work if he cannot perform it. It is easy to see that a ← machine → well designed by a craftsman and made by various workers is preferable to one that is made by one man, since it is impossible to learn principles, make experiments, and produce as perfectly as a workman who devotes all his faculties to producing. Judging the quality of horology by that of the hand work, it might be thought that the craft has reached its highest degree of perfection, because today clockwork is produced with amazing care and refinement. This no doubt proves the skill of our workers and the beauty of the hand work, but it in no way shows the progress of science, since the principles are not yet determined, and hand work is not what makes the accuracy of watches and clocks, which is the essence of horology . It is desirable, therefore, that more attention be paid to principles, that the quality of a watch not be judged by its construction, which results only from hand work, but rather by the intelligence of its design, which is the fruit of genius.

Horology is not limited to machines for measuring time; since it is the science of motion, everything concerning any ← machine → at all may belong to its domain. Thus, progress in this craft improves various machines and instruments, like those designed for astronomy and navigation, mathematical instruments, machines for experiments in physics, etc.

The celebrated Graham , a London horologist and member of the Royal Society of that city, made important improvements in astronomical instruments, and his knowledge in the various fields we have discussed proves that the science of horology requires [3] them all.

It is true, superior minds are needed for this, but to bring them forth it suffices to inspire emulation and recognize outstanding craftsmen. We shall distinguish three kinds of persons working in horology or at it: the first and largest number are those who entered the trade without inclination or disposition or talent; they work out of routine and are content to remain ignorant, simply to earn money, since chance decided the choice of their trade.

The second are those who have a most praiseworthy desire to better themselves; they seek to acquire some knowledge and principles of the craft, but their unfortunate nature blocks their path. Finally, those few intelligent craftsmen who were born with a particular gift and a love of work and the craft; they seek to discover new principles as they deepen their knowledge of the ones they already possess. To be a craftsman of this kind it is not enough to have a little theory and a few general principles of mechanics in addition to the habit of working; a particular natural disposition is required in addition, which alone takes the place of everything else. Those who are born with it are not long in acquiring the other elements; if it is put to use, practical skill is soon acquired, and such a craftsman never makes anything without feeling its functions and seeking to analyze them. In sum, nothing escapes his observation; how far will he not go in his craft if he adds to his gifts the study of what we have revealed to him thus far?

It is no doubt rare to find fortunate minds that include all these necessary parts, but some are found that have the natural disposition and lack only practical application, which they would surely do if they had a greater incentive to devote themselves exclusively to the progress of their craft. All that is needed, to render an essential service to horology and society, is to stimulate their vanity, distinguish the horologists from the mere workmen and charlatans, and finally entrust the governing of the horologists ' guild to the most intelligent, make entry easier for those who have talent, and close it forever to those wretched workers who can only slow the progress of a craft that they even tend to ruin. If it is necessary to start from mechanical principles in designing pieces of clockwork , it is appropriate to verify them by experiment, for although the principles are as unchanging as they are complicated, when they are applied to very small machines the results vary and are rather difficult to analyze. We shall point out that as concerns experiments, they can be made in two ways. The first are made by persons with no understanding, who conduct tests only to avoid the trouble of seeking through study — a difficult analysis they are often unaware of — the operation of a mechanism designed without rules, without principles and without vision; they are blind men feeling their way with a cane.

The second class of experimenters includes craftsmen learned in the principles of machines, the laws of motion, the various actions of bodies on each other; and endowed with minds that can analyze the most subtle actions of a ← machine, and envision everything that must result from a given combination, can calculate it in advance, and can build it in the most efficient way; so if they make experiments, it is less to learn what must happen than to confirm the principles they have established and the actions they have analyzed. I admit that such an outlook is very difficult and requires a particular mind; therefore very few persons can make useful experiments, with a definite goal.

Left to itself, without encouragement, without distinction, without rewards, horology has risen on its own to the point where we see it today; that can only be attributed to the fortunate disposition of a few craftsmen, who loving their craft enough to seek perfection have aroused an emulation among themselves that has produced results that are as profitable as if they had been encouraged by rewards. The germ of this spirit of emulation came from the English craftsmen brought to France during the Regency, to Sully for one, the most skillful among those who settled here. Julien Le Roy , a disciple of the skillful horologist Le Bon , was closely associated with Sully  [4] and benefited from his knowledge; together with his personal merit, that knowledge earned him the reputation he enjoyed. He had imitators, among them Enderlin , who was greatly gifted for mechanics, as shown by his share in the Traité d'horlogerie by M. Thiout. We must not overlook the late Jean-Baptiste Dutertre, a very skillful horologist; [Pierre] Gaudron; Pierre Le Roy, etc., and the elder Thiout, praised in the Traité d'horlogerie .

To those skilled craftsmen we owe a great amount of research, and above all the perfecting of hand work, for as concerns the theory and the principles of measuring time, they did not write of it at all. It is not surprising that still in our day many absurdities have been written. The only treatise containing principles is the Mémoire of M. Rivaz, in reply to a rather poor anonymous piece condemning his discoveries. To the Mémoire and the polemic we owe the spirit of emulation that inspired our modern craftsmen; we could wish M. Rivaz had followed horology himself; his knowledge of mechanics would have contributed greatly to the progress of the craft.

It must be agreed that these craftsmen who enriched horology all deserve our praise, since their arduous labors had as their only goal the progress of the craft, and they sacrificed their fortunes to that end. It must be said that horology is not like the other arts, such as painting, architecture or sculpture, where the artist who excels is not only encouraged and rewarded, but since many are able to judge his productions, reputation and fortune usually follow merit. An excellent horologist, on the contrary, may spend his life in obscurity while the impudent, the plagiarists, the charlatans and other wretched worker-merchants enjoy the fortune and the encouragements due to merit. The reputation we have in the world has less to do with the genuine merit of our work than the way in which it is advertised. It is easy to mislead the public; they take the charlatan at his word, since they are unable to judge for themselves.

The spirit of emulation, just mentioned, gave rise to the Société des arts , organized with the patronage of the Comte de Clermont. We can only regret that an institution that could have been so useful to the public was so short-lived; however, from that society came some very distinguished individuals who today add luster to the Académie des Sciences , [5] and various very good Mémoires  [6] on horology . Together with several skilled horologists, we planned to restore that academy, and we proposed it to Messrs. Julien Le Roy, Thiout senior, [Jean] Romilly and several other famous horologists. They all wished that it might succeed, but one told me he would not join if another were a member, and this pettiness showed me why the Société des arts failed; I despaired of restoring it unless the government favored the founding with compensations that would sweep away petty jealousies.

Allow me to speak here of some of the advantages of a Horology society or academy.

Although horology has now reached a very high point of perfection, its situation is nevertheless critical, for if on the one hand it stands far above English horology through the devotion of a few craftsmen, on the other hand it is again on the brink of being forgotten. The irregularity observed in the admission of members, and more than that, the trade being pursued by merchants, workers with no talent or qualifications, household servants and other schemers, cheating the public under assumed names, debases the craft; all these things are slowly undoing the confidence once enjoyed by famous craftsmen; discouraged at last and swept along by the torrent, they will be forced to imitate the others and cease being craftsmen in order to become merchants. At its origins in France, horology seemed too minor an object to deserve the government's attention; no one yet anticipated that it could constitute the important commerce it has become today. So it is not surprising that it was left to its own devices, but today it is completely different; it has achieved a very high degree of perfection. We excel in the art of decorating our clock and watch cases; their decoration is far superior to that of the foreigners who would imitate us. Therefore, horology must no longer be seen as a craft useful only to ourselves; it must also be considered with respect to the foreign trade it can provide.

Establishing such a society will earn the craft of horology the greatest confidence abroad.

1. Such an academy would bring horology to the highest point of perfection by arousing emulation among the craftsmen; this is certain, because the arts progress only through the competition of several persons treating the same object.

2. The records of the society would serve as an archive, where craftsmen would file their inventions; the members, more enlightened and having the greater interest in preventing any injustice, would prevent the thefts that occur every day with impunity; from the collected papers a Traité d'horlogerie would eventually be published that would be very different from the ones we have. For lack of such an archive, we see many banished designs successfully revived, and this will continue as long as all kinds of machines are approved, whether new or old.

The public, on the other hand, imagines that the craft is making progress, while it is just retracing its steps as though walking in a circle. People take for new everything they haven't yet seen.

3. The emulation fostered by this society would result in training craftsmen who start where their predecessors left the craft, and would take it still further; for in order to be a member of this body one would have to study, work and experiment, or else be resigned to joining the very large company of poor workmen.

4. Each member would benefit: since the public would be informed in whom to place their confidence, they would no longer buy clockwork of a merchant who misleads them, sure to find at the craftsman's place of business only excellent machines. Finally, these different advantages would result in the superiority of our clockwork being better known abroad, and foreigners would prefer it to that of our neighbors.

N.B. I wrote this article for the Encyclopédie , and I used it for the Discours préliminaire of my Essai sur l'horlogerie .

1. The two phrases in brackets do not apply to a reciprocating swinging pendulum, which describes arcs, not a circle (translator's note).

2. Number 7 is omitted (translator's note).

3. Text: "érige" (erects), for "exige" (requires) (translator's note).

4. Sully is the author of La Règle artificielle du temps , an excellent book.

5. Messrs. Clairaut and Desparcieux have been members of the Société des arts.

6. By Messrs. Gaudron and Leroy [ sic ].