The Language of the Modhupur Mandi (Garo), Volume 2

0.11 Plurals, etc.

-dang ns. plural marker: me˙-chik-dang women.

-drang ns. plural marker, synonym of -rang: bol-pang-drang trees.

-jil-ma ns. a crowd of, lots of, for people or animals: a-chak-jil-ma a lot of dogs.

-mang ns. plural marker for a few pronouns, (A˙ chik): na˙-si-mang you plu.; bi-si-mang they; u-a-mang those.

-ong ns. plural marker that indicates a person along with his, her, or their closest people, usually their family members: Ra-ben-ong Raben and his family.

-ra-ra ns. lots, all over the place, all around: nok-ra-ra houses everywhere; ka-rang-ra-ra dirt everywhere, filthy; kim-il-ra-ra hairy, lots of hair.

-rang ns. plural marker: man-de-rang people; nok-rang houses.

-tang ns. own, self, selves: song-tang own village; nok-tang own house.

0.12 Case Suffixes

-a cm. nominative case marker, marks the subject of a clause or sentence. Used only with monosyllabic pronouns: ang-a I.

-bak-sa cm. with, along with, (A˙ chik).

-cha cm. instrumental case marker that marks the instrument or means by which something is accomplished, with, by means of: sai-kel-cha by bicycle, (A˙ chik: -chi).

-cha cm. locative case marker showing position in space, or movement toward or from a location; in, on, to, from: bat-cha re˙-ang-ing-a? where are (you) going? (A˙ chik: -chi).

Page  19 -cha-na cm. toward, in the direction of, (an augmented locative).

-cha-ni cm. from, in the direction from, (an augmented locative).

-cha-ni-ko cm. an augmented locative used with transitive verbs indicating the direction from: bat-cha-ni-ko ra˙-ba-a? from where was it brought?

-chi cm. locative marker showing position in space, or movement toward or from a location; in, on, to, from, (A˙ chik).

-chi cm. instrumental case marker that marks the instrument or means by which something is accomplished, with, by means of: sai-kel-cha by bicycle, (A˙ chik).

-git-a cm. like, in that way, resembling: man-di-git-a like a person.

-ko, -ku cm. accusative case marker that marks the direct object of a clause or sentence: ang-ko me.

-ming cm. a case marker meaning with, along with, together with: ang-ming with me.

-na cm. dative case marker that marks the indirect object of a clause or sentence; to, for: ang-na to me.

-na cm. an augmentation for locatives indicating direction toward, and that is used with -o or -cha to give -o-na, -cha-na to toward, in the direction of.

-ni cm. genitive case marker that marks a possessive; -'s: ang-ni my; meng-gong-ni the cat's.

-ni cm. an augmentation for locatives indicating direction from, and that is used with -o or -cha to give -o-ni or -cha-ni from: u˙-cha-ni re˙-ba-a came from there.

-ni-ko cm. an augmentation for locatives that is used in a clause with a transitive verb and that indicates the direction from which something comes. It is used with -o or -cha to give -o-ni-ko or -cha-ni-ko from: u˙-cha-ni-ko ra˙-ba brought (it) from there.

-o, -u, -no, -nu cm. temporal or spatial locative case marker that marks the location of an event in time or space, in, at, on: am-bun-o tomorrow; te-bil-o on the table. -o, -u pvs. nominalizing suffix; when, at the time of: ang-ko sing˙-o a-gan-chak-na man˙-no-a when (you) ask me, (I) will be able to answer.

-o-na, -no-na cm. an augmented locative meaning toward, until, up to the time: Ep-ril-o-na until April.

-o-ni, -no-ni cm. an augmented locative meaning from, since: Dha-ka-o-ni from Dhaka.

-o-ni-ko, -no-ni-ko cm. an augmented locative used with transitive verbs that indicates the direction from which something comes: ba-no-ni-ko ra˙-ba-a? from where was it brought?

0.14 Final Noun Suffixes

-ba ns. also.

-de ns. shows a contrast or difference from what has gone before; on the other hand, but.

-in ns. foregrounding suffix, emphatic.

-sa, -ha ns. only.

0.15 Derivational Noun Suffixes

The derivational noun suffixes have a very different role in the language than the other noun suffixes. They are less productively (freely) suffixed than the others, but they form conventional words to which the other suffixes can then be added. Derivational noun suffixes are used to build up the vocabulary, but they are less central to the syntax than the other noun suffixes. A substantial number of derivational noun suffixes indicate something about the shape or position of the words that they form, and these are given separately in section 0.16.

-bi-bom dns. rounded, of long things, cylindrical, not flat, of tree trunks, unsplit firewood, posts, people's arms, etc.: bol-bi-bom unsplit firewood.

-bi-dil dns. vine.

-bi-du dns. vine.

-bi-ma dns. female, of animals: do˙-bi-ma hen.

-bi-pa dns. male, of animals: do˙-bi-pa cock, rooster.

-bik dns. intestines, internal organs: bi-bik intestines; bik-ma stomach; bik-chra membrane of the intestine.

-bo, -bu dns. swelling, swollen: ja˙-bo swollen foot; git-ok-bo goiter; ri-bo swollen testicles.

-dik dns. pots: me-dik rice pot; sam-dik curry pot. cp. categorizing prefix for pots: dik-tom rice beer brewing pot; dik-te smallish pot for water, etc.

-dil dns. long and thin: ja˙-dil root; bi-dil vine.

-ding dns. long and thin: kil-ding thread; wa˙-ding thin flexible bamboo tie strips; ri-ding pole for holding cloth to dry. ding- cls. classifier for long thin things: hairs, cords, strings, pieces of cane, wire, roads, etc.

-gi-si dns. old and dried out, of plants, wood, trees.

-gip-a dns. used with kinship terms when talking about someone, but not when addressing someone: Nel-son-ni pa-gip-a Nelson's father.

-go-ra dns. thicket: wa˙-go-ra bamboo thicket; bring-go-ra thick forest.

-kam-bi dns. top, tip: bol-kam-bi tree top; wal˙-kam-bi tips of flames.

-kan-ta dns. lacking a limb or tail: jak-kan-ta lacking an arm; jak-si-kan-ta missing a finger; chu-kan-ta incomplete.

Page  21 -ki˙- dns. dirt, esp. body dirt, dung: ging-ki nose dirt, snot; mik-ki eye dirt; wa-ki tooth dirt, tartar; wal˙-ki coals from a fire; ki˙-bit-bit dung beetle; su-dap-ki-ki dirty, unwashed.

-kok dns. the one who: chau˙-kok thief; mat-u-kok greedy person; siik-kok teacher; ken-kok coward.

-kong dns. scooped out, hollow: ring-kong hollow log used to feed animals; bol-kong-bang hole in a tree trunk; kong-kep area inside the curl of the edge of the ear.

-mil-ong dns. bare, without clothes or jewelry: ku-mil-ong-a naked above the waist; na-mil-ong without earrings; jak-mil-ong without a bracelet; ja˙-chok ku-mil-ong barelegged.

-mrang, -mrang-mrang dns. resembling, somewhat: git-chak-mrang, git-chak-mrang-mrang reddish; gip-bok-mrang whitish.

-na-wang dns. with a big opening, a basket shape characterized by a wide mouth; with a gaping mouth, stupid.

-nok dns. building: wa˙-si-nok house built of split bamboo; tat-nok building for weaving; skul-nok school building; ran-a-nok kitchen building.

-nol dns. place to keep animals, goat shed, place for chickens: wak-nol pig sty; do˙-nol chicken coop.

-pa dns. male human: dal˙-am-pa a man with a high opinion of himself; rak-am-pa a very strong man; ra-song-pa a proud man.

-pi˙-sa dns. young animal, occasionally used for young of plants; small example of objects: mong-ma-pi˙-sa baby elephant; jak-si-pi˙-sa little finger.

-ri-ri dns. beautiful, well done: ni-to-ri-ri beautiful to see; pang˙-si-ri-ri beautiful, the way the world looks in the bright moonlight; ra-ja-ri-ri well done; chu-ak-ri-ri very high.

-rong-rong dns. clean, pure: gip-bok-rong-rong pure white; chi-rong-rong clean, clear; git-chak-rong-rong bright red.

-sa dns. a pair of kinsmen: at-chu-sa a grandfather and his grandchild; ma-ma-sa a mother's brother and his sister's child; ma-ni-sa a mother-in-law and her son- or daughter-in-law.

-sa-ge dns. former, deceased: Rong-jeng-sa-ge the deceased Rongjeng.

-ska dns. of their own kind, that sort of person: tro-ska contemporaries, of the same generation; jat-ska of the same ethnic group.

-wang dns. open: ku˙-wang crazy person (who lets mouth hang open); wang-wang open, spread apart, of shirts, doors.

0.16 Shapes and Positions—Derivational

-bong dns. round, fat, large in the midsection: wa bi-am-bong midsection of bamboo; ok-bong-bong wider at the midsection than the Page  22 ends; kal-bong someone who eats too much, a glutton; ja-ram-bong full moon; tim-bong wide, of rice fields.

-chok dns. long and pointed: ja˙-pa-ku-chok heal of foot; gol˙-chok arrow, stake; do˙-chok a kind of bird with a pointed back-end.

-dam dns. place: dong-dam living place; mang-ru-dam grave; dam-dam adv. always at the same place. cls. classifier for places: villages, fields, houses, windows, doors.

-gro dns. length: bol-gro ridgepole; bi-gro length. -gro- aa. length, long dimension: rat-gro-a cut lengthwise; git-chit-gro-a tear lengthwise.

-jang-chi dns. middle: wal-jang-chi midnight; nok-jang-chi center of the house; bon-jang-chi-a end in the middle, when half done; ma˙-jang-chi middle-sized tiger; jak-si-jang-chi middle finger, ring finger.

-jat-chi, -jat-chi-o dns. middle: sal-jat-chi-o middle of the day; wal-jat-chi-o middle of the night.

-ma dns. big, large: ta˙-ma a large edible tuber; mi-ma a large grained variety of rice; ja˙-dil-ma large roots; bi-rot-a-ma large pimple.

-pong dns. cylindrical: bi-pong handle of a tool; jak-pong upper arm.

-ram dns. place, location: chu-ram sleeping place; gop-ram grave, burying place; at-chi-ram birthplace.

-sam dns. side, beside: ha˙-sam side of a field; nok-sam area beside a house; chi-sam water edge.

-tom dns. round, bunched: jak-tom fist; dik-tom large round pot; a-tom stomach. -tom- aa. round, make round: jak-tom-a make a fist; ka-tom-a tie in a bundle. tom- cls. for bellies, round things.

-tong dns. long and cylindrical: gan-tong a cut stalk of a plant such as manioc; ging-tong snout of a pig; jak-tong forearm; wa˙-tong length of bamboo. -tong˙- aa. cut or separate, esp. of long and cylindrical pieces: den˙-tong-a cut crosswise, cut in two, of a log, etc.; tet-tong-a break apart, of string, linear things; chik-tong-a bite off.

0.17 Categorizing Prefixes

Perhaps these should not be called "prefixes", since, unlike most morphemes that we call "prefixes", the categorizing prefixes cannot be productively attached to all the words of some large grammatical class. Their role in Garo is much like that of English -berry of raspberry, cranberry, and strawberry. In Garo, such forms almost always come at the beginning rather than at the end of words, and they have a much more prominent place in Garo than in English. Hundreds of compounds begin with one of these morphemes. Many, but by no means all, of them can also be used independently as nouns that have the meaning of the category. Nok, for example, can not only be used as a categorizing prefix in words for various Page  23parts of houses but also by itself as a noun meaning simply 'house' in general. Na˙-, on the other hand, is used as the first syllable of many kinds of fish, but it is never used alone. The general word for 'fish' is na˙-tok.

a- cp. prefix used as a part of several kinship terms: a-bi elder sister; a-da elder brother; a-chu grandfather; used optionally with a-no younger sister.

am- cp. prefix for kinds of mats: am-da-ri a fine kind of mat. am n. mat.

ang- cp. prefix used optionally with some kinship terms: ang-jong younger brother; ang-gri cross-nephew, man's sister's son, woman's brother's daughter.

bi- cp. prefix for plant parts and internal body parts: bi-gil skin; bi-ka liver; bit-chi juice; bi-jak leaf.

bol- cp. prefix for varieties of trees and parts of trees: bol-bi-jak leaves of trees. bol n. tree.

chi- cp. prefix for watery things: chi-bol puddle; chi-da-ri flowing stream; chi-dek pond, wide place in a stream; chi-ga spring. chi n. water.

dik- cp. categorizing prefix for pots: dik-tom rice beer brewing pot; dik-te smallish pot for water, etc. -dik dns. pots: me-dik rice pot; sam-dik curry pot.

do˙-, du˙- cp. prefix for types of birds and things related to birds: do˙-reng hawk; do˙-chi egg; do˙-bik bird's intestines. do, do˙-o n. bird, domestic fowl.

ga˙- cp. prefix for plant parts: ga˙-gong stem of a leaf; ga˙-brong central part of a tree trunk or the tough central portion of some fruits; ga˙-git-tong stubble, stalks of plants.

gol˙-, gol, go˙-ol cp. categorizing prefix for sticks: gol˙-chok arrow; gol˙-a-reng long pole. gol, go˙-ol n. stick.

ha˙-, a˙- cp. prefix for land, soil, countryside: ha˙-kin-te lumps of earth; ha˙-ba fields; a˙-gil-sak world. ha, ha˙-a n. earth, ground, soil.

ja˙- cp. prefix for parts of the legs and feet: ja˙-git-ok ankle. ja˙-a, ja n. leg, foot.

kok- cp. prefix for types of baskets: kok-si fish basket. kok n. basket.

ku˙- cp. prefix for the mouth and surrounding area: ku˙-sik mouth; ku˙-sim-ang beard; ku˙-chil lip. ku˙- cls. for mouths, words, bits of language; mouthsful of solid foods; doors, gongs; single split sticks of firewood.

mat- cp. prefix for some mammals: mat-cha tiger; mat-ma water buffalo; mat-chok deer; mat-ram a fish-eating wild cat.

na˙- cp. prefix for varieties of fish: na˙-tok fish; na˙-kam dried fish.

Page  24 nok- cp. prefix for types and parts of houses: nok-pan-te young men's house; nok-kap house site. nok n. house, building.

ri- cp. prefix for male genitals and their parts: ri-gong penis; ri-spil testicles.

rong˙- cp. prefix for stones: rong˙-kol cave; rong˙-krek small lumps of hard earth; rong˙-te rock.

sam- cp. prefix for grass and small herbs: sam-si crab-grass; sam-mik-chip sensitive plant.

si˙- cp. prefix for female genitals and their parts: si˙-sim-ang female pubic hair; si˙-ku-chil genital labia.

sil- cp. prefix for iron objects; sil-dang-kep tongs.

ta˙- cp. prefix for varieties of tubers: ta˙-mil-ang sweet potatoes; ta˙-bol-chu manioc; ta-ring arum.

te˙-, ti˙- cp. prefix for various fruits: te˙-rik banana; te˙-brong jackfruit; te˙-ga-chu mango; bi-te, bi-ti fruit.

wa˙- cp. prefix for bamboo parts, varieties, and object made from bamboo: wa˙-ma a large variety of bamboo; wa˙-si split bamboo matting; wa˙-kop one half of a split length of bamboo. wa, wa˙-a n. bamboo.

wal˙- cp. prefix for things connected with fire: wal˙-ku smoke; wal˙-si-ri flames; wal˙-tot device to start fire by friction. wal, wa˙-al n. fire.

0.21 Principle Verb Suffixes

These have a claim on being the most important suffixes in the language, for they come closest to being obligatory. With the single exception of equational sentences, every sentence must have at least one word with a principal verb suffix. They are described in detail in Chapter 6 of Volume I.

0.31 Terminal Verb Suffixes

-chim ts. an A˙ chik suffix that is equivalent, in part, to Mandi -ming, but not used for a simple past; past perfect, conditional, (A˙ chik): re˙-ang-a-chim had gone.

-da ts. particle that strengthens an imperative: nap-bo-da do come in!

-kon ts. perhaps, probably: nam-ku-ing-a-kon (it) is probably still good.

-ma ts. question marker that forms yes-no questions: neng˙-jok-ma? are you tired? ma? qw. what (did you say)?

-mo ts. a question marker anticipating agreement: ga˙-ak-jok-mo? (it) has fallen, hasn't it?, (A˙ chik).

Page  27 -na ts. quotative particle, it was said, someone said, I heard: sok-ba-no-a-na I heard that (he) will arrive.

-ne ts. a particle that softens an imperative or a request, and makes it more polite: ang-a nap-na-ne? may I please come in?; seng-bo-ne please wait.

-ni ts. question marker that forms yes-no questions, a less common synonym of -ma.

-ro ts. indicates a correction to a previous statement or presumption: ang-a Chu-ni-a-cha i˙-ang-jok-ro I did too go to Chunia.

-a-ha-ming ts. locates a past event before some other event: re˙-ang-a-ha-ming had gone, (A˙ chik).

-a-ming ts. suffix formed from the neutral tense-aspect marker -a with the past-conditional -ming; indicates past time: ching-a i˙-ang-a-ming we went.

-jok-ming ts. a pair of suffixes that combine to indicate a time previous to some other time, had: ching-a re˙-ang-jok-ming we had gone.

-ming ts. a terminal suffix that follows one of the tense-aspect markers and that indicates a conditional or a previous time.

-na-jok-ming ts. present or future conditional or future perfect, referring to an action happening before some specified time in the future: ching-a re˙-ang-na-jok-ming we will have gone.

-no-a-ming, nu-a-ming ts. conditional, would have: ching-a i˙-ang-no-a-ming we would have gone.

-ai ts. strengthens a statement or suggests a correction to a previous statement: cha˙-jok-ai (I) have, indeed, eaten.

-bai ts. contraction of imperative -bo with emphatic -ai.

-jai ts. contraction of negative -ja and emphatic -ai: i-a bol-de dal˙-jai this tree isn't big!

-mai ts. contraction of past marker -ming and emphatic -ai.

-nai ts. contraction of quotative -na and emphatic -ai: do˙-til-eng in-dik-e mik-u-jok-nai it really is said that the do˙ tileng bird calls like this.

0.41 Adverbial Affixes: General, Inflectional

-a-ri- aa. just, simply, merely: gal-a-ri-no-a (he) will simply throw (it) away.

-a-ring- aa. contraction of -a-ri- just, and -ing- progressive: dak-a-ring-a just doing.

-ang- aa. shows movement away from the speaker, in that direction: i˙-ang-a go; bil-ang-a fly away.

-ba- aa. shows movement toward the speaker, in this direction: re˙-ba-a come; bil-ba-a fly in this direction, fly here.

-bat- aa. more than, exceed, go across: ga˙-bat-a step across, step over; jro-bat-a swim across; cha˙-bat-a eat more; dal˙-bat-a bigger.

-be-, -bi- aa. very, a lot: jang-be-a very noisy; cha˙-be-a eat a lot.

-bru- aa. falsely, pretending: in-bru-a tell wrongly; jom-bru-a pretend to be sick; dak-bru-a pretend; ni-bru-a see, watch, without being noticed.

-cheng- aa. first, before doing something else: cha˙-cheng-a first (before something else); i˙-ang-cheng-a go first, go ahead; a˙-ba-cheng-a begin, (cf. -so-).

-dil- aa. lead, guide, show the way, cause: cha˙-dil-a feed; ken-dil-a frighten; ha-bu-dil-a give someone a bath; dong-dil-a care for a baby or small child.

-et-, -it- aa. causative: nam-et-a make good, improve; chip-et-a close, cause to be closed, (A˙ chik: -at-).

-grik- aa. mutually, each other: a-gan-grik-a converse, talk to each other; sin-grik-a like each other; grong-grik-a meet each other.

-ing- aa. progressive, indicates action in progress or a continuing state: grap-ing-a crying; bu-ing-a telling lies, joking, (A˙ chik: -eng- ).

-it-, -et- aa. causative, (A˙ chik: -at-).

-ja- aa. no, not, negative particle: ding˙-ja not hot; grap-ja does not cry.

-kal- aa. more: nam-kal-a better; chu-kal-a sleep more.

-ku- aa. still, anymore: jom-ku-ing-a still sick; sa-dik-ku-ja-ing-a not hurting yet.

-ku-ja- aa. not yet: nom˙-ku-ja not yet soft; man˙-ku-ja can't yet.

-man˙- aa. able, get, accomplish, finish: ku˙-man-a able to speak, speak well; bil-man-a have the strength for; nik-man-a discover, notice.

-pa˙- aa. with, along with: don-pa-a put together; a-gan-pa˙-a speak along with; i˙-ang-pa˙-a go together, go with.

-pil˙- aa. return, reverse, again: i˙-ba-pil˙-a come back, return; pang-pil-a reversed, upside down; am˙-pil-a turn away, turn around; wal-pil-a come back, return; tang-pil-a come to life again; gi-sik ra˙-pil-a change one's mind.

Page  29 -so- aa. first, before others, ahead, wait: i˙-ang-so-a go first, go ahead; seng-so-a wait for; ni-chak-so-a wait for, look out for; cha˙-so-a eat before someone else; a-gan-so-a announce, tell ahead of time, (cf. -cheng-).

-srang- aa. completely: i˙-ang-srang-a completely gone, gone for good.

-tai- aa. again: grap-tai-a cry again, (A˙ chik).

-tok- aa. all, everything: nik-tok-a see everything; nam-tok-a all are good.

0.42 Adverbial Affixes: Shapes, Size, Location

Sections 0.42 through 0.47 offer a good sample of adverbial affixes. The categories are rough and ready but they will suggest the range and variety of meanings that these affixes can convey. Collectively they are exceedingly common, but no single one of them has a particularly high frequency. Each is used with a somewhat narrower range of verb bases than are the general and inflectional affixes listed in section 0.41, but they can be productively joined to with any semantically appropriate verb stem.

-chok- aa. pointed: ran˙-chok-a thin, scrawny, of people; ku˙-chok-a pointed, of a mouth, pen, animal's nose, crescent moon; ru˙-chok-a long and pointed; ok-chok-a bulging, of a distorted circle; rep-chok-a, den˙-chok-a, rat-chok-a carve a point.

-chon- aa. small, used with classifiers to form verbs meaning small, of things so classified: rong-chon-a small of round things; king-chon-a small of flat things.

-chrit- aa. in stripes, striped; into long pieces: sal-chrit-a striped, as cloth, as a tiger; den˙-chrit-a chop into pieces; mat-chrit-a cut slightly, scratch.

-dal˙-, -dal- aa. big, used with numeral classifiers to indicate big, of things so classified: king-dal-a big of thin flat things.

-dam-dam- aa. at the same place: cha˙-dam-dam-a eat at the same place; dong-dam-dam-a stay at the same place.

-dep- aa. flat, flatten: chi-dep-a flat, of noses; pil-dep-a flat; su˙-dep-a caught or pinched, pounded into a bamboo tube; ku˙-dep-a flat mouth; rim˙-dep-a push with a finger to test ripeness of fruit.

-ket-chi- aa. to the side, crosswise: chit-ket-chi-a cut bamboo strips crosswise to the inner and outer edges; ni-ket-chi-a look to the side; pit-ket-chi-a cut off with a cut perpendicular to the surface.

-kim-bak- aa. shortened, abbreviated, partly, half way: den˙-kim-bak-a cut a little, partly; cha˙-kim-bak-a eat a bit, not finish; wal-kim-bak-a half the night; rat-kim-bak-a cut part way through.

-kip- aa. upside down, closed up in: sin-kip-a turned upside down; king-kip-a turned over; jak-kip-a hold in a closed hand.

Page  30 -ro˙-, -ru˙- aa. long: mang-ro-a long in the body; chang-ro-a tall, of people, trees; ja˙-ro-a long, of pant legs, shirt tails, for a long time.

-tom- aa. round, make round: jak-tom-a make a fist; ka-tom-a tie in a bundle. tom- cls. for bellies, round things. -tom dns. round, bunched: jak-tom fist; dik-tom large round pot; a-tom stomach.

-tong˙-tang- aa. direct, straight, not roundabout, short cut, abbreviated; bat-tong-tang-a take a short cut; kat-tong-tang-a run straight, directly; tong˙-tang-tong˙-tang, tong˙-tang-ga-tang adv. briefly, abbreviated.

0.43 Adverbial Affixes: Movement, Insertion

-bit- aa. bring along, take along: ke-bit-a take along something that is hanging; rim-bit-a take a person along.

-cha- aa. get up, grow, come to life: ni-cha-a look up, with head up; di˙-cha-a get someone up from sleep; bol-cha-a tall; tang-cha-pil˙-a come back to life. vi. grow, develop; sprout, as from a tree stump.

-chak- aa. fit, have enough place for: ga˙-chak-a fit, of the feet; jak-chak-a fit in the hands, have time for; chu-chak-a place for sleeping; dong-chak-a fit, sufficient place for; cha˙-chak-a enough space for eating, for the food; at-chong-chak-a enough space for sitting (as on a bus).

-do-, -du- aa. up, upward: ga-do-a climb; sal-do-a pull up, as in drawing water; bil-do-a fly up; chrok-do-a jump up; chil-do-a lift up onto the head or shoulders.

-jit- aa. move: ka-jit-a move something that is tied, especially an animal; de˙-jit-a move, put in a different place.

-jot-, -jot-jot-, -jrot- aa. insert, tight, squeezed in the middle: sik-jot-a, sik-jrot-a plant in between other plants; song-jot-a replace a post; jang˙-jot-jot-a be squeezed, narrower in the middle than at the ends; sal-jot-jot-a pull hard, as when tying string; rim˙-pi-jot-a, rim˙-pi-jrot-a grab in the middle, squeeze in the middle.

-ket- aa. filled, squeezed tight, stuck: gap-ket-a filled up tight, no more space, squeezed in; dap-ket-a push wet mud into cracks, bury; jot-ket-a insert, plug up; chang-ket-a stuck, crowded, choke; nap-ket-a enter and stay.

-nap- aa. enter, go into: chu-nap-a enter for sleeping, sleep together, a way of initiating a marriage; sik-nap-a squeeze in forcefully, as into a house or bus; kat-nap-a run in and take shelter, hide; til˙-nap-a fly onto a person, fly into the eye, of dust or an insect.

-on- aa. down, downward: chok-on-a get down, get off, as from a bus; ni-on-a look down; sik-on-a push down; bil-on-a fly down; di-on-a take a pot off the fire; sik-on-a push down.

Page  31 -pak- aa. along the way, while going, along with: bre-pak-a buy along the way; i˙-ba-pak-a go by way of; ring-pak-a drink along the way; dong-pak-a stop along the way; sap-pak-a swoop down and take, like a hawk.

-pru- aa. through, cut through, pierce: rat-pru-a cut through; ga˙-pru-a step through; dok-pru-a knock a hole through; su˙-pru-a pierce, as a wound to get out a thorn.

-rik- aa. follow, in passing: kin-a-rik-a listen to something passing; ja˙-rik-a follow; hai˙-rik-a recognize; dong-rik-a stay behind; gi-sik ra˙-rik-a remember; nik-rik-a see in passing, see something moving; a-gan-rik-a speak to someone who is passing; man˙-rik-a recover something lost; rim˙-rik-a hold someone back, prevent from going; dong-rik-a pregnant; ki˙-sang rik-ba-a chase behind.

-ring-rang- aa. back and forth: kat-ring-rang-a run back and forth; go-ring-rang-a throw back and forth.

-rok- aa. scrape, scrape off, knock off, remove, rub: dok-rok-a knock one thing against another, as to clear dirt from a basket; rep-rok-a cut off peel; dang-rok-a scrape out, as dirt or weeds; rim˙-rok-a rub, rub with the palm, massage, pet an animal; rep-rok-a carve off bits from the surface; ot-rok-a sweep.

-rong-rong- aa. through a hole, leak: gip-u-rong-rong-a fit through something small, such as a sieve; ki˙-rong-rong-a have diarrhea; ga˙-ak-rong-rong fall through.

-ru-ra˙-, -ru-rat- aa. back and forth: bil-ru-rat-a fly back and forth; i˙-ru-rat-a go back and forth, commute; don-ru-ra˙-a move things back and forth; mal-ru-ra˙-a crawl back and forth.

-ska- aa. in turn, in return: in-ska-a say in turn, reply.

-srap- aa. catch up with: kat-srap-a run and catch up with; rim˙-srap-a catch, as a chicken, a thrown object; in-srap-a catch the points of a conversation, have a dialogue.

-sret- aa. slip away: cha˙-sret-a slip from the mouth; rim˙-sret-a slip from the hand.

-wen-wen- aa. in circles: kat-wen-wen-a run in circles; bil-wen-wen-a fly in circles.

-wil-, -wil-wil- aa. in circles: kat-wil-wil-a run in circles; an˙-seng-wil-wil-a dance in circles; rat-wil-wil-a cut around, as cutting stripes around a handle; ting-wil-wil-a surround, as the walls of a house; dong-wil-wil-a surround, by people.

0.44 Adverbial Affixes: Separate, Together, Cover, Pieces

-chang- aa. close off, block off: dim˙-chang-a make a partition; ting-chang-a enclose, separate.

Page  32 -dap- aa. cover, cover over, pile on, wrap: grip-dap-a pile up, set on top; ru-dap-a pour over; on-dap-a put on top, in basket weaving; ha˙-dap-a bury; at-chong-dap-a sit on, cover something by sitting on it; pin-dap-a cover, as with a blindfold; mit-dap-a close, as a bottle; gan-dap-a tuck in; wil-wil-dap-a wrap around; on-jet-dap-a put something heavy on top of something else.

-drak- aa. break apart, separate, peel off: pek-drak-a spread apart, of legs or toes; o-drak-a peel, remove peel, skin; jot-drak-a poke and tear off, of paper, cloth; dok-drak-a knock out of the way; bit-drak-a spread slightly apart, as thatch, clothing; pit-drak-a split, as firewood.

-gal- aa. take off, get rid of, throw away: sal-gal-a put away, as sleeping mat; king-gal-a uncover; su˙-gal-a wash clothes; wak-gal-a vomit.

-gat- aa. add, cover, put on top: so˙-gat-a push into fire; de˙-gat-a lift, load; ra˙-gat-a adopt a child.

-gep- aa. tied together: ka-gep-a tie together; cho˙-gep-a tie up in a folded banana leaf bundle.

-gok-, -go˙-ok- aa. broken apart, separated: dok-gok-a hit and separate, knock off, as the handle of a tool; rong˙-gok-a break off a round thing, such as a glass bottom; gil-gok-a cracked and peeling, of skin.

-grang- aa. widely spaced: ap-grang-a widely spaced of basket pieces, made with open spaces; wa-grang-a nicked, not continuously, of a knife blade; ka-grang-a tied together with open spaces, of a fence.

-grim- aa. together: pin-grim-a thatch together, in a group of people; nam-grim-a get along, be friendly; in-grim-a talk at the same time.

-grip- aa. cover, shut in: on˙-grip-a cover, of clouds; ku˙-grip-a cover, of a pot.

-jep- aa. cover: rim-jep-a cover with the hand; ga˙-jep-a cover with the feet.

-kring-krang- aa. uncontrolled, incompletely, scattering around: cha-kring-krang-a get up quickly throwing covers around; go-kring-krang-a throw around in an uncontrolled way; ru-kring-krang-a take down and scatter around, of old thatch; kam-kring-krang-a incompletely burned; pin-kring-krang-a incompletely thatched.

-ku-rak- aa. into pieces, separate: be˙-ku-rak-a broken into pieces; pit-ku-rak-a split into pieces.

-mit-chi- aa. into small pieces: den˙-mit-chi-a chop into small pieces; chit-mit-chi-a tear into small pieces; ak-mit-chi-a tear off into small pieces.

-ok- aa. come apart, take apart, separate: sal-ok-a pull out; go˙-ok-a come apart, come loose; po˙-ok-a take off, take out, of hats, corks; sol˙-ok-a carve, as a memorial post.

-ot- aa. let go of, separate from: rong-ot-a take out something round, as a banana from its skin; sil˙-ot-a push out, as the hand out of a sleeve; Page  33 rim˙-sik-ok-a let something escape from one's hand, as a bird one is trying to catch.

-pin-ek- aa. crush: cha˙-pin-ek-a chew into pieces; ga˙-pin-ek-a knock down (plants) by walking on them; rim˙-pin-ek-a crush in the hand; jom-pin-ek-a sick all the time, crushed by disease.

-pri-, -pri-pri- aa. into pieces: ak-pri-a tear into pieces; go-pri-a scatter; den˙-pri-a, den˙-pri-pri-a cut into many small pieces; git-chit-pri-pri-a full of tears; cham-pri-a worn out and in pieces.

-si-ri- aa. gentle, into small pieces: pit-si-ri-a split into small pieces; bi˙-si-ri-a cracked finely, of glass, cup, pot, etc.; ja˙-si-ri-a on tip-toes; gil-si-ri-a shed skin, peel off bark.

-tet- aa. break off: ak-tet-a pluck off, of flowers, leaves, etc.; sal-tet-a pull apart; chik-tet-a bite off.

-tip- aa. cover: ka-tip-a cover by tying something over; rim˙-tip-a cover with the hands; mit-tip-a cover over, plug up.

-tong˙- aa. cut or separate, esp. of long and cylindrical pieces: den˙-tong-a cut crosswise, cut in two, of a log, etc.; tet-tong-a break apart, of string, linear things; chik-tong-a bite off. -tong dns. long and cylindrical: gan-tong a cut stalk of a plant such as manioc; ging-tong snout of a pig; jak-tong forearm; wa˙-tong length of bamboo.

0.45 Adverbial Affixes: Time, Speed

-dang- aa. with sufficient time, often used with a negative: dang-ja with insufficient time; rim˙-dang-a finish working, without interruption; cha˙-dang-a time to eat; a-lap-dang-ja can't manage to talk, because of interruptions, etc.; chok-dang-ja no time to finish writing.

-gal-gal-, -ga-gal- aa. quickly, carelessly, throw away: a-gan-gal-gal-a speak quickly; don-gal-gal-a put down quickly, carelessly; ak-tet-ga-gal-a pick quickly, carelessly, incompletely; pe˙-gal-gal-a break and throw away.

-git-ik- aa. suddenly, unexpectedly: si-git-ik-a die suddenly; sok-git-ik-a-ri-jok just arrived unexpectedly; wal-o-ni dip-at jom-git-ik-a, i-ba-na man˙-ja-jok since nighttime he has been unexpectedly sick and couldn't come. git-ik-git-ak adv. suddenly, unexpectedly.

-jem-jem- aa. repeatedly constantly: kat-jem-jem-a run a lot; dok-jem˙-jem-a hit constantly; i˙-ang-jem˙-jem-a go repeatedly.

-jring- aa. often, repeatedly, always, constantly, regularly: cha˙-jring-a always eat; i˙-ang-jring-a go all the time.

-rik-rik- aa. repeatedly, piece by piece, constantly, progressively: gu-ri-rik-rik-a turn again and again; am˙-rik-rik-a want continuously; bu˙-rik-rik-a lie constantly; bang-rik-rik-a more and more, increase, of prices; dil-rik-rik-a grow poorer and poorer; do-rik-rik-a go up and up.

Page  34 -ring- aa. at the correct time: sok-ring-a arrive at the right time; most often used in the negative: sok-ba-ring-ja not arrive on time; re˙-ang-ring-ja not go on time.

-ru-ru- aa. for a long time, forcefully: kim-ru-ru-a thunder that seems to move across the sky; dong-ru-ru-a be in the same place for a long time; ak-ru-ru-a pluck for a long time.

-tip-tip- aa. thoroughly, repeatedly: dok-tip-tip-a pat, hit several times, as to soothe a child; ka-tip-tip-a tie thoroughly; ba-ji-tip-tip-a thoroughly tangled; wen-tip-tip-a very tangled; chot-tip-tip-a tear to pieces, of string, etc.

0.46 Adverbial Affixes: Strength, Quantity

-bek-, -bek-bek- aa. freely, forcefully: ron˙-bek-a give freely, even against the receiver's will; wa-bek-bek-a rain a lot, keep raining.

-brap- aa. strong, excessive, uncontrolled: mik-brap-a be dazzled by; ka˙-brap-a taste badly, especially from too much salt; ching˙-brap-a shine brightly, of a hurricane lamp, fire, etc.; go-brap-a throw, broadcast (seeds) in an excessive or uncontrolled way.

-chet-, -chet-chet- aa. tightly: rim˙-chet-chet-a grab hard; gip-ak-chet-a embrace tightly; wen-chet-a wind around tightly.

-chi-rot- aa. a little, a bit: git-tam-chi-rot-a pee just a little; ke-em-chi-rot-a defecate just a little.

-chip- aa. sufficiently, completely, very: ding˙-chip-a very hot; so˙-chip-a burn completely.

-chrak- aa. forcefully, uncontrolled: bi˙-chrak-a break off, as branches in the wind; ki˙-chrak-a defecate vigorously; ken˙-chrak-a comb vigorously, as to get out lice; pik-chrak-a pull out strongly, as a tree by its roots, with stones, etc.

-drak- aa. strongly: ring-drak-a drink a lot; wa-drak-a rain heavily; mik-u-drak-a make a loud noise; ring˙-drak-a sing loudly.

-jep-jep-, -je-jep- aa. hard, forcefully, into pieces: ga˙-je-jep-a step with pressure, stamp on; dok-jep-jep-a keep hitting, break into small pieces; chik-jep-jep-a chew hard, chew into pieces.

-jet-, -jet-jet- aa. hard, forcefully: ga˙-jet-a, ga˙-jet-jet-a grab, hold tight, with feet or legs; on-jet-a, on-jet-dap-a put something heavy on top of something else; sik-jet-a, sik-jet-jet-a push hard, press hard.

-jol-jol-, -jo-jol- aa. via, completely, systematically, continuously: a-gan-jol-jol-a speak continuously, speak at the same time; dok-jol-jol-a hit repeatedly, hit many things; chi-jol-jol along the water, via the water; kat-jol-jol-a run constantly, all the time.

-jret- aa. tightly: ka-jret-a tie tightly; sal-jret-a pull tightly; ga˙-jret-a step on hard; sep-jret-a wring out water; pa˙-jret-a press medicinal herbs onto the body.

Page  35 -kam- aa. completely, thoroughly: rim˙-kam-a keep working, not rest; wa-kam-a rain continuously; ron˙-kam-a give everything; bam-kam-a bent thoroughly over; dong-kam-a live, dwell, stay for a long time.

-ku-ak-a- aa. in a strong degree, very: min-ku-ak-a very ripe; ka˙-ku-ak-a very bitter; sin-ku-ak-a want very much.

-mi-si- aa. very, a lot, much: ro˙-mi-si-a very long; ak-mi-si-a plucked a lot; dal˙-mi-si-a very big; ring˙-mi-si-a sing a lot.

-min-ek- aa. soft, squash, crush: jot-min-ek-a poke and make soft, crush; ga˙-min-ek-a step on and squash; rim˙-min-ek-a squash in the hand.

-pak-pak- aa. a lot, fast: wa-pak-pak-a rain heavily; ki˙-pak-pak-a defecate a lot.

-prak- aa. a lot, strongly, completely: ru-prak-a pour lots of water; bi˙-prak-a break completely; gil-prak-a peeling, of skin; a-gan-prak-a explain, say fully; kam-prak-a burn strongly.

-rak- aa. strong, fast: gong-rak-a fast; mik-rak-a wake up, strong in the eyes; mang-rak-a healthy, strong of body; ding-rak-a strong, of long slender things like string; jak-rak-a quick, fast, esp. in working with one's hands, quick at eating.

-sek- aa. by force, forcefully: sal-sek-a pull away, take someone by force; jik-sek-a steal a wife, take someone else's woman; ra˙-sek-a take by force.

-srok- aa. lightly, loosely, gently, partially, incompletely: dok-srok-a hit lightly; ha-bu-srok-a bathe quickly or partially; a-gan-srok-a tell partially, not everything; ka-srik-a tie loosely; ken˙-srok-a comb slowly and carefully.

-tat- aa. forcefully: dok-tat-a hit forcefully; sik-tat-a grab by force, as sons-in-law in the old days; ni-tat-a stare.

0.47 Adverbial Affixes: Personal, Human

-bing-bang- aa. carelessly: a-gan-bing-bang-a talk carelessly, without thinking; ja˙-bing-bang-a stumble; cha˙-bing-bang-a eat carelessly or in ignorance.

-git-chi- aa. in an insulting way: ka˙-ding-git-chi-a laugh insultingly; in-git-chi-a insult by saying something.

-gok- aa. bent over: deng-gok-a bow deeply; geng-gok-a sleep with knees drawn up; bam-gok-a bow head or body, bent over, of people.

-gop- aa. bent over: chu-gop-a sleep with legs bent up; bi˙-gop-a fallen over, of a tree; bam-gop-a bow deeply, bend over, of people.

-kin-ap- aa. comfortable, pleasant: rim˙-kin-ap-a pleasant to touch, soft; dong-kin-ap-a in a good state, comfortable; chu-kin-ap-a sleep well, comfortably; pin-kin-ap-a spread comfortably, as a blanket; chu-kin-ap-a comfortable for sleeping.

Page  36 -trip-trip- aa. by many, collectively: dok-trip-trip-a hit by many; cha˙-trip-trip-a eat by many, as insects eat wood; chik-trip-trip-a bit by many, as bees sting people.

0.48 Adverbial Affixes: Derivational

These are the least productive of the adverbial affixes, and they are the most tightly bound to their verb bases. A verb base together with a derivational adverbial affix forms a verb stem. Verb stems act, in most respects, much like verb bases, and they have well defined and conventional meanings. Many derivational affixes are transparently derived from independent verb bases. Some are spelled here with glottal stops. This reflects their derivation from independent verbs, but when used as affixes they most often become the second syllable of a word, and in this position the glottal stop is always dropped. The glottal stop does appear when following a two syllable verb base, however. The derivational affixes vary more in their meaning from one verb to another than do the adverbial affixes listed in earlier sections, but no rigid line sets the derivational affixes apart from the others.

-brek- aa. soft, excessively soft: ki˙-brek-a have diarrhea; rim˙-brek-a grab with the hands and crush, when eating; nom˙-chi-brek-a cooked too softly; ging-brek-brek having a runny nose.

-brot- aa. rub, rub against: rim˙-brot-a kneed sore muscles, rub off, so as to clean; ga˙-brot-a scrape with the foot; not-brot-a rub against something in order to scratch, as an animal does.

-bu- aa. excrete inappropriately: git-tam-bu-a wet one's pants; ke˙-em-bu-a defecate in clothes, on a mat like a baby, etc.; el˙-bu-a spit up, of a baby.

-cha- aa. having to do with emotions, probably derived from cha˙-a eat: mik-cha-a love, eat with eyes; kat cha˙-a ashamed; ka˙-cha-a speak angrily, bawl out.

-chak- aa. accept, receive: ra˙-chak-a accept, receive: ku˙-ra-chak-a agree, promise; an˙-chak-a take into the body, be sick; wang-chak-a open mouth to receive food from another; ni-chak-a midwife, one who sees and receives; nok-chak-a accept into one's home; rim˙-chak-a catch a thrown object.

-chak- aa. on behalf of, for another person, support: hai˙-chak-a be understanding, perceptive; ron˙-chak-a give help; a-gan-chak-a answer, reply; dok-chak-a hit back; ka˙-sa-chak-a sympathize; ku˙-chak-a agree, promise, answer; bi˙-chak-a pray for someone; dak-chak-a help; ken-chak-a afraid for someone else; peng˙-chak-a defend.

-chip- aa. without seeing, hidden, shut off: su˙-chip-a pierce into blindly, without seeing; git-tam-chip-a went one's pants, wet one's bed; Page  37 rim˙-chip-a grab something not seen; sin˙-chip-a cool off when the clouds cover the sun.

-chot- aa. finish: cha˙-chot-a eat up; bon˙-chot-a finish (a job, etc.); mat-chot-a finish.

-chot-, -chot-chot- aa. slurp, smack: ku˙-chot-a kiss, smack; ring-chot-a, ring-chot-chot-a slurp, suck on a straw; cha˙-chot-chot-a suckle, suck the breast.

-dam-bu- aa. plentifully, lots: mil-dam-bu-a fat, of people, cattle; ring-dam-bu-a drink a lot; ki˙-dam-bu-a defecate plentifully.

-dat- aa. touch, bump, strike, hit forcefully: pa˙-dat-a touch with palm of hand; mik-dat-a be dazzled with glare; ni-dat-a stare.

-dip- aa. pause: dong-dip-a stop, pause; cha-deng-dip-a stand for a bit, pause while walking; na-dip-a stop hearing for a bit.

-gak- aa. fall: gong˙-gak-a fall off, fall apart, of tools, posts: gak-gak-a flop, droop, like the head of a small baby, (cf. ga˙-ak- vi fall).

-gek-, -gek-gek- aa. forcefully, in quantity: ru-gek-a pour in a large quantity, filter ashes to get soda; ding˙-gek-a very hot; mal-gek-a very tame, of an animal; ka˙-ding-gek-gek-a laugh loudly, constantly; jom-gek-gek-a whimper, groan when sick; du˙-gek-gek-a feed by force.

-gil-gil- aa. on the surface: kam-gil-gil-a burn on the surface; wi-gil-gil-a plow shallowly.

-gro- aa. lengthwise, on the long dimension: rat-gro-a cut lengthwise; git-chit-gro- tear lengthwise; -gro dns. long: bol-gro ridgepole; bi-gro length.

-grop- aa. fall over, collapse: wil-grop-a fall over, as crops in the wind; bi˙-grop-a collapse, of walls, houses, trees.

-grot- aa. scrape, rub: not-grot-a rub up against something in order to scratch oneself; mat-grot-a scrape body against something; ge˙-grot-a plant between other plants so as to fill in gaps.

-jip- aa. with fanning, flapping: grang-jip-a flap wings slowly; jak-jip-a beckon, wave.

-kan-di- aa. in part, partially: cha˙-kan-di-a eat some, leave some; si-kan-di-a die before time, partway through (normal) life; tong˙-kan-di partway.

-kep- aa. hold, grab, squeeze: jak-kep-a hold in a closed fist; pak-sik-kep-a carry under the arm; ja˙-kep-a hold between one's feet; dang-kep tongs.

-kil-ak- aa. open: sal-kil-ak-a pull open; o-kil-ak-a open a box, covered pot, etc.; king-kil-ak-a pull up pant leg, skirt, open a book.

-krang- aa. open, with space between: ting-krang-a open, of umbrellas; kang˙-krang-a off the ground, as a tree that has fallen only partway; de˙-krang-a resting with one end off the ground, hold a foot in the air.

Page  38 -krep- aa. crush: rim˙-krep-a grab and crush; dok-krep-a crush by hitting; so˙-krep-a cremate, burn a dead body.

-mik-brang- aa. without seeing, fail to notice: i˙-mik-brang-a go the wrong way, make a wrong turn; su˙-mik-brang-a stab without seeing what is stabbed; ni-mik-brang-a look past, not notice, miss seeing.

-min-tal- aa. asleep, of body parts, (pins and needles): ja˙-min-tal-a leg is asleep; jak-min-tal-a arm is asleep.

-mong-song- aa. most important, main, primary: cha˙-mong-song-a eat enough; nok-mong-song main building, house of the senior couple of a household.

-neng˙- aa. tired: bil-neng-a tired; mik-neng-a don't want to see, tired of seeing; ja˙-neng-a have tired legs; ku˙-neng-a tired voice.

-nik- aa. look upon, consider, regard: chon-nik-a feel small, feel inferior, have an inferiority complex; dal˙-nik-a look up to, respect, see as large; nom˙-nik-a appear to be easy; nam-nik-a like, love, see as good; seng˙-nik-a show off, act smart.

-ot- aa. call attention to, pay attention: jak-si-ot-a point to, show; sim-il-ot-a smell, test by smelling; dong-ot-a touch with a finger to call attention; ni-ot-a watch, look at.

-pak- aa. shove, bump, push aside: jit-pak-a shove something to make it move; sik-pak-a push a short distance, knock over; ga˙-ping-pak-a push with the foot, kick away; net-pak-a flick off, brush off, with hand or broom; dok-pak-a knock off, as fruit from a tree; han˙-pak-a abort (spontaneously), miscarry.

-pang-pil- aa. reversed, backward: jak-pang-pil-a with hand held behind the back; ni-pang-pil˙-a look backward, over one's shoulder; di-pang-pil-ek-a upside down.

-pret- aa. explode, burst, make noise, break apart: dok-pret-a hit and break something, as a coconut; gam˙-pret-a make a lot of noise, like a gun, airplane; ga˙-pret-a burst or squash something with the foot; kim-pret-a thunder; chrik˙-pret-a scream loudly, squeal, of pigs.

-prong- aa. swirling about in the air: cho-prong-a winnow; dok-prong-a brush off, as dirt from one's arm; man˙-prong-a blow around, of dust, fluff, etc.; sip-prong-a blow off dust, dirt.

-sal- aa. stretch, pull: han˙-sal-a stretch the body, as after sleeping; sur-sal-a a slow, stretched out singing style.

-sok- aa. arrive, reach: rang˙-sok-a get one's breath; am-sok-a confident, able to manage; chu˙-sok-a enough, enough to reach; mik-sok-a hope, suspect.

-sot- aa. kill: ra-sot-a kill by cutting; ak-sot-a kill by twisting neck; rim˙-sot-a kill by grabbing, choking; kim-sot-a end an a˙-kim relationship between two lineages, (cf. so˙-ot-a vt. kill).

Page  39 -srip-, -sip- aa. slurp, swirl in the mouth: ku˙-srip-a swirl water in mouth to rinse it; sal-srip-a suck, as on a straw, have a stuffy nose; ring-srip-a slurp, as tea.

-srot- aa. slip: rim˙-srot-a let slip with hand; ga˙-srot-a slip with the feet.

-sru- aa. overflow: git-u-sru-a boil over; chi-sru-sru overflow, of water from a pot; ki˙-sru-a have diarrhea; ki˙-si-sru-a fart a lot.

-su-su- aa. in part, incomplete: rim˙-su-su-a do in part, not all; wat-su-su-a weave only part (of a basket).

-su˙- aa. wash: jak-su-a wash hands; mik-su-a wash face; su˙-gal-a wash clothes, dishes, etc.

-tap- aa. stick to, apply, attach: ma˙-tap-a apply to the skin, as medicine; sik-tap-a sew on a patch; ga˙-ak-tap-a fall onto; pa˙-tap-a glue to, stick to, attach.

-tep- aa. wrap in folded leaves: cho˙-tep-a wrap in folded banana leaves; so˙-tep-a cook in folded banana leaves.

-tim- aa. stealthily, attentively, continuously: dong-tim-a wait, stay and guard, watch over; ni-tim-a watch attentively, continuously; si-kal-tim-a hunt stealthily; kat-tim-a run off and hide; kin-a-tim-a listen secretively; chok-tim-a write regularly, constantly; i˙-ang-tim-a go all the time.

-ting- aa. strike, bump into: nang-ting-grik-a bump into each other; ga˙-ting-a kick, push with the foot; dok-ting-a strike, knock.

-ting-dat- aa. bump, strike: su˙-ting-dat-a strike, poke; ga˙-ting-dat-a kick something, as a football, push with the feet; nang-ting-dat-a bump into, as into a tree when walking; cha-ting-dat-a bump into, collide.

-to- aa. good, tasty, beautiful, comfortable: gan-to-a comfortable to wear; ni-to-a beautiful to see; kin-a-to-a beautiful to hear; jak-kal-to-a good to use, comfortable to use; ring-to-a good to drink.

-tring-trang- aa. thoroughly torn or taken apart, completely: ru-tring-trang-a take completely apart, of a roof, fence, etc.; git-chit-tring-trang-a torn in many places, tattered.

-wak- aa. scoop: bak-wak-a scoop out dirt with a hoe; chok-wak-a scoop water (with hand, plate, spoon, etc.); su-wak-a scrape up dirt.

-wak- aa. soft, spoiled: ka˙-wak-a too strong in taste, too much salt, etc.; re-wak-a soiled, dirty, from ink, dust, etc.; chi-wak-a cooked too soft, of tubers, etc.

-wang- aa. open wide: pa-wang-a open, of an umbrella; jak ba-wang-a hold the arms wide.

-wek- aa. soft: go-wek-a throw mud; a-wek-a soft, sticking together. dil˙-wek-dil˙-wek adv. good and ripe, soft, of fruit; da-wek-da-wek cooked mushily.

0.62 Relatively Non-Language Like.

— int. no (an ill-defined and quite variable vocalization including a rising intonation with slight voicing that is terminated abruptly with a glottal stop).

— int. yes. (a vocalization that can be a vowel or an m, with the distinguishing feature being a glottal stop in its middle).

a int. isn't that so?, an expression that seeks and expects, agreement. This is characterized by a gently falling intonation, and it can have any fairly neutral vowel or even be represented by m.

ai-a int. ow!, an expression used when hurt.

ai-ma int. ow!, like ai-a, this is an expression of pain, but it is likely to be pronounced more slowly, and to be associated with pain that is less sharp but longer lasting.

che, che-che-che-che int. don't! an expression of dislike, disapproval and disgust; sometimes used with children as a reprimand.

de int. indication of agreement to a request.

de˙-de˙-de˙-de int. comforting sound made to a crying baby.

ha int. word used when giving something to someone, here, please take it,

iis, i-si int. yuck, expression of disgust.

m int. a murmur made in agreeing to an order or request; it may begin with a nondescript vowel.

u-a int. pause form, used when hesitating.

0.64 Language-Like Exclamations, Mandi

ai-au int. oh my, dear me, wow!, an expression of surprise, wonder, or dismay.

ak-kai int. an expression indicating that one has misspoken, made a mistake; I mean.

bil-e int. I suppose, it is said.

da˙-nang int. oh dear!, alas!, how sad!, an expression of dismay or sympathy.

ha-ri, ha-ri-bo, a-ri-bo int. lets go!, an expression used to encourage the start of an activity.

ha˙-we, ha˙-wi, ho˙-we, a˙-we, a-we, we, u-e, hu-e-ro, ho int. yes.

hai, hai-bo, hai-ba-bo int. lets go!, an expression used to get action started.

hai-da int. I don't know, (A˙ chik).

i-a int. an expression that fills time while gathering one's thoughts.

ka-cha-ra int. bravo!, shouted while dancing with a head hunting sword.

ka˙-sa-pa˙-e int. please, a somewhat artificial translation from English.

ke-ma ka˙-bo, ke-ma ka˙-pa-bo int. a somewhat artificial translation of English 'excuse me'.

Page  44 ma int. what?, what did you say?

ma˙-bai, ma˙-ki, mai-ba int. hesitation form used when collecting one's thoughts.

mit-tel-a int. somewhat artificial translation of English 'thank you'.

mu-a-hai int. what's this?, what's happening?

nam-e dong-a-ma? int. how are you?, are you alright? a greeting that is probably a fairly recent innovation, but one that is used more often than the other artificial translations of English courtesy forms, (A˙ chik: nam-eng-a-ma?).

sa-di-a int. dear me!

sal-nam int. somewhat artificial translation of English 'good day'.

te int. yes, indicates generalized agreement rather than specific confirmation of a question.

wal-nam int. a somewhat artificial translation of English 'good night'.

0.66 Language-Like Exclamations, Bengali

Because interjections are used outside of much syntactic context, they are easy to borrow, and Mandis have borrowed many from Bengali.

ar-ki int. that is the way it is, concluding pause form, (lit. what else?). <B

at-cha int. fine, okay, right, yes. <B

bap-a-ri-bap, ba-ba, o-ba-ba int. exclamations showing surprise or wonder. <B

ho-ri-ho-ri int. get away, move! <B

ki ja-ni? int. who knows? <B

mo-ne-hoi int. I suppose so. <B

na int. no. <B

no-mo-skar int. a Hindu greeting. <B

sal-a int. brother-in-law, a scolding word, used as an insult. <B

1.11 Space

a˙-sam-o pp. beside, next to, (follows genitive -ni): ang-ni a˙-sam-o beside me.

bak pp. side, position, in the direction of, (follows locative -cha): a-ma-cha bak on the maternal side; mik-kang-cha bak toward the front; u˙-cha bak on that side.

gi-sep-o pp. between, among, (follows genitive -ni).

ja˙-pang, ja˙-pang-o pp. near, beside, at the base of, (follows genitive -ni). ja˙-pang n. foot of a mountain.

ja˙-sam-o pp. beside, (follows genitive -ni).

jak-ra-cha bak ppp. on the right hand side.

jang-gil-o, jang-gil-cha pp. behind, in back of, (follows genitive -ni), (A˙ chik).

jol-jol, jo-jol pp. via, along a path, road, river, (follows nominative): chi jol-jol along the water; bring jol-jol via the forest; a˙-sam jol-jol along the edge, of a field, etc. -jol-jol-, -jo-jol- aa. via, completely, systematically, continuously: a-gan-jol-jol-a speak continuously, speak at the same time; dok-jol-jol-a hit repeatedly, hit many things; kat-jol-jol-a run constantly, all the time.

ka˙-ma, ka˙-ma-o, ka˙-ma-cha pp. below, under; down river, (follows genitive -ni).

ket-chi-o, ket-chi-cha pp. at the side of, beside, on the side, (follows genitive -ni). -ket-chi- aa. to the side, crosswise: chit-ket-chi-a cut bamboo strips crosswise to the inner and outer edges; ni-ket-chi-a look to the side; pit-ket-chi-a cut off with a cut perpendicular to the surface.

ki˙-sang-o, ki˙-sang-cha pp. behind, in back of, (follows genitive -ni), (lit. at the buttocks of).

kok-kim-a-o pp. underneath, (follows genitive -ni), (A˙ chik).

mik-kang-o, mik-kang-cha pp. in front of, in the presence of, (follows genitive -ni).

Page  47 ning˙-a, ning˙-a-o, ning˙-a-cha pp. inside, of a house, box, mouth; under, a table, under ground, (follows nominative): ang-ni bik-ma ning-a-o inside my stomach.

sak-a-o, sak-a-cha pp. above, on top of, beyond, (follows genitive -ni): nok-ni sak-a-o on top of the house.

sak-a-pong, sak-a-pong-o pp. top, on top, on the surface of, (follows genitive -ni): chi-ni sak-a-pong-o on the surface of the water.

sam-ba-o pp. near, beside, from nearby, (follows genitive -ni), (A˙ chik).

se-pang, se-pang-o, si-pang, si-pang-o, si-pang-cha pp. near, close by, (follows genitive -ni).

1.12 Time

dip-at, dip-et, stip-at, stip-et pp. 1. since, (follows augmented locative -o-ni): me-ja-o-ni dip-at since yesterday; jak be˙-o-ni dip-at gam rim˙-na man˙-ja-ing-jok I haven't been able to work since breaking my arm. 2. until, up to, as long as, (follows augmented locative -o-na): am-bin-o-na dip-at until tomorrow; chu-ti-o-na dip-at until the holidays; man˙-a dip-at as much as possible.

ja˙-man, ja˙-man-o pp. after, afterward, (follows genitive -ni): cha˙-a-ni ja˙-man-o after eating.

king-king pp. until, up to, (follows dative -na): sal-ja-chi-o-na king-king until noon.

po-re, po-re-po-re, por, por-por, po-ro pp. after, (follows genitive -ni): i˙-ni po-re after this. <B

skang pp. before, (follows dative -na): ang-na skang mi cha˙-bo eat before me.

1.13 Cause

a˙-sel, a˙-sel-o, ha˙-sel-o pp. because of, for the reason, (follows genitive -ni): in˙-i a˙-sel because of this.

-et-, -it- aa. causative: nam-et-a make good, improve; chip-et-a close, cause to be closed, (A˙ chik: -at-.

gan-da pp. 1. as for, concerning, by contrast, instead, on the other hand, (follows nominative): ang-a gan-da i˙-ang-na man˙-ja as for me, I cannot go. 2. because of, therefore, on account of, (follows dative -na or occasionally genitive -ni): ang-na gan-da because of me.

gim-in pp. because of, due to, (follows genitive -ni): neng-be-a-ni gim-in because of being very tired.

mik-ta pp. because, on account of, for that reason, (follows genitive -ni). Echo in gi-sik mik-ta mind.

pal pp. because, on account of, (follows genitive -ni).

1.16 With, Without, In Addition To, Instead, By Means Of, (cf. 2.11 Location)

a-gre pp. except for, other than, in addition to, (follows genitive -ni: na˙-song-ni a-gri other than you all, in addition to you. adv. too, excessively.

gin-ang pp. with, including, along with, (follows nominative): ang-a gin-ang along with me.

gri pp. without, (follows nominative): ang-a gri without me.

grim pp. together, close together, in a group, thick with, (follows -ming): ang-ming grim together with me. -grim- aa. together: pin-grim-a thatch together, in a group of people; nam-grim-a get along, be friendly; in-grim-a talk at the same time.

sa-ra, cha-ra pp. except for, other than, instead of, without, (follows nominative): wak sa-ra: without pigs. <B

1.17 Comparisons, Like, Such

bat-e, bat-i pp. more than, (follows dative -na): ang-na bat-e dal˙-a bigger than me.

stip-at, stip-et, dip-at pp. as much as.

1.21 Question Words

ba-, bat- qw. what? combining forms only, not used with the nominative but with most other case markers; bat- is used only before locative -cha and its augmented forms.

ba-dak-a qw. how?, what kind of?

ba-di qw. how?, which way?: ba-di ra-ma? which road?

ba-di-sik qw. how much?, how many?: ba-di-sik-na? for what? for what price?; ba-di-sik-ni? how much? how much of it?

ba-di-ta qw. how many, how much, (A˙ chik).

ba-dik-e, ba-dik-i, bai-dik-e, ba-dik-e dak-a qw. how?, in what way?: ba-dik-e dak-e chu-no-a? how do (you) sleep? (on your back, side, etc.).

ba-gip-a qw. which?, which of several?, of people or things: ba-gip-a me˙-chik? which women?; ba-gip-a-na ron˙-no-a? to whom will you give it?; ba˙-gip-a-ko ra˙-no-a? which will you take?; ba-gip-a-ba-gip-a? which ones?

ba-git-a qw. in which way, by what route?

ba-no-na qw. where to?

Page  49 ba-no-ni qw. where from?

ba-o, ba-no qw. where, where at?: bo-stu-ko ba-no don-a-ming? where (did you) put the things?; ba-no-ba-no where all (is it)?.

ba-sik-o, ba-sak-o, bai-sik-o qw. when?: ba-sik-o-na? until when?; ba-sik-o-ni? since when?; ba-sik-o ba-sik-o when all? (A˙ chik: ba-sok-o).

ba-sok-o qw. when? (A˙ chik).

bai-sik, ba-sik qw. how much?, how many?: bai-sik-ni ro˙-a? how long?; bai-sik a-rim-jok? how late? Often used with a classifier plus -sa one: bai-sik kan-sa te-bil how many tables?; bai-sik gles-sa chi how many glasses of water?; bai-sik sal-sa? how many days?

bai-sik ba-ji-jok, ba-sik ba-ji-a qw. what time is it? (lit. how much has (the clock) struck?).

bat-cha qw. where?, where to?, where from?: bat-cha dong-a where is (it)?; bat-cha-na re˙-ang-ing-a? where are (you) going?; bat-cha-ni i˙-ba-ing-a? where are (you) coming from?

-ma ts. question marker for yes-no questions.

ma˙- qw. combining form of mu-a what? ma˙-ko ra˙-ba-jok? what (did you) bring?; ma˙-ming with what?; ma˙-ni sal? on what day?

mai qw. what? (alternate of mu-a, (primarily A˙ chik).

mai-na qw. why? what for? (A˙ chik).

mo˙-na, ma˙-na qw. why?, what for? (A˙ chik: mai-na).

mu-a qw. what? mu-a-ko den˙-ing-a? what (are you) cutting?; mu-a-mu-a? what all?, what? (plural).

-na ts. isn't it?, question particle which often anticipates a positive answer. <B

sa qw. who?: sa-ni nok whose house?; sa-na nam-nik-a? who (does she) like?; sa-sa neng˙-ing-a who all is tired? (A˙ chik: sa-wa).

sa-gip-a qw. who?; which?, of several people; sa-gip-a-ko nik-jok which person (did you) see?

sa-sa qw. who all?

sa-wa qw. who? (A˙ chik).

1.24 Answers

— int. no. (an ill-defined and quite variable vocalization including a rising intonation with slight voicing that is terminated abruptly with a glottal stop).

— int. yes. (a vocalization that can be a vowel or an m, with the distinguishing feature being a glottal stop in its middle).

de int. indication of agreement to a request.

ha˙-we, ha˙-wi, ho˙-we, a˙-we, a-we, we, u-e, hu-e-ro, ho int. yes.

hai-da int. I don't know, (A˙ chik).

hai˙-ja vi. (I) don't know.

Page  50 m int. a murmur made that shows agreement to an order or request, it may begin with a nondescript vowel.

na int. no, not. <B

te int. yes, indicates generalized agreement rather than specific confirmation of a question.

1.31 Classifiers, General

ak-, sak- cls. classifier for people, occasionally for ghosts, spirits, gods.

chang- cls. classifier for number of times, the number of times something has been done.

dam- cls. classifier for places: villages, fields, houses, windows, doors. -dam dns. place: dong-dam living place; mang-ru-dam grave; dam-dam always at the same place.

ge˙-, gi˙- cls. general classifier, residual category classifier for objects that lack any other clear classifier, esp. for small man-made objects, pens, cups, houses, etc., (A˙ chik).

kan- cls. generalclassifier, residual category classifier, esp. for man-made objects that lack any other clear classifier: shoes, glasses, hats, ears, houses, doors, lights, letters, books, baskets, etc.

mang- cls. classifier for animals, including mammals, birds, insects, etc., occasionally for ghosts, spirits: tam-pi mang-sa one fly.

ming- cls. classifier for incorporeal and abstract things, diseases, songs, colors, spirits, ideas.

rang˙- cls. classifier for number of times.

ro-kom- cls. classifier for kinds, varieties. <B

1.32 Classifiers, Shape

ding- cls. classifier for long thin things: hairs, cords, strings, pieces of cane, wire, roads, etc.

dot- cls. classifier for posts, lengths of bamboo, stalks, unsplit pieces of firewood, rice seedlings, etc.

Page  51 king- cls. classifier for flat things, ears, leaves and esp. for paper and things made from paper, including books, but not cloth.

kol- cls. classifier for holes such as windows, doorways, holes in the ground or in a tree.

pang- cls. classifier for trees, stalks, individual trunks of a banana plant, plants, rice seedlings.

pat- cls. classifier for things made of cloth, shirts, lunggies, quilts; for units of paper money, taka.

pel- cls. classifier for flat things such as boards and things made from boards, furniture; for flat pieces of firewood.

pong- cls. classifier for long cylindrical things, biris, cigarettes, memorial posts, blowing horns (which have a long cylindrical mouthpiece), injections (because they are administered with a cylindrical needle). -pong dns. cylindrical: bi-pong handle of a tool; jak-pong upper arm.

rong- cls. classifier for round and spherical things, for large pots, fruit, eyes, coins.

tom- cls. classifier for bellies, round things. -tom- aa. round, make round: jak-tom-a make a fist; ka-tom-a tie in a bundle. -tom dns. round, bunched: jak-tom fist; dik-tom large round pot; a-tom stomach.

tong˙- cls. classifier for lengths, pieces cut crosswise, of bamboo, wood, firewood, part of a broken pencil, lengthwise section, slices of a banana. -tong˙- aa. cut or separate, esp. of long and cylindrical pieces: den˙-tong-a cut crosswise, cut in two, of a log, etc.; tet-tong-a break apart, of string, linear things; chik-tong-a bite off. -tong dns. long and cylindrical: gan-tong a cut stalk of a plant such as manioc; ging-tong snout of a pig; jak-tong forearm; wa˙-tong length of bamboo.

1.33 Classifiers, Time Units

an-ti cls. classifier for weeks. n. week, market, (A˙ chik).

bil-si- cls. classifier for years. n. year.

gon-ta- cls. classifier for hours. n. bell, gong.

ja- cls. classifier for months.

sal- cls. classifier for days. n. day, daytime; 24 hours; sun.

sop-ta- cls. classifier for weeks.

wal- cls. classifier for nights.

1.34 Classifiers: Bunches, Bundles, Loads

bu-ja- cls. classifier for loads, bundles that can be carried such as loads of firewood, thatch, etc. <B

chong- cls. classifier for an entire banana plant that consists of several stalks.

Page  52 dol˙- cls. classifier for rolled up bundles of leaves, usually banana leaves to be used as dishes.

gal-wang- cls. classifier for small bunches of bananas, about eight fruit.

gip-ak- cls. classifier for loads, as firewood.

kan-da- cls. classifier for small bunches of bananas, about eight fruit.

mu-ri cls. classifier for tied bundles of rice stalks. <B

pal- cls. classifier for leaf bundles, portions of rice or curry held in a banana leaf.

pek- cls. classifiers for packs of cigarettes. <E

sreng- cls. classifier for single bunches of thatch.

1.35 Classifiers: Groups

al-i- cls. classifier for a collection of four fruit, esp. for bananas. <B

chong˙-bak- cls. classifier for close bunches of growing fruit or plants, litchis, onion plants, beans.

dol- cls. classifier for sides, teams, groups of people. <B

jo-ra-, ju-ra-, jur cls. classifier for pairs, teams of animals. <B

ma˙- cls. classifier for groups of chicks with a mother hen.

ma˙- cls. classifier for hundreds, generally for takas, the Bangladeshi currency unit.

tim˙- cls. classifier for groups of animals, people, houses, small mounds of earth, etc.

1.36 Classifiers: Weights and Measures

Two kinds of measures are grouped together in this section. The traditional measures of length and size all seem to have been based upon parts of the human body. The modern weights and measures have been borrowed, some from other languages of the subcontinent, others from English or from international usage. These are now widely used in marketing but the traditional measures continue to be used when less precision is needed.

cho˙-om- cls. classifier for the amount that can be held in an open hand.

do-ra- cls. classifier for unit of weight equal to 5 seers, about five kilos. <B

iin-chi- cls. classifier for inches. <E

jak-am-, jak-em- cls. classifier for the amount held in a closed hand.

jap-ak- cls. classifier for armsful, as leaves, firewood, etc.

ke-ji- cls. classifier for kilograms. <E

kru- cls. classifier for spans from the thumb to the end of the middle finger or little finger.

man-de-, man-di- cls. classifier for the height of a person: man-de-gin-ing twice as tall as a person.

Page  53 man-de-ming jak-ming cls. classifier for the height from the ground to the tip of a person's upstretched fingers, (lit. person-with-arm-with).

mik- cls. classifier for units of measure from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow, cubit.

mik-tom- cls. classifier for units of length from the elbow to the end of the clenched fist.

mon- cls. classifier for maunds, a measure of weight, 40 seers, about 37 kilograms. <B

put- cls. classifier for feet, 12 inches. <E

ser-, sel- cls. classifier for seers, an Indian unit of weight, approximately one kilogram. <B

1.37 Classifiers: Pieces and Parts (cf. 3.347 Portions, Parts, 0.44 Adverbial Affixes: Pieces; 5.87 Parts of Objects)

gil- cls. classifier for crosswise slices, as loops of pineapple, etc.

kon˙-dok- cls. classifier for sections, rooms.

ku-rak- cls. classifier for the split pieces of a length of bamboo, for lengthwise pieces of papaya, etc.

ku˙- cls. classifier for mouths, words, bits of language; mouthsful of solid foods; doors, gongs; single split sticks of firewood. ku˙- cp. prefix for the mouth and surrounding area: ku-sik mouth; ku˙-sim-ang beard; ku˙-chil lip.

ma˙- cls. classifier for the number of pieces crossed together by a perpendicular piece in weaving a basket, for small pieces of areca nut.

mit-dap- cls. classifier for layers of a basket bottom, for stories of a multi-story building: mit-dap gin-i double-bottomed.

pak- cls. classifier for halves, half an areca nut, half a fruit, half lengthwise pieces of bamboo; sal pak-sa half a day; le-ka pak-sa one side of a piece of paper; the other side: ra-ma pak-sa the other side of the road.

pak-sa n. the other side, of a road, etc.; half: sal pak-sa half a day.] C99:63, ba-tor pak-sa-cha, on the other side of the ba-tor(dike). 137 dem˙- [cls classifier for folds.

pak-sam- cls. classifier for sides, as sides of a sheet of paper, of a coin.

pak-tang- cls. classifier for sides, of a coin, a sheet of paper, (same as pak-sam).

pet-tang- cls. classifier for buttocks.

pu-ta- cls. classifier for drops; spots, as spots of color on a lunggi; forehead cosmetic spots. <B

sri- cls. classifier for lengthwise slices, of papaya, etc. sri-a vt. to slice lengthwise.

tal-i- cls. classifier for rice fields, single rice fields surrounded by a dike.

tim- cls. classifier for sections ( git-tim) of a village.

Page  54 tin˙- cls. classifier for chunks, pieces of things, as pieces of meat, tubers, lumps of earth, etc.

ting-chang- cls. classifier for sections of a building divided by a barrier: ting-chang-gin-i two sections of a building, two rooms.

weng˙- cls. classifier for lengths of bamboo between two nodes.

1.38 Classifiers, Miscellaneous

This last group of classifiers consists merely of those that do not fit comfortably into any of the groups given above. Perhaps their major interest is to show how impossible it is to devise an entirely logical classification.

bil- cls. classifier for hits or kicks.

bol- cls. classifier for trees, axes, bamboo knives, drums.

dang-ga- cls. classifier for takas, units of currency: dang-ga-bri four taka.

do-ba- cls. classifier for rice fields, area surrounded by a dike.

geng˙- cls. classifier for rice seedlings, blades of grass, thatch.

gong˙-sa num. two takas, a two taka note; an idiosyncratic and idiomatic meaning where 'one taka' would seem to be a more reasonable translation, (cf. gong˙-bing-a five takas).

grok- cls. classifier for amounts drunk at one time.

ja˙-gam- cls. classifier for steps, foot prints.

jak- cls. classifier for leaves: i˙-sal jak-sa one banana leaf.

nok- cls. classifier for families, households, for what is held in a house.

pil- cls. classifier for coins.

poi- cls. classifier used in chants at sacrifices.

sam- cls. classifier for any bilateral body part, hands, eyes, etc.

song- cls. classifier for villages.

teng˙- cls. classifier for the steps of a ladder.

ti˙- cls. classifier for pots, water jugs ( gim-bi), etc.

tot- cls. classifier for drops, freckles, anthills, heads, mountains.

1.62 Pronouns: Personal (cf. 1.5 Demonstratives)

an˙-ching pro. we inclusive, you and I, you and we, (A˙ chik).

ang-a pro. I; combining form: ang-: ang-ko me; ang-ni my.

bi-a pro. he, she; combining forms: bi-; bi-ko him, her; bi-na to him, to her; bi-ni his, her.

bi-si-mang pro. they.

bi-song pro. they: bi-song-ko them; bi-song-ni their.

ching-a pro. we exclusive, I and someone, but not you, us; combining form: ching-.

i-song pro. they, (variant of bi-song).

na˙-a pro. you singular; combining form: nang˙-; nang˙-ko you accusative; nang˙-ni your.

na˙-ching pro. we inclusive, you and I, you and we.

na˙-ong, no˙-ong pro. you plural, (mainly Modhupur, same as na˙-song).

na˙-si-mang pro. you plural, (A˙ chik).

na˙-song pro. you plural: na˙-song-ni your, plural.

nang˙- pro. combining form of na˙-a you singular.

u-a-mang pro. they, (A˙ chik).

1.64 Pronouns: Reflexive, Relative, Indefinite

a-mik-ka pro. an unknown or hypothetical person; someone.

a-na-ri n. someone else; extra person; non-relative, outsider.

a-sek-ki pro. echo in a-mik-ka a-sek-ki someone.

ak-gip-in pro. someone else.

da-rang, da-rang-ba pro. many people, everyone. da-rang-ba with negative means nobody: da-rang-ba dong-ja there is nobody; da-rang-ko-ba nik-ja see nobody, (A˙ pal, A˙ chik).

han˙-tang, an˙-tang, han˙-tang-tang pro. self, selves, oneself, reflexive pronoun.

ja-wa pro. someone else; ja-wa-ni someone else's; ja-wa-na for someone else.

je pro. relative pronoun, that which, whatever, whoever: je-ko whatever, whomever (accusative); je-cha, je-o, je-no wherever; je-ni whosever; je-git-a somehow, however, in whatever way; je-sik-ni to whatever extent. <B

ke-o pro. anyone, someone; ke-o-ba with negative means nobody: ke-o-ba sok-ba-ku-ja nobody has arrived yet. <B

2.11 Location (cf. 1.16 Shapes and positions—derivational)

a-gal-ni-gal adv. from top to bottom, from here to there, all the way.

bi-ap n. place, location, (A˙ chik).

bik-bi-grik n. halfway along a road, halfway point, middle point of a tree; half-filled, of a basket.

chel˙-a vi. far, distant.

dam-dam adv. always at the same place; dam-dam a-chong-a always sit in the same place; cha˙-na dam-dam am˙-ing-a always wanting to eat in the same place. -dam-dam- aa. regularly at the same place: cha˙-dam-dam-a eat at the same place; dong-dam-dam-a stay at the same place.

dan-dan-o lw. echo in se-pang-o dan-dan-o near: se-pang-o dan-dan-o al-ap-e gol-po-e dong-na nam-a to sit close, chatting and telling stories, is fine.

grim-grim adv. together, along with: ang-ming grim-grim kat-ang-jok ran away along with me.

ha˙-dam, a˙-dam n. location, place; place to sit; site, house site.

ha˙-dam-san-o lw. together, in the same place.

ha˙-dok, a˙-dok n. place, region, area, location, such as a field, village, country.

ha˙-pa-o lw. on the ground, ground level, as opposed to upper stories.

hon-dim-a, on-dim-a vi. short, low, near the ground, of a house, tree, post, hill; opposite of chu-a-a, chu-ak-a.

ja˙-ting-rik-i n. bottom to top, whole thing.

Page  58 jai-ga, ja-ga, ja-gai n. place, location. <B

jak-a-si n. left, left hand, the opposite kin group to one's own: jak-a-si-cha bak, on the left side.

jak-ra n. right-hand; first, oldest child, first rice beer from a batch.

kam-bi n. end, tip, extreme point; top of the head; flower bud, leaf bud, end of a growing vine, top of a tree.

kang˙-krang-a vi. not touching, off the ground, as a tree that has fallen only partway; squat with buttocks well off the ground; sit with one's back away from a wall.

nal-sa-nal-bat adv. on opposite sides, across from each other, that side and this side, on both banks of a river.

pak-sa-cha, pak-sa-cha-pak, pak-sa-o lw. beyond, on the other side of: ra-ma pak-sa-cha on the other side of the road.

rik-i n. top, tree top.

rik-i ben˙-chot n. top end, very top.

rik-ong n. edge, border; border between nations; bank, of a river or tank, etc.; border of cloth; edge of a bed, mat, well.

rim-pi-rim-pi adv. very high, very far.

sak-a n. upper place, upland.

sak-a-pong, sak-a-pong-o n. top, surface; on top of, on the surface of.

se-pang, se-pang-o, si-pang, si-pang-o, si-pang-cha pp. near, close by, (follows genitive -ni).

se-pang-grik adv. close to each other.

se-pang-se-pang adv. in the surrounding area, nearby.

ta-rim-e adv. along with, together with.

wal˙-mik-o lw. at a great distance, (lit. in smoke).

wil-wil-e adv. on all sides, surrounding, around the outside, as rice in beer pot; in circles.

2.13 Here, There, Somewhere

ba-no-ba, bat-cha-ba, bat-cha-bai adv. somewhere, some place or other; with negative: nowhere, anywhere: bat-cha-ba dong-ja there are none anywhere.

gim-ik jai-ga-o lw. in every place, everywhere.

i˙-cha bak, i˙-cha-bak-a ppp. on this side, here.

i˙-cha-i˙-cha adv. here and there.

i˙-no, in˙-o, i-a-no, i-a-o, i-o lw. here.

in˙-cha-in˙-cha adv. here and there.

u˙-cha bak ppp. on that side, there.

u˙-no, un˙-o, u-a-no, u-a-o, u-o dem. there, at that place.

2.14 Direction, Movement (cf. 0.43 Adverbial Affixes: Movement)

a˙-sam jol-jol adv. along the edge, as when walking, when planting crops.

bai-rep-rep adv. one after the other.

cha-a vi. get up, grow, develop; sprout, as from a tree stump. aa. get up, grow, come to life: ni-cha-a look up, with head up; di˙-cha-a get someone up from sleep; bol-cha-a tall; tang-cha-pil˙-a come back to life.

-do-, -du- aa. up, upward: ga-do-a climb; sal-do-a pull up, as in drawing water; bil-do-a fly up; chrok-do-a jump up; chil-do-a lift up onto the head or shoulders.

ja˙-man-ja˙-man adv. one following after the other.

ki˙-sang-cha-na adv. backwards.

ki˙-sang-ki˙-sang adv. one following the other, single file.

mik-kang-cha-na adv. forwards.

-on- aa. down, downward: chok-on-a get down, get off, as from a bus; ni-on-a look down; sik-on-a push down; bil-on-a fly down; di-on-a take a pot off the fire; sik-on-a push down.

on˙-dim on˙-chok adv. up and down, of roads, of birds flying, of people of different heights walking in a file; uneven, of ground.

ru-rot-ru-rot adv. falling here and there, as bits from a torn sack, from a running nose, of a child's drool, blood from a wound.

skang ja˙-man adv. one after the other, as two people walking.

tim-ing-tim-ang adv. this way and that.

2.21 Size

2.22 Fit, Squeeze, Pass Through, Crowded (cf. 9.276 Leak; 9571 Insert)

chak-a vi. fit, have space for, not overflow; take shelter, from sun, rain. -chak- aa. fit, have enough space for: ga˙-chak-a fit, of the feet; jak-chak-a fit in the hands, have time for; chu-chak-a fit onto for sleeping, as onto a mat, bedstead, of adequate size for sleeping: chu-chak-gip-a cho-ki a bedstead the size for sleeping; dong-chak-a fit, sufficient place for; cha˙-chak-a enough space for eating, for the food; at-chong-chak-a enough space for sitting, as on a bus.

chang-ket-a vi. squeezed into, crowded; tight, of bracelets, etc.; stuck, too tight to pass through; closed in and can't get out; stuffy, of nose, throat.

dang˙-a, tang˙-a vi. fit, big enough, of clothes, bracelet; fit through, a door, a narrow place.

Page  64 et-et-a vi. tight, squeezed; unable to pass through, as an arm into a bracelet, a cork into a bottle, etc.

ga˙-ak-ro-rot-a vi. leak or overflow, spill along the way as something is carried, of water, rice, etc.

ga˙-ak-rong-rong-a vi. fall through.

ga˙-chak-a vt. fit, of the feet, as on a pedal: pe-dil-ko ja˙-pa-cha ga˙-chak-e gu-rai-ing-a turning, fitting the feet on the peddle, (lit. fittingly turn the peddle with the feet).

gip-u-a vi. leak through, pass through, as through a sieve; ooze, of a wound.

-ket- aa. filled, squeezed tight, stuck: gap-ket-a filled up tight, no more space, squeezed in; dap-ket-a push wet mud into cracks, bury; jot-ket-a insert, plug up; chang-ket-a stuck, crowded, choke; nap-ket-a enter and stay.

kong-kep-skep adv. full, no space, too many things to fit.

nap-rong-rang-a vi. fit through, pass through freely.

rong-rong-a vi. leak, as from a sack; fit in or through a hole. -rong-rong- aa. through a hole: gip-u-rong-rong-a fit through something small, such as a sieve; ga˙-ak-rong-rong fall through; ki˙-rong-rong-a have diarrhea.

ru-rot-a vi. fall through, leak while being moved, as through a hole in a bag being carried.

sik-nap-a vt. put into, squeeze in forcefully, as into a house or bus: mo-tor es-es-ten man-di-ko sik-nap-e chak-it-a the bus assistant makes the people fit (into the bus) by squeezing them.

sik-sep-ga-sep adv. crowded, squeezed in, as in a bus: sik-sep-ga-sep mo-tor ga-hat-a get onto the bus by crowding. sik-sep-a vt. stick something into a fold in one's clothing, ear, etc.; tuck or poke in, as shirt at the waist, a tool into rafters, a card into a book; stick in and attach, like a pen with a clip.

sket-sket adv. crowded, bumping into each other, filled up, without space, as fruit on a branch, people in a bus.

tang˙-rong-rang-a vi. fit easily into or through, as through a sieve; loosely fitting, as bracelets, sometimes used for bigger things than gip-u-a which is used only for fine things.

te˙-rak-rak, ti˙-rak-rak adv. suitable size, not too big, not too small.

2.23 Loose, Tight

A sense of shape is conveyed through numeral classifiers, adverbial affixes, and derivational noun suffixes, as well as by independent words. In addition to the words listed here, a remarkable number of more specialized words describe shapes of the body and the shapes of parts of the body.

Page  65 dil˙-dek-ga-dek adv. loose, of a tool handle, post, etc.

go˙-ok-a vi. come apart, come loose, come out of, of a tool handle, cork; fall out, be pulled out, plucked, of hair, feathers; fall down, of a lunggi; -gok- aa. separated, broken apart.

je˙-et-je˙-et adv. tight, of shoelaces, thatch, of a fully inflated football.

le-la-le-la adv. loose, as of a tool handle, table leg; lacking stiffness, limp, as of a paralyzed hand.

ring-rang-ga-rang adv. shaky, wobbly, of a rocking boat, a bamboo bridge; flutter, of leaves; restless, constantly moving, of people; flicker, of reflections in metal, a TV screen, water.

rok-rak-a vi. loose, not tight, as a tool handle; wobble, of a pole in the ground; loosely tied, loose, of ripe fruit on a tree. rok-rak-ga-rak adv.

rok-rek-a vt. loosen, shake loose, as a tooth, a pole in the ground, tool handle, furniture; loose and rattling, of the seeds of su-ri fruit; make something move back and forth, like a post in a hole. rok-rek-ga-rek adv. loose, not tight, as a handle.

rok-rek-it-a vt. cause to move back and forth, of a tree or post that wobbles.

rong-rang-a vi. loosely fitting, as bracelets. rong-rang-ga-rang adv.: tang˙-rong-rang-a loosely fitting.

2.25 Beside, Close, Spaced Out (cf. 9.536 Separate, Select; 9.63 Join, Stick)

bi-dil bi-dil adv. growing densely, of vegetables or fruit.

bi-tom-bi-tom, tom-bi-tom-bi adv. crowded, touching, of fruit on the branches.

chap-chap adv. side by side, touching.

chrap-chrap adv. crowded together, as of people at a market; growing close together, of fruits and vegetables; wearing a lot of jewelry.

dam-san, dam-han adv. the same, together, in the same place.

dang˙-dang-a vi. spaced out, at some distance from one another, of fruit, houses, trees; separated, not touching, of people sleeping, sitting, walking. dang˙-dang, dang˙-dang-grik, dang˙-dang-dang˙-dang adv. separated, not touching, of people sleeping, sitting, walking.

dik-a vi. thick, tight together, of growing things, plants, hair: kim-il dik-a thick body hair.

gan˙-chat-a vi. dense, thick, crowded, of clouds, fog, forest, people.

-grang- aa. widely spaced: ap-grang-a widely spaced of basket pieces, made with open spaces; wa-grang-a nicked, not continuously, of a knife blade; ka-grang-a tied together with open spaces, of a fence.

heng˙-a vi. woven loosely, with open spaces, of baskets, cloth. heng˙-e-heng˙-e, heng˙-gri-heng˙-gri adv. widely spaced, of the pieces of a basket.

Page  66 ja˙-pang-ja˙-pang adv. beside one another, in the nearby area.

ket-chi-grik-a vi. side by side.

-krang- aa. open, with space between: ting-krang-a open, of umbrellas; kang˙-krang-a off the ground, as a tree that has fallen only partway; de˙-krang-a resting with one end on off the ground, hold a foot in the air.

nang-chrap-a vi. grow in large amounts, of fruit, vegetables.

rit-dang-ban-dang adv. separately, doing things in different ways, different ideas, disorderly, disagreeing, speaking at the same time, confused, tangled.

srap-srap, srap-e-srap-e adv. going together, follow one another closely, of people or animals. srap-a vi. catch up with, find someone; often in negative: srap-ja cannot catch up. -srap- aa. catch up with: kat-srap-a run and catch up with; rim˙-srap-a catch, as a chicken, a thrown object; in-srap-a catch the points of a conversation, have a dialogue.

tom-be-tom-be, tom-bi-tom-bi adv. crowded together, as in a bundle, as fruit on a branch.

2.26 Full, Empty

al-ga adv. uncovered, empty. <B

bal-ang-ga n. empty of a cup, pot, a bus without people; not shut in, exposed to air, outside; open as a door or pot, an open truck: bal-ang-ga dak-a come open, as when a bottom of a glass falls off.

bang-bang adv. empty, of a hole or a building; clear of trees, open field; open door.

bo-rai-a vt. load, fill, put in; wrap up, as in sacks. <B

bul-ang-bul-ung adv. open, with nothing.

chi-chang-chang, chi-chang-chi-chang adv. empty, of pots, etc.; having gaps in a field of planted crops; gone, disappear, of rice seedlings under water.

gap-a vi. full, of any container.

gap-et-a vt. fill, cause to be full.

gap-ket-a vi. filled up tight, no more space, squeezed in, as in a bus, filled with clouds: gim-bi chi-cha gap-ket-a the water pot is filled full with water.

jak-ra-ra adv. empty, empty handed; not pregnant.

krang-a, krang-krang-a, krang-krang dak-a vi. empty, of a pot without water, etc.; completely clean; clear, of clouds; clear the mind, forget.

2.31 Shape (cf. 0.16 Shapes and Position—Derivational, 0.42 Adverbial Affixes: Shape, Size, Location, 6.4 Shapes of the Body, 1.32 Classifiers, Shape, 964 Change Shape)

2.34 Dimensions

bi-gro, bi-gru n. length, the longer dimension: bi-gro ro˙-a, gip-eng-pang kan˙-dok-a length is long, across is short.

chu-a-a vi. height, one of the three spatial dimensions.

chu-ak-si-si, chu-ak-ri-ri vi. very high.

Page  71 gip-eng n. width, one of the three spatial dimensions.

gip-eng-pang n. turned sideways, crosswise; perpendicular; not saying things straight.

gro, gru n. length, one of the three spatial dimension. -gro- aa. lengthwise, on the long dimension: rat-gro-a cut lengthwise; git-chit-gro- tear lengthwise. -gro dns. length: bol-gro ridgepole; bi-gro length. gro-gro, gru-gru adv. lengthwise: gro-gro bil˙-a vt. roll up starting from the long dimension.

gro dak-e adv. lengthwise.

2.38 Holes

ap-grang-a vi. widely spaced, made with open spaces between pieces, of baskets, etc.

chet-chring-chet-chrang adv. with holes, as very thin cloth such as gauze, of old thatch that one can see through.

ha˙-gop, a˙-gop, gop-ang n. big hole, larger than a˙-kil-ok; low spot of land within a hilly area.

ha˙-kil-ok, a˙-kil-ok n. hole, specifically a hole in the ground but extended to any hole; nostril, ear hole; eye of a needle.

ha˙-kol, a˙-kol, hang˙-kol, ang˙-kol n. hole, in the ground or in any object.

kol-ma-ma n. big hole.

-kong- dns. scooped out, hollow: ring-kong hollow log used to feed animals; bol-kong-bang hole in a tree trunk; kong-kep area inside the curl of the edge of the ear.

pu-pa-pu-pa adv. with lots of holes, as a screen.

re˙-el-a vt. make a hole, bore a hole.

2.51 Time, Abstract (cf. 0.2 Verb Suffixes, 112 Post Positions: time)

a-mul, a-mul-o n. period of time; era. <B

ba-ji, ba-ji-o n. o'clock, hours of clock time. <B

boi-os n. age, number of years one has lived. <B

-ring- aa. at the correct time: sok-ring-a arrive at the right time; most often used in the negative; sok-ba-ring-ja not arrive on time; re˙-ang-ring-ja not go on time.

so-moi n. time. <B

ta-riik n. date, day of the month. <B

tro, tru n. era, generation, belonging to the same era, of the same age. tro-ska, tru-ska, tro-sang-ga n. contemporaries, people of same age, same generation.

Page  72 u˙-ni so-moi-o adv. at that time, then.

2.52 Periods and Points During the Day

More and more Mandis wear wristwatches and regulate their day by clock time, but their parents and grandparents needed other ways to specify the time of day. People can still use an elaborate vocabulary that states the time of day without mentioning hours or minutes.

an˙-tam, an˙-tam-o n. late afternoon, evening, the time past midday.

an˙-tam-cha-pak n. the time before sunset.

an˙-tam-git-tu n. dusk.

an˙-tam-gro-gro, an˙-tam-gru-gru n. the time around sunset.

an˙-tam-pang n. dusk, time after the sun has set but while it is still light; the evening star.

cham-o lw. at that time.

chok-on-o, sal chok-on-o lw. sunset, time when the sun goes down.

di-sal-o-ni di-sal-o-na, in-di-sal-o-ni in-di-sal-o-na lw. from this time to that time, (said while pointing to two places in the sky marking where the sun would be at the times referred to).

git-ching-a n. a bit past noon when sun bends down past its high point; bent over but less than gang-jol, of a tree, wall, etc.; tipped, of a cooking pot.

git-il-o lw. a bit past noon.

jrang-a, jrang-ba-a vi. shine; become morning twilight; light, bright, get lighter as clouds clear up, as lamps are turned on; burn up strongly, of fire, lamps.

na-ba-a, sal na-ba-a vi. sun rises, appears.

na-jak-a n. early morning, time when the sun is not quite up.

pring, pring-o n. morning, in the morning, (A˙ chik).

pring wal-ni n. tomorrow morning.

sal na-na skang nph. before sunrise.

sal si-a n. end of the day, (lit. sun dies).

sal wel-a vi. the time past noon.

sal-an-tam-o n. time when the sun begins to move lower in the sky, late afternoon.

sal-chu-gra-gra n. time when the sun is well up, but not way up, one or two hours after sunrise.

sal-jat-chi, sal-jang-chi-o, sal-jat-chi-o n. in middle of the day, noon.

seng˙-na git-tu n. early morning, morning twilight.

sim-sam-sim-sam n. twilight, partly but not fully dark.

sim-sim-a vi. the time of growing dark, after the sunset. an˙-tam-sim-sim adv.

wal n. night. wal-a vi. become night. wal- cls. classifier for nights.

Page  73 wal seng˙-a vi. grow light at dawn, (lit. night brightens).

wal-jat-chi, wal-jang-chi n. midnight.

wal-ni n. morning, this morning.

wal-ni gro-gro, wal-ni gru-gru n. the time at or following sunrise.

wal-ni-ni n. early morning.

wel-a vi. pass noon, or pass midnight.

2.53 Amounts of Time (cf. 1.33 Classifiers, Time Units)

Mandi has a remarkable number of ways to say 'all day': sal-si-si, sal-tat, sal-prak, sal-gim-ik. I have never discovered any difference in meaning among these.

an-ti n. week, market. cls. classifier for weeks, (A˙ chik).

an˙-tam-pring n. all the time, (lit. evening-morning).

bai-a vi. last a long time, endure.

bo-chor n. year, years. <B

cha-song n. generation, era, one's time of life.

-dang- aa. with sufficient time, often used with a negative: dang-ja with insufficient time; rim˙-dang-a finish working, without interruption; cha˙-dang-a time to eat; a-lap-dang-ja can't manage to talk, because of interruptions, etc.; chok-dang-ja no time to finish writing.

diin n. day, today. <B

dik-dik-prak adv. for a short time.

dik-dik-sa, dik-dik-ha adv. for a little while, a short time, for just a moment.

dong-kam-a, dong-kam-kam-a, dong-kam-kam-a-ri adv. for a long time, of rain, sleep, residence, etc.

gon-ta, ghon-ta n. bell, gong. gon-ta- cls. classifier for hours. <B

ha-rim-a, a-rim-a vi. late, delayed, a long time.

ja n. month.

ja-ro-bi-a adv. month after month, a long time.

mas n. month. <B

ok-ke, da˙-o-ni ok-ke adv. not for long.

rong-ge-rong-ge adv. a long time, late.

rong-rong, rong-rong dak-a adv. late, delayed, take a long time.

-ru-ru- aa. for a long time, forcefully: kim-ru-ru-a thunder that seems to move across the sky; dong-ru-ru-a be in the same place for a long time; ak-ru-ru-a pluck for a long time.

sal n. day, daytime; 24 hours, sun.

sal-gim-ik adv. the whole day.

sal-pak-sa adv. half a day.

sal-prak adv. all day, the whole day.

sal-sa dong-e adv. omitting one day, after skipping one day.

Page  74 sal-sa-wal-sa n. one day and one night.

sal-si-si adv. all day, the whole day.

sal-tat adv. all day, the whole day.

sop-ta n. week. cls. classifier for weeks: sop-ta-prak, sop-ta-rik-it, sop-ta-jring every week, each week; sop-ta-gin-i two weeks. <B

teng˙-kap teng˙-kap adv. quickly, briefly, immediately, at once, right away.

wal-kim-bak-a adv. half the night, late at night.

wal-ni-wal-ni, wal-ni rik-kit adv. every morning.

wal-pak-sa adv. half the night, part of the night.

wal-si-sal-si adv. all night and all day.

wal-si-si adv. all night.

wal-tat adv. whole night.

2.61 Now

da˙-, da˙-o adv. now.

da˙-o-ro-ro adv. now-a-days.

i˙-ni so-moi-o adv. at this time.

2.62 Earlier, Before, Ago, Last

a-ge n. before, ago, in the past. <B

-cheng- aa. first, before doing something else: cha˙-cheng-a eat first, (before something else); i˙-ang-cheng-a go first, go ahead; a˙-ba-cheng-a begin, (cf. -so-).

cheng-o lw. before, earlier, some time ago, in the past, in earlier times.

da˙-al wal-ni, da˙-sal wal-ni adv. this morning.

da˙-an-o lw. a little while ago, just now.

da˙-sel-o lw. at an earlier time.

da˙-si wal-o lw. last night.

da˙-si-o, da˙-si lw. a while ago, long ago, formerly, longer ago than da˙-an-o.

me-ja an˙-tam-o, me-ja-o an˙-tam-o lw. last evening, yesterday evening.

me-ja wal-ni, me-ja-o wal-ni adv. yesterday morning.

me-ja wal-o, me-ja-o wal-o lw. last night.

re˙-ang-gip-a n. previous, last, former: re˙-ang-gip-a bil-si last year; re˙-ang-gip-a Ro-bi-bar-o last Sunday.

skang, skang-o lw. before, earlier, ago, in earlier days.

-so- aa. first, before others, ahead, wait: i˙-ang-so-a go first, go ahead; seng-so-a wait for; ni-chak-so-a wait for, look out for; cha˙-so-a eat before someone else; a-gan-so-a announce, tell ahead of time, (cf. -cheng- before doing something else).

teng-re, teng-ri teng-re-teng-re, teng-ri-teng-ri adv. early, soon, fast, quickly.

2.63 After, Later, Future, Next

da˙-al wal-o, da˙-sal wal-o lw. tonight.

da˙-an adv. in a little while, a little while from now.

i-a wal-o lw. tonight.

mik-kang n. next, coming: mik-kang ja-o, ja-mik-kang next month; mik-kang-gip-a adv. next, coming: mik-kang-gip-a bil-si-o next year; mik-kang-gip-a ja-o next month.

re˙-ba-gip-a n. next, the one that comes: re˙-ba-gip-a ja-o next month; re˙-ba-gip-a Ro-bi-bar-o next Sunday.

2.65 Days

am-bin-o, am-bun-o, am-bin, am-bun lw. tomorrow, in the future, next, after a while.

am-bin-o dong-e adv. the day after tomorrow, the day after am-bin-o, (lit. omitting tomorrow).

am-bin-o sal-sa-ni ja˙-man-o lw. one day after tomorrow, day after tomorrow.

am-bin-o-ni wal-ni-o lw. tomorrow morning.

am-bin-o-ni wal-o, am-bin-o wal-o lw. tomorrow night.

da˙-sal, da˙-al, da˙-al-o, da˙-a-sal, da˙-hal n. today.

me-ja-o, mi-ja-o n. yesterday.

Page  76 me-ja-o-na skang n. day before yesterday.

min-i-o lw. day before yesterday, some time ago.

re˙-ang-gip-a Ro-bi-bal-o lw. last Sunday, (lit. going Sunday).

re˙-ba-gip-a Ro-bi-bal-o lw. next Sunday, (lit. coming Sunday).

sal-a-gip-in n. another day; sal-a-gip-in i˙-ba-bo come on another day.

sot-ni-o, sot-mi-o lw. day after tomorrow.

2.66 Week, Month, and Year

bil-si git-al nph. new year.

bil-si git-cham nph. last year.

da˙-bil-si, da˙-a bil-si n. this year.

da˙-ska-ri, da˙-sik-ka-ri n. last year.

da˙-ska-ri chang-ha-o nph. year before last.

i-a dem. this, for time units: i-a bil-si-o this year; i-a ja-o this month; i-a sop-ta-o this week.

ka-ri, ka-ri-o lw. next year.

ka-ri chang-ha-o nph. year after next.

ka-ri ka-rang-o nph. next year.

ki˙-sang n. last, previous, most recent: ja ki-sang last month.

re˙-ang-gip-a n. last, just past: re˙-ang-gip-a ja-o last month.

2.71 Frequency

-an-ti dns. every: sal-an-ti every day; sop-ta-an-ti every week.

ba-sik-o-ba, ba-sok-o-ba adv. whenever, sometime; never (with a negative verb): ba-sik-o-ba re˙-ba-no-a will come sometime; ba-sik-o-ba re˙-ba-ja-no-a will never come.

bai-sik-bai-sik, ba-sik-ba-sik adv. sometimes.

bar-bar adv. again and again, repeatedly. <B

chang-e-chang-e adv. alternate times, every other time; sal-ha chang-e-chang-e every alternate day; man-di chang-e-chang-e every alternate person.

da˙-an-da˙-an adv. often, again and again.

da˙-o-ba, da˙-a-ba adv. now also, again, moreover, and in addition.

dong-e-dong-e adv. now and then, at intervals.

je so-moi-o lw. whenever, at whatever time. <B

jem˙-jem-a vi. regularly, repeatedly, often: jem˙-jem-a-ri bol-ing-a always talking. jem˙-jem adv.: jem˙-jem i-jam-ing-a repeatedly yawning. -jem˙-jem- aa. repeatedly constantly: kat-jem-jem-a run a lot; dok-jem-jem-a hit constantly; i˙-ang-jem˙-jem-a go repeatedly.

-jring dns. every: sal-a-jring every day; sop-ta-jring every week. aa. often, repeatedly, always, constantly, regularly: cha˙-jring-a always eat; i˙-ang-jring-a go all the time.

jring-jring, jring-na adv. always, repeatedly, constantly, daily.

jring-jrot adv. repeatedly, daily.

ma-je-ma-je, ma-ji-ma-ji adv. now and then, sometimes. <B

pang-na adv. always, (A˙ chik).

pang-na-ba adv. never, when used with a negative verb, (A˙ chik).

pil˙-tai-a vi. repeat, again and again. pil˙-tai-pil˙-tai adv.

-prak num. every, each: sop-ta-prak every week; bil-si-prak every year.

prak-prak adv. continuously, freely, openly, without hesitation, without shyness or fear. prak-prak mik-u-ing-a vph. noisy, loud, as the noise of water flowing on steep ground, crackling noise of splitting wood, of tearing cloth.

-rik-kit num. every: ja-rik-kit every month; bil-si-rik-kit every year; sal-a-rik-kit every day; sop-ta-rik-kit every week; wal-a-rik-kit, wal-rik-kit every night.

-rik-rik- aa. repeatedly, piece by piece, constantly, progressively: gu-ri-rik-rik-a turn again and again; am˙-rik-rik-a want continuously; bu˙-rik-rik-a lie constantly; bang-rik-rik-a more and more, increase, of prices; dil-rik-rik-a grow poorer and poorer; do-rik-rik-a go up and up.

sal-a-jring adv. every day.

sal-a-rik-kit adv. every day.

-tai- aa. again: grap-tai-a cry again, (A˙ chik).

wal-ni-wal-ni, wal-ni-rik-kit adv. every morning.

2.72 Speed

2.81 Day Names

All Garos, even those who live in the center of the Garo Hills where they are furthest from the Bengali-speaking plains, use the Bengali names Page  79for the days of the week. Markets that are held every seventh day probably go back to pre-British times, and if so, they have been imposing a seven day cycle on the Garos for a long time. Mandis and other Garos do pronounce these words in a distinctive way and the words are given here as the Mandis pronounce them, not as they would be pronounced by native Bengali speakers. Unlike Western month names, western names for the days of the week are rarely used, probably because the exact equivalence of the Western and Bengali weekday names makes it unnecessary to have two sets.

Ro-bi-bal, Ro-bi-bar n. Sunday. <B

Som-bal n. Monday. <B

Mong-gol-bal n. Tuesday. <B

But-bal n. Wednesday. <B

Bi-sut-bal, Bri-hos-pot-ti-bar n. Thursday. <B

Suk-ro-bal n. Friday. <B

So-ni-bal n. Saturday. <B

2.82 Month Names

The Bengali names for the months are still widely used by the Mandis and other Garos, particularly for describing points in the agricultural cycle, and for the parallel cycle of blossoming and ripening of wild plants. At least among Mandis, the names of the months are more variable in pronunciation than the names of the weekdays. Just why the month that includes part of March and part of April should have so many variants I have no idea, but I have heard all of those given here. The Western months are also in wide use today. They are always used for the school calendar and for the Christian religious cycle.

Boi-sak n. the Bengali month that overlaps April and May. <B

Joi-sto, Jo-sto, Jo-sti n. the Bengali month that overlaps May and June. <B

A-sar, A-sal n. the Bengali month that overlaps June and July. <B

Sra-bon n. the Bengali month that overlaps July and August. <B

Bat-dro, Bha-dro, Bat-ro n. n the Bengali month that overlaps August and September. <B

A-siin n. the Bengali month that overlaps September and October. <B

Kar-tiik, Ka-tiik, Ka-ti n. the Bengali month that overlaps October and November. <B

Ok-ro-hai-on, Ok-ran, O-gron, Ok-rai-on n. the Bengali month that overlaps November and December. <B

Pus n. the Bengali month that overlaps December and January. <B

Mak n. the Bengali month that overlaps January and February. <B

Pal-gun n. the Bengali month that overlaps February and March. <B

Choit, Choit-tro, Choit-tri, Chot-tri, Chu-et, Chot-ro n. the Bengali month that overlaps March and April. <B

2.84 Seasons

ding˙-ka-ri n. hot season.

ha˙-ran, a˙-ran, ha˙-ran-ka-ri n. dry season, the time of dried earth.

hu-hu-dok-dok n. dry season, when the ground is hard and dry.

sin˙-ka-ri n. cold season.

wa-chi, wa-chi-ka-ri n. rainy season.

wa-da n. echo in wa-chi wa-da rainy season.

3.34 Amounts

3.35 Each, Every

rik-kit n. each, every: man-de rik-kit every person. -rik-kit num. each, every (when used with a classifier): man-de sak-rik-kit each person; a˙-ba dam-rik-kit each field; sal-a-rik-kit each day; ja-rik-kit each month.

-sro, -sru ns. each, generally for distributing things: pil-sa-sro one coin each; tang-ka pat-gin-i-sro two takas each; mi rang-tal-sa-sro one plate of rice each; kap-sa-sro ron˙-bo give one cup each.

3.37 Mandi and A˙ chik Numbers

Garos living in India have a full set of numbers in their own language which they use for most purposes, but few Bangladeshi Mandis can count beyond five in Mandi. Numbers are most often used in school and in marketing, both places that are dominated by the Bengali language. Mandis control the full complexity of the Bengali number system, not only the numbers themselves, but also arithmetical terminology. I have not included this Bengali vocabulary here. The only native Mandi word for arithmetical manipulation that I have ever encountered is chan-a 'count'. The modern A˙ chik number system is described in Chapter 10 of Volume I, along with a sketch of a now dying alternative.

a-dra n. half.

pak-sa n. half, the other side: sal pak-sa half a day.

jak-ra n. first, oldest child, first rice beer; right-hand.

-sa num. one.

-gin-i, gin-ing num. two. gin-i-gip-a n. second.

-git-tam num. three. git-tam-gip-a n. third.

-bri num. four. bri-gip-a n. fourth.

-dok num. six, (A˙ chik).

-sin-i num. seven, (A˙ chik).

-chet num. eight, (A˙ chik).

-sku num. nine, (A˙ chik).

-chi-king num. ten, (A˙ chik).

sot- num. prefix for tens in counting, as sot-bri forty, sot-chet eighty, etc., (A˙ chik).

kol-grik, kol num. twenty, (A˙ chik).

kol-grik-gin-i, kol-i-gin-i num. twenty-two, (A˙ chik).

kol-grik-bong-a, kol-i bong-a num. twenty-five, (A˙ chik).

kol-a-chi num. thirty, (A˙ chik).

kol-chang-gin-i num. forty, (lit. 20 x 2).

kol-chang-gin-i pat-sa num. forty-one.

kol-chang-git-tam num. sixty, (lit. 20 x 3).

kol-chang-bri num. eighty, (lit. 20 x 4).

kol-chang-bong-a num. one hundred, (lit. 20 x 5).

ma˙-sa num. one hundred.

rit-cha-sa num. one hundred, (mainly A˙ chik).

3.38 Bengali Numbers

poi-la adv. first. <B

pro-tom, pol-tom n. first, beginning. <B

lak, lo-ko num. one hundred thousand. <B

3.42 Probability

-kon ts. probably, maybe.

-na-ba-dong-a pvs. probably.

-na-ba-gin-ang pvs. probably.

3.43 Similar and Different, Kind, Various

3.44 Accuracy, Reality, Purity, Truth (cf. 7.25 Untruths, Lies; 7.26 jokes)

a-dot n. original, genuine, real; personal name given by parents, in contrast to baptismal name. a-dot-e adv. really, (same as a-sol-e). <B

a-sol-e adv. really, truly, actually. <B

be-be, bi-bi adv. truly, really, correctly.

chek-chek adv. surely, really, real, genuine; pure colored, of a single color.

chong˙-mot n. actual, real. -chong˙-mot- aa. really, certainly.

em-ne adv. for no reason; for practice rather than real, just happens. <B

hang-jang adv. without reason, with no purpose, randomly, hurriedly.

kak-ket adv. true, correct.

ram-ram adv. ordinary, normal, usual.

3.45 Quality, Evaluative

3.51 See, Watch, Show, Search (cf. 9.42 Eye Gestures).

3.53 Color

Forms of Garo that escaped heavy Bengali influence had, at least until recently, just four well established color terms: gip-ok 'white', gi-sim 'black', git-chak 'red', and rim-it 'yellow'. The first three of these are all formed with an ancient, but now frozen prefix, and they share some unusual syntactic features associated with words having this prefix, that are described in Chapter 11 of Volume I. Rim-it stands out as different from the other three, and perhaps it is a relatively late addition to the language, but it is firmly established among all groups of Garos that I have known. Tang˙I-sik-a, derived presumably from tang˙I-a 'green' in the sense of 'unripe', has occasionally been pressed into service as a term for 'green' color, but it is much less well established than the other four color terms. Bangladeshi Mandis supplement their four basic terms with a large number of compounds that refine their meanings, and with several words borrowed from Bengali: niil 'blue', ko-e-ri 'dark brown' and others. All this corresponds very closely to the famous Berlin-Kay color-sequence. (Berlin and Kay (1969). Of course, Mandis can also describe a color by mentioning an object that has the color.

3.54 Clarity and Visibility (cf. 3.714 Clean, Clear; 657 Washing and Grooming)

chi-chang-chang adv. disappear, gone, of rice seedlings under water; empty, clear of objects; having gaps in a field of planted crops.

gong-ge-a-o lw. around the bend, out of sight.

mik-mak-mik-mak, mik-met-mik-met adv. poorly seen due to smoke or fog.

rim-a-rim-a, rim-ang-rim-ang adv. see or hear partially, unclear, blurred, as from far away.

rim-pit-rim-pit adv. see poorly because something is far away.

rim-ra-rim-ra, rim-ra-ga-ra adv. vaguely, blurry, unclear, see badly, as from far away, in a fog, under water.

ru-ang-ru-ang, su-ang-su-ang adv. see or hear dimly, in the distance.

3.55 Brightness, Shine, Shadow, Dullness, Darkness (cf. 5.42 Fire and Lights)

3.62 Hearing and Sound (cf. 7.29 Non-language Uses of Voice)

3.64 Touching and Feeling (cf. 8.94 Pain, Itching, Burning)

chim-it-a vi. be asleep, of one's leg, etc., pins and needles. ja˙-chim-it-a vi. asleep, of the legs. jak-chim-it-a vi. asleep, of the arms.

grep-grep adv. hurting as well as itching, of an insect bite.

ja˙-min-tal-a vi. asleep, of legs.

jak-min-tal-a vi. asleep, of arms.

ka˙-kit-a vi. itch.

ka˙-kit-chu-a vi. feel tickled; have buzzing in the ear.

lek-gu-a, lek-gu-gu-a vt. tickle, (same as rem-bu-bu-a, jik-jik-a).

me-sak-a, mi-sak-a vi. burn, sting, as from nettles or the stinging hair of a poisonous caterpillar; git-dok me-sak-a feeling in throat after eating ta˙-ring (arum).

rem-bu-a, rem-bu-bu-a vt. tickle, shake someone to call attention.

rim˙-e ni-a vt. feel, test by feeling.

rim˙-kin-ap-a vi. pleasant to touch, feel soft or good.

rim˙-to-a vi. nice feeling, feel good to the touch.

sa˙-dik-a vi. hurt, ache, be painful; burning taste of chilies.

sa˙-dik-srim-a vi. a little painful, not very painful.

-srok- aa. lightly, loosely, gently, partially, incompletely: dok-srok-a hit lightly; ha-bu-srok-a bathe quickly or partially; a-gan-srok-a tell partially, not everything; ka-srok-a tie loosely; ken˙-srok-a comb slowly and carefully.

3.66 Texture and Surface, Sharp, Smooth, etc.

3.67 Temperature

3.68 Taste and Smell

3.71 Cleanliness, Purity, Order, Mess