Ulmus, elm , a large tree which is native to several European forest ranges, part of Asia, and North America, but which has been cultivated all over these continents because it is held in such high esteem. The elm grows broad and tall with an upright stem. The crown is dense and the roots spread from one property to the next. The reddish bark is furrowed and uneven when young, becoming increasingly so with age. The flowers, which are without beauty, appear in March and are rapidly replaced by flat, rounded, membraneous, and extremely light follicles, each of which contains a small seed at the centre. [1] Remarkably, the fruit is already ripe by the beginning of May, which is unique to the elm and means that the seeds are gathered before the leaves appear. Indeed, the leaves begin to expand only when the seeds are falling. The leaves are oval, serrate, furrowed above, and raised by a strong venation beneath; they are firm, rough, and green-brown. [2]

This tree, by its stature, bulk, and the usefulness of its wood, is justly ranked among the foremost forest trees. It is generally admitted that the oak and chestnut are deservedly superior, but since elmwood is particularly suitable for certain products it is more highly prized than oak and chestnut wood, which means that the three trees are valued more or less equally. [3]

Elms thrive in sites which are low, flat, open, and wet, in black, damp strips of land, in clay mixed with silt, and above all in soft, sterile, penetrable, moist soil which is good for grazing, especially that found at the edges of roads, streams, and rivers. Elms are frequently seen to thrive in damp chalk mixed with clay, and in wet soil mixed with sand and gravel. Elms can tolerate shallow, mediocre soil, and grow quite well in any soil except soil which is too dry, sandy, and warm, or too cold and spongy. They grow slowly in pure clay, and in soil which is too heavy and hard.

Elms are easy to propagate: they may be raised from seed, root suckers, layers, cuttings, and roots, and may also be grafted. The last method is used only for multiplying rare or collector’s species. Propagating elms from roots is laborious and unrewarding. Cuttings also require much preparation, without yielding a sufficient number of young trees. Layering requires a predetermined layout. Propagation from root suckers is the quickest mode, when one is able to procure them. Although raising from seed is the longest method, it is also the best means of supplying a tree nursery and obtaining a large number of seedlings. [4]

If one decides to sow, the seeds should be gathered when they begin to fall, which is usually from 10-20 May. The seeds are more perfect and valuable when they have fallen, but this requires a fairly large number of elms to be in the same site, for when there are only a few the wind disperses the seeds, making them almost impossible to gather. The seeds must be spread out and left to dry in the shade for several days. Beds four feet wide are laid out in good, rich, loose, previously- cultivated kitchen garden soil, and drills are formed with a pick along their length in a similar manner to those in which spinach is sown. These drills should be spaced at intervals of six or eight inches in order to facilitate hoeing with a combined hoe and fork. Elm seeds are then scattered evenly and quite densely in the drills before being lightly covered by hand with a layer of fine, light, well-riddled compost no more than one digit deep. The strips are then well moistened, though the surface of the soil should not become hard packed, for the primary objective is to provide the seeds with the best growing conditions. The seeds are small and further hindered by a membranaceous wing, so one cannot be too careful when making these preliminary arrangements, since they will determine the success of the operation. Lastly, the beds are left in this manner without being levelled in order for the furrows to retain water from rainfall or watering and remain cool. The beds should be watered twice a week in dry weather and hoed when necessary. The seeds come up in less than a fortnight, and by autumn most of the seedlings are 1-2 feet tall. The strongest may be pulled out and planted in the tree nursery after their first year, but the remainder must be transplanted only after the second year. The young elms will then be 3-4 feet tall. One can begin transplanting them from autumn or wait until spring if the soil is rich and damp. The soil must be loose and suitable for cultivation. The young trees are cut back to one foot and the roots are shortened. They are then planted with thick stakes at intervals of fourteen or fifteen inches in rows two feet apart. During their first year, they need only a light cultivation in order to destroy the weeds. The following year, the lateral branches are cut off carefully, that is, in stages as the tree becomes sufficiently strong to support itself. Moreover, this light pruning should be carried out only on those trees which seem disposed to form upright stems. When elms grow too short and slender, which happens only too frequently, they must be left until spring of their third year and then felled entirely to one inch above ground level, which is the only means of making them thrive. In the same year, they grow to twice their original size, and naturally form upright stems. At the end of three more years, they have an average diameter of two inches and are ready to be permanently transplanted.

By planting root suckers in the tree nursery and training them in the manner described above, one may gain two years, so that after five years they are ready to be transplanted . The suckers may be found at the bases of old elms or in areas where large trees of this species have been uprooted, and may also be procured by opening the ground covering the roots of large trees.

Propagating elms by layering takes as long as raising them from seed. It takes two years for the layers to root sufficiently to be planted in the tree nursery, where they should be trained in the same manner as seedlings. See To [ sic ] layer.

Propagating elms from cuttings takes as long as raising them from seed but involves twice as much work. This expedient should be used only when there is no alternative.

Elms may also be propagated from roots. Roots of at least a finger’s breadth are selected and cut to a length of eight or ten inches and planted in a tree nursery in the same manner as seedlings, except that the roots must be planted twice as closely because many of them fail. Propagating from roots is unprofitable.

Lastly, broad-leaved elms may be shield budded with dormant buds on to common elms. These grafts take again readily and grow with astonishing vigour during the following year: they frequently grow to over nine feet and must consequently be tended regularly. See To graft. [5]

Elms take root again more readily following transplantation than any other forest tree. If an elm were twenty years old, it would take root again provided that it had been uprooted carefully. In such cases, the tree must not be pollarded but the lateral branches should all be lopped, leaving only a small centre leader. However, elms of 2-3 inches in diameter are generally the most suitable for transplanting. One must begin work in early autumn, even from the end of October if the soil is damp and rich, for elm roots are prone to rot if they have not had sufficient time to grow strong and anchor themselves in the ground. It is safer to wait for the halcyon days of spring. Elms should not be planted too deeply: they prefer the finest nourishment of the soil’s surface, which is why they invade surrounding land and harm the plants one wishes to grow there. Almost all gardeners have a mania for cutting back every tree which is to be transplanted to seven feet: it seems as if this were a fixed height beyond which nature would become exhausted. They fail to perceive that this contemptible habit of planting trees so short retards their growth and causes them to become irreparably flawed, since they always form an ugly, misshapen knee at a height of seven feet. Elms should rather be planted with stems of fourteen feet, provided that they have diameters of 2-3 inches. They are left to grow at will for several years following which they are gradually pruned, leaving only those main branches which shoot up in a crown. In this way, they may be swiftly enjoyed and seen to make progress, while at the same time remaining visually pleasing.

Elms may be pruned any number of times without detriment: whether they are being pruned, formed into palissades, or pollarded using either shears or billhooks, they may be clipped in all seasons provided that the sap is not flowing fully. They even grow as rapidly when their crown is kept small as when they are left with all of their branches. I have taken this last detail from the report of Mr Ellis, an English author who is recognized to be an authority on the matter. [6]

It is quite difficult to regulate the distance which should be left between elms when they are being planted in avenues, quincunxes, etc. This should depend firstly on the quality of the soil, secondly on the intended width of the lines, and lastly on how many of them one wishes to enjoy. The smallest distance for large trees is twelve feet, but this can be reduced and even eliminated: elms, Mr Ellis states, obstruct one another less than any other tree and grow to a fine size in the smallest possible space, because they lend themselves to being shaped and naturally have small crowns. [7] He gives other reasons for this based on the laws of physics, which the nature of this work does not permit us to explain. [8] He proceeds to observe that elms are mature at the age of seventy years and that their roots do not exhaust the soil like those of oaks and ashes. They provide wholesome shade for men and cattle, whereas that offered by oaks, ashes, and walnuts is pernicious. [9] Elms form excellent enclosing hedges and their broad branches may be lopped for heating. Since this lopping leaves them with small crowns, it prevents the roots from spreading and damaging grain. When the trees are too old, they may be revived by being pollarded, but care must be taken to cut the branches close to the stem and cover the top of the stem with rich soil in order to prevent it from rotting. Elm roots are as penetrating as those of the oak: an elm often has one and sometimes two or three bifurcate roots in place of a taproot, but they do not exhaust the soil, unlike those of the ash.

Elms are extremely useful in garden decoration. They can be pruned into any shape and used in allées, quincunxes, salles de verdure, etc., but they are especially useful for forming tree-lined avenues because of their vast size and spreading branches. Elms are suitable for forming portiques in the form of covered walks, such as those which have been worked so admirably into the gardens at Marly. They may also be used for forming tall palissades in areas where hornbeams and young maples cannot grow. Elms are also admitted into the best-kept and most detailed sections of a garden, where, by means of regular and sustained pruning, they may be made to assume the shape of orange trees, their bases appearing to rise up from boxes of hornbeam. Moreover, elms combine utility with their diverse attractions.

Elmwood is yellowish, firm, pliable, extremely strong, and durable. It is excellent for cartage, and cartwrights may use it for all of their different parts without having recourse to any other wood. It is the best wood for use in canals, pumps, mills, and generally all parts which are intended for use below ground and in water. Felled elms may be left as rough timber for two or three years without being eaten by worms or fissuring in the hot sun. During this period, the sapwood will become as yellow as the heartwood. This wood does not crack, rupture, or warp, which makes it all the more suitable for making wheel hubs, conduits, pumps, and all other holed works, which are more durable than those made from beech or ash. [10] However, elmwood formed in gravelly soil is brittle and scorned by cartwrights, who on the contrary prefer trees which have grown in clay. Coachbuilders, joiners, turners, etc. make use of this wood. It is also used in shipbuilding for those parts Which come into contact with water. Fresh elmwood planks may be used, and will not fissure or warp if one takes the precaution of soaking them in water for a month. Lastly, elmwood makes excellent firewood.

It is claimed that the flowers of the elm are harmful to bees and the seeds to pigeons, but the leaves provide excellent winter fodder for sheep, goats, and especially oxen who like them as much as oats. In order to preserve these leaves, small elm branches are lopped at the end of August and dried in the sun.

Attack by insects frequently causes hollow blisters to form in which a viscous and balsamic juice may be found which is of some use in medicine, and also clears facial acne and improves the complexion. [11]

Here are the principal known species of elm. [12]

1. Rustic elm: the rustic elm has small, rough leaves. The bark is fissured even on the young shoots. It is to this species that the above description generally applies. [13]

2. Rustic elm with finely-variegated leaves. [14]

3. Mountain elm: the mountain elm has large, rough leaves and grows a large number of suckers. Its roots spread across the surface of the soil, like those of the ash. It grows as rapidly as the marceau willow. [15] It makes excellent copsewood. It is also suitable for forming hedges, because it will always grow back vigorously, however much it is pruned and pollarded. Its wood is harder, firmer, and more durable than even rustic elmwood. It is excellent for cartage and is generally preferred to all other elmwoods.

4. Wych elm: the leaves of this elm are broader and smoother than those of the preceding species; they resemble hazelnut leaves. This tree grows vigorously and rapidly without suckering. Its wood is tender and almost as soft as walnut wood. [16]

5. Smooth-leaved elm: this tree does not have a spreading crown. [17]

6. Smooth-leaved elm with variegated leaves.

7. Small elm with yellowish leaves. [18]

8. Dutch elm: the leaves of Dutch elm are rough, large, and extremely beautiful. The membranaceous wings of the seeds are narrower and more pointed than those of the elms described above. This tree grows so rapidly when it is young that for several years it outgrows all other species of the same age. However, after twenty or thirty years the other elms grow more and more quickly. Dutch elmwood is poorer than other elmwoods. The bark of the stem and branches is always chafed, fissured, and hanging in shreds, which looks unpleasant. The leaves are grown late and shed early. [19]

9. Dutch elm with variegated leaves: this elm grows more slowly than Dutch elm and is valued even less.

10. Small elm with smooth, narrow leaves, or English elm. This elm forms a fine tree with a straight stem and a fairly regular crown. The leaves are shed only in late autumn. [20]

11. Elm with narrow seeds: this tree is known as French elm in England. It has large, rough leaves and is as littled valued as Dutch elm, but is hardy and thrives in soil which other elms cannot tolerate. [21]

12. White elm: this elm has large, rough, bright-green leaves, and a smooth, ashen bark. It is preferred to many other elms because of the fine regularity of its growth. It has an upright stem and retains its leaves the longest. [22]

13. Virginian elm: the leaves of the Virginian elm are uniformly serrate, which is all that is known of this tree to date. [23]

14. Siberian elm: the leaves of the Siberian elm are also uniformly serrate, but the base of each leaf is even, whereas in the species described above the base of each leaf is unequal, that is, one side of the leaf grows longer than the other towards the stalk. [24] This elm is very small: it is a dwarf tree with smooth leaves and a spongy bark. [25]

Notes

1. The fruit, or samara, is surrounded by a membranaceous wing (Huxley et al., 1992, iv.544).

2. The leaves of the elm are linear-ovate to obovate (ibid.).

3. On the relative merits of oak and chestnut wood, see article ‘Le châtaigner’.

4. See article Tree Nursery.

5. Article ‘Greffer’ of the Encyclopédie merely cross-refers to article Graft.

6. ‘If the top of an elm is no broader than the head of a broom it will grow as well as if it was ever so large’ (Ellis, 1738, p. 51). William Ellis ( c. 1700-58) composed a tract entitled The Timber Tree Improved in 1738, which was so successful that three editions were published in under three years. He was acknowledged as an authority on agriculture until visitors to his farm at Little Gaddesden in Hertfordshire reported that he did not use the farming methods which he recommended there, following which the sale of his books declined (article ‘Ellis, William’, Morgan George Watkins, in Stephen and Lee, 1885-1900).

7. ‘Of all trees, I never saw so many grow so large, and flourish in so little room as these will, even almost close together […] which fertile property of the elm, I take to be owing to its being kept under a narrow head’ (Ellis, 1738, p. 46).

8. Ellis suggests that the elm is more succulent and better nourished than other forest trees because its thick, spongy bark can retain more moisture, and also remarks that, since the tree is not fruit bearing, its sap is wholly directed towards the production of wood and leaves (ibid.).

9. Ellis explains that the roots of oaks and ashes penetrate soil more deeply and broadly than those of the elm (ibid., p. 49).

10. Elmwood was used for making London’s water pipes before they came to be made from metal and then plastic.See D. J. Mabberley, The Plant-book: a Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants (Cambridge, 1997).

11. A type of gall forming in response to attack by insects (Harris, pers. comm.). The liquor that is found in the blisters doth beautifie the face, and scoureth away all spots, freckles, pimples […] and such like, being applied thereto’ (Gerard, 1636, p. 1482).

12. Elms are difficult to identify even now, when leaf shape, texture, stem form and crown shape are considered in ascending order of significance in addition to the principal classification by flower structure and phenology (Huxley et al., 1992, iv.545).

13. Ulmus procera, the English elm.

14. Ulmus procera ‘Variegata’ (Harris, pers. comm.).

15. See article Pussy willow; goat willow.

16. Ulmus glabra, the Scotch or wych elm.

17. Ulmus carpinifolia, also known as European field elm.

18. This may be the rare, golden-leaved Ulmus carpinifolia ‘Wredei’ (Harris, pers. comm.).

19. Dutch elm, which is a cross between Ulmus glabra and Ulmus carpinifolia called Ulmus + hollandica, was introduced to Britain in c. 1680. It is a collection of hybrids with over twenty cultivars, of which ‘Hollandica’ is a large tree to thirty-five metres (Huxley et al., 1992, iv.546; Harris, pers. comm.).

20. Ulmus carpinifolia, or European field elm (Harris, pers. comm.).

21. Ulmus laevis.

22. Ulmus glabra, the Scotch or wych elm.

23. Ulmus americana, the American, white, or water elm, which was introduced to Britain in 1752 (Harris, pers. comm.).

24. The author uses the word ‘queue’ (stalk) rather than ‘pétiole’ (petiole): see article Stalk.

25. Ulmus pumila.