The Language of the Modhupur Mandi (Garo), Volume 2

4.212 Sky, Stars

I have always been surprised that Mandis have so few words to describe the night sky. With artificial lighting confined to simple flashlights and to oil and kerosene lamps, the stars can be dazzling on a moonless and cloudless night, and I would expect endless stories to be told about them. The stars known in English as the 'Milky Way', 'Orion's belt and sword' and 'the Pleiades', as well as the planet Venus have names, but I have never been able to elicit names for any other planets, stars, or collections of stars. Except for the sun, moon, and clouds, people seem uninterested in the sky.

a-bi-sa sak-sin-i n. the constellation of the Pleiades, (lit. seven sisters).

a-sek-ki n. star.

an˙-tam-pang n. evening star; dusk, evening, time after the sun has set but while it is still light.

do˙-sat-til a-sek-ki, du˙-sat-til a-sek-ki n. the constellation of the Pleiades.

dong-gip-eng dong-gru n. the stars of Orion's belt and sword, (lit. being across, being long).

ma-ni-tang dong-gip-eng dong-gru n. the belt and sword of the constellation Orion, (lit. mother-in-law, across, long, implies that the son-in-law is carrying his mother-in-law).

mat-ma ra-ma n. Milky Way, (lit. buffalo-road).

ping-pang, pi-ring-pang n. morning star, (A˙ chik: pring-prang).

rak-a-si n. shooting star, name of a mit-e (spirit).

sil-ga n. sky.

4.214 Sun and Moon

ja-but-chum n. dark of the moon, time before the new moon, (lit. old lady moon).

ja-jong n. moon.

ja-jong or-dek, ja-or-dek, ja-ni or-dek n. quarter moon.

ja-kam-bi n. quarter moon.

ja-min-ok-a, ja-jong min-ok-a, ja-ko min-ok-a vph. eclipse of the moon; be stupid, (lit. swallow the moon, from the fable that an eclipse comes when a monster swallows the moon).

ja-ram-bong n. full moon.

ku˙-weng-a vi. curved, of a crescent moon, a crooked smile, a twisted face. ku˙-weng-weng adv.

Na-wang min-ok-a vph. eclipse, (lit. swallowed by Na-wang, a monster).

sal n. sun, day, daytime; 24 hour period. sal- cls. classifier for days.

sal min-ok-a, sal-ko min-ok-a vph. eclipse of the sun, (lit. swallow the sun).

si-a, ja-jong si-a vi. be the dark of the moon, (lit. moon dies).

4.218 Compass Directions

In the two years that I lived in the Garo Hills, I knew of, but never managed to learn, the terms for the four points of the compass. The hill Garos seemed to have a keen sense of direction. They could point, apparently accurately, to distant villages, but my failure to learn their compass terms could only have been due to the rarity with which the people I knew used them. When, many years later, I began to live among Mandis in Bangladesh I learned their terms for the compass points almost immediately because they were used constantly. Their terms, however, were borrowed from Bengali. The native Garo terms that I had been told about earlier in the Garo Hills were known to some Mandis in Bangladesh but they were as rarely used there as they had been in the hills. The difference between the two areas must be due to the difference in their topography. Bangladeshi Mandis live in flat country with few distinctive topographical landmarks. They need the compass directions to keep themselves oriented. Bangladeshi Mandis have even borrowed the Bengali practice of orienting their houses, more or less, to the compass. Houses in the Garo Hills have to be built to conform to the slope of the land, and they can face in any direction at all.

I was always puzzled by sal-gro 'north' and sal-gip-eng 'south'. gro and gip-eng mean, respectively 'length' and 'breadth', but I could not understand what these have to do with 'north' and 'south'. Mijenma, a senior lady from the village of Gaira in Bangladesh, offered what strikes me as a plausible explanation. Sal-gro 'north' describes the relatively long path that the sun takes through the sky in the summer when the sun is in the north. Sal-gip-eng 'south' describes the shorter path that it takes during the winter.

dok-kiin n. south. <B

pos-chiim, pot-chiim n. west. <B

pup, pur-bo n. east. <B

ut-tor n. north. <B

sal-a-ram n. east, (mainly A˙ chik).

sal-gip-eng, sal-gip-eng-pang n. south, the southern (shorter) path of the winter sun, (mainly A˙ chik).

sal-gro n. north; the northern (longer) summer path of the sun, (mainly A˙ chik).

sal-i-ram n. west, (mainly A˙ chik).

4.231 Land, World, Nature (cf. 5.11 Fields)

ha˙-ba n. cultivated land, fields.

ha˙-gil-sak, a˙-gil-sak n. world, earth.

ha˙-pal, a˙-pal n. low land; flat land, land used for wet rice in contrast to slash and burn; specifically: the area of north Mymensingh where Mandis live.

ha˙-rang, ha˙-drang n. ground, land.

rong˙-kol n. cave.

4.232 Upland

ha˙-bri, a˙-bri n. mountain, large hill.

ha˙-chik, a˙-chik n. mountain, hill, upward slope as of a road.

ha˙-ding, a˙-ding n. cultivatable land that is higher than its surroundings, land that does not flood.

ha˙-ga, a˙-ga n. land that is slightly higher than its surroundings, land that does not flood; dry land, in contrast to a pond or lake.

ha˙-gop, a˙-gop, gop-ang n. big hole, larger than an a˙-kil-ok, low spot of land within a hilly area.

ha˙-kong, a˙-kong n. low place between hills that is wider than a ha˙-sing-sep; valley.

ha˙-rong-ga, a˙-rong-ga n. uplands, hills; specifically: the uplands of the Garo Hills.

ha˙-sak-a, a˙-sak-a n. high land, hill tract.

ha˙-sing-sep, a˙-sing-sep n. pass, low area between two hills that is narrower than a ha˙-kong.

ha˙-sol-sol, ha˙-so-sol, a˙-sol-sol n. slope of a mountain, slope down.

ha˙-ting-gak n. an upward slope, rise.

ja˙-pang n. base of a mountain, place near the foot of the mountain. ja˙-pang, ja˙-pang-o pp. near, beside, at the base of, (follows genitive -ni).

ja˙-rek n. edge of mountains, foot of a mountain, base of a mountain.

ja˙-ting n. base of a mountain; base of a tree, banana plant, etc.; stubble after rice grain is cut; back end, as the back end of a pen.

ra-ma a˙-sol-sol nph. downward slope of a road.

4.242 Dirt, Earth

ha˙-, a˙-, ha˙-a, a˙-a, ha n. earth, ground, soil, land. ha˙-, a˙- cp. categorizing prefix for land, soil, countryside: ha˙-kin-te lumps of earth; ha˙-ba fields; a˙-gil-sak world.

ha˙-an-cheng n. soil mixed with sand.

ha˙-gi-sim, a˙-gi-sim, ha˙-gil-gi-sim, ha˙-mang-gi-sim n. dark earth, such as earth of a field for wet rice, (lit. black earth).

ha˙-gip-ok, a˙-gip-ok, ha˙-gil-gip-ok, ha˙-mang-gip-ok n. grey colored earth from rice fields used to smear on a house, (lit. white earth).

ha˙-git-chak, ha˙-mang git-chak n. the ordinary yellow to rust-brown soil found in the raised area of Modhupur; earth used to build roads, (lit. red earth).

ha˙-git-ting, a˙-git-ting n. unburned ground, ordinary ground, in contrast to a fireplace; an area of a slash and burn field that escapes the fire, (lit. raw earth).

ha˙-ka-ki, a˙-ka-ki n. a kind of earth that lacks sand and that is hard when dry but very sticky when wet.

ha˙-keng-krak, a˙-keng-krak n. hard clay.

ha˙-mang, a˙-mang n. soil, earth, what is dug out when digging a hole: ha˙-mang ha˙-mang dak-e so-eng-a smelling of soil, as water from a well may smell.

han˙-cheng, an˙-cheng n. sand.

4.244 Stones, Lumps of Earth

Mandis in Bangladesh, though far from the sea coast, live on land that must once have been delta, and stones are rare to non-existent. The Garo Hills, by contrast, have abundant stones. Garo dictionaries give numerous words for 'stones', many of them compounds formed with the categorizing prefix rong˙I-. If the Mandis I spoke with knew many of these words they used them so rarely that I never noticed or learned them. My impression is that their language is as impoverished for words for stones as their countryside is impoverished for the stones themselves.

ha˙-kin-te, ha˙-kin-ti, a˙-kin-te n. lumps of earth that are bigger than rong˙-krek.

ha˙-rong-gi-rong-ga n. soil of mixed types, red, white, black.

ha˙-rong-gra n. earth with small hard lumps, (same as rong˙-krek).

ha˙-rong-krek n. dirt with small hard lumps.

rong˙-krek, rong˙-kek n. small lumps of hard earth.

rong˙-te, rong˙-ti n. stone, rock, big stone; the flat (lower) grindstone; the weight used on a balance scale.

sil-ki n. pebbles, small hard glassy black stones.

4.246 Mud

be-dol, be-dor n. mud, clay. <B

ha˙-pek, a˙-pek, ha˙-dip-ek, a˙-dip-ek n. mud.

ha˙-rim-il-a, a˙-rim-il-a n. slippery ground.

ha˙-stap, a˙-stap, ha˙-stap-a n. sticky mud.

4.248 Dust

dil-ing-dil-ing adv. swirling about, as dust.

dul-a n. dust. <B

ha˙-gin-dil-a, a˙-gin-dil-a n. dust, particularly dust that is flying in the air.

ha˙-kin-chi, a˙-kin-chi n. loose dust, the fine dirt that grinds off top of packed dried earth.

4.252 Rivers

chi-bi-ma n. river, (A˙ chik).

chi-da-ri n. flowing stream.

chi-dek n. pond, wide place in a stream.

chi-ga n. spring, place where water is obtained from a stream or pond.

chi-git-ok n. narrow place in a water channel or river, (lit. water-neck).

chi-ret n. water channel leading to or from rice fields.

chi-rik-ing, chi-rik-ong n. bank of a river, pond, etc., shore.

chi-ring n. small stream.

chi-ring kal˙-dek n. small stream, esp. the upper end of a stream.

chi-ring-chi-dek n. rivers and ponds, wet places.

chi-sam, chi a˙-sam n. water edge, bank.

gang n. river, smaller than a no-di. <B

nal n. tributary of river, pipe, food path, barrel of a gun. <B

no-di n. river, larger than a gang. <B

4.253 Sea, Lakes, Tanks, Puddles, Springs

chi-bil-ok n. a place where water collects, puddle, water hole.

chi-bol n. puddle.

chi-mik n. spring, water source.

chi-ting-kil-ok n. water hole, puddle.

ha˙-ta-ru, a˙-ta-ru n. deep muddy place, swamp.

ku-ri n. a low or deep spot in a pond, low place in rice fields where water collects; small tank that goes dry in the dry season; place, as in some place names. <B

pa-gar, pa-gal n. small tank, pond; hole from which dirt has been taken and that collects water. <B

pu-kur, pus-kin-i n. large tank or pond that holds water all year without drying up, bigger than a pa-gar. <B

4.323 Clouds, Clear Sky

bik-chat-a vi. be thick, of clouds.

bik-sring-a vi. cover thinly, of clouds.

chat-a vi. thick with clouds.

ga-dil-a, ga-del-a n. cloud: ga-dil-a gri cloudless.

gan˙-chat-a vi. dense, thick, crowded, of clouds, fog, forest, people.

gil-kri-a vi. clear up, of clouds, dirty water.

krang-a, krang-krang-a, krang-krang dak-a vi. clear up, of weather, clouds, or a mess; clear out of the mind, forget; empty, of a pot without water, etc.

mit-tip-a vt. close up, cover, of clouds over the sun, a window hole; close a bottle, plug up a hole, put on a screw top; bury.

4.325 Rain, Light Rain

bal-mik-a vi. drizzle.

gra-gra adv. light shower: mik-ka gra-gra wa-ing-a it is raining lightly.

mik-ka n. rain.

mit-chi ga˙-ak-a vph. a bit of rain falls.

on-a vi. come down, of rain, fog, dew.

rip-rip-a, mik-ka rip-rip-a vi. rain a few drops.

rit-ti-rit-ti, rit-ti-rit-ta, rit-ti-rit-tak, rit-ti-ti-rit-ta-ta adv. rain just a bit, intermittently, here and there, drop by drop.

rit-tik-e-rit-tak-e ga˙-ak-a adv. rain just a bit.

se˙-em-se˙-em, sem˙-sem dak-a adv. fine rain, drizzle. wa-sem-sem-a vi.

tip-a vi. stop raining, dry up, stop flowing, of puddles, pools, streams, breast, well, etc.

wa-a vi. rain.

4.327 Rain Hard, Long

ba-du-ri-a vi. rain hard, pour, rain for a long time.

bek-bek-a vi. rain heavily.

bi-te, mik-ka bi-te n. falling rain, raindrops, (lit. fruit): mik-ka bi-te rong-ma-rong-ma ga˙-ak-ing-a big raindrops are falling.

dai-dai adv. a lot: dai-dai mik-ka wa-ing-a raining a lot.

jek-jek-a vi. rain long but lightly.

jik-jik adv. rain heavily: mik-ka jik-jik on-ing-a rain is falling heavily.

on-drak-a, on-drak-drak-a vi. rain heavily.

on-prak-prak-a, on-drak-pak-a vi. rain heavily.

wa-bek-bek-a, wa-pak-pak-a vi. rain for a long time.

wa-drak-a, mik-ka wa-drak-a vi. rain heavily.

wa-kam-a vi. rain continuously.

4.329 Dew, Fog, Hail, Ice

bo-rop n. ice, snow. <B

chi-tok-tak, chi-tok-tak dak-a adv. dripping, of dew.

gu-ri n. fog, mist.

gu-ri an-dal-a vph. thick fog, dark fog.

gu-ri on-a, gu-ri pin-a, gu-ri dak-a, gu-ri ga˙-ak-a vph. there is fog, it is foggy.

on-wak-a, gu-ri on-wak-a vi. be thick, of fog.

rip-on-chi n. dew.

rit-a, stil rit-a vi. rumble, sound of hail preparing to fall; boil.

stil n. hail.

stil bal-wa dak-a vph. hail with wind.

4.342 Thunder

gam˙-pret-a vi. sound loudly, of thunder, airplane, gun.

gul˙-gul-a, mik-ka gul˙-gul-a vi. thunder softly.

hil˙-hil-a, il˙-il-a vi. loud noise, rumble of thunder, rumble like an engine.

kim-a vi. to make a noise, as thunder; make a sound.

kim-bing-a vi. to thunder in the distance.

kim-cha-a vi. to thunder.

kim-pret-a vi. thunder, powerful thunder clap.

kim-ru-ru-a vi. long lasting thunder, thunder which sounds as if it moves across the sky. vi. echo in kim-pret-a kim-ru-ru-a thunder.

lil˙-lil-a vi. make noise, of thunder, an engine.

sau˙-sau-e adv. softly, of thunder that anticipates rain.

tim˙-tim-a vi. make a noise of thunder, of rice being ground in a mill, of a tube well, motor, train.

4.344 Lightning

ching˙-brap-a vi. shine brightly, of fire, lightning, a lamp, shiny metal.

el-ep-a, hel-ep-a vi. lightning.

go-pret-a, gu-pret-a vt. strike, of lightning; throw hard and break.

jil˙-au-a vi. lightning; flair up, of a fire.

jing˙-jang-a vi. flash, of lightning; shine, of metal or a mirror.

li˙-lap-a vi. lightning.

ri˙-rau-a vi. flash, of a mirror or flashes of lightning. ri˙-rau-ri˙-rau adv.

ring˙-rang-a vi. small amount of lightning.

4.416 Cats

bi-ja-ri n. a species of wild cat with long claws, a bit bigger than a domestic cat, edible.

gri-tong n. a wild cat that is bigger than a mat-cha-a-rek.

ma-ju-ru n. a wild striped forest cat that is bigger than a gri-taog but not as big as mat-cha-am-gip-a.

mat-cha n. tiger, leopard, any of several kinds of large cats.

mat-cha dal˙-gip-a, mat-cha-am-gip-a n. tiger, largest of the wild cats.

mat-cha ma˙-jang-chi n. middle sized mat-cha, (same as mat-cha-sal-rong).

mat-cha-a-rek n. leopard, the smallest of three sizes of mat-cha, spotted.

mat-cha-a-ro-pa n. Royal Bengal tiger, the largest of the tigers, (same as mat-cha-am-gip-a).

mat-cha-am-gip-a n. tiger, the largest of three sizes of mat-cha, striped.

mat-cha-sal-rong n. the middle-sized of the three large cats.

mat-chu-ri n. civet cat, a small, red and black, long tailed and bad smelling wild cat.

mat-chu-ri gri-tong n. big variety of mat-chu-ri.

mat-chu-ri kal-dek n. small variety of mat-chu-ri.

mat-chu-ri wa-rik-i n. smallest variety of mat-chu-ri.

4.418 Primates

ha-mak, a-mak n. monkey, macaque.

mak-kre, mak-kri n. macaque, monkey.

mik-kong n. macaque, (same as ha-mak).

rang-gol, ha-mak rang-gol, nang-gol n. long tailed monkey, langur monkey, hanuman monkey.

u-ru, hu-ru, ha-mak u-ru n. gibbon.

4.419 Mammals, Other

be-ji n. mongoose. <B

bel n. jackal, (Modhupur).

bel si˙-jel n. large type of jackal with a long tail and black around its mouth, (Modhupur).

gil-we, gil-wi n. very shy monkey-sized animal that lives in trees.

ha-ti n. elephant. <B

kor-gus n. rabbit. <B

ma-rak-ha n. barking deer.

ma˙-su ma˙-rong n. wild cattle.

mak-bil n. bear.

mat n. squirrel.

mat-chok n. deer.

mat-chu-reng n. a small kind of squirrel with a long snout.

mat-da-bu n. a large kind of squirrel.

mat-ek-a n. rabbit, (same as kor-gus).

mat-mat-chi n. porcupine.

mat-ram n. otter, a one or one and a half foot high fish-eating mammal.

me-se, mi-si n. mouse, rat.

me-se da-bu n. rat, large sized me-se that makes tunnels in the ground like a mole.

me-se rong-kan-tek n. mouse, small sized me-se that lives in the roofs of houses.

me-se wa-gong n. a kind of rat that is smaller than a me-se da-bu. Page  120

meng-chut n. mouse-sized animal with a long nose, stink-rat, shrew.

mong-ma n. elephant.

na-chik-grong n. barking deer, (same as ma-rak-ha).

pui-ta, pu-ti-a n. rabbit, (same as kor-gus). <B

si˙-jel n. a large variety of jackal.

si˙-ol, si˙-al n. jackal, (A˙ pal).

wak-bring n. a kind of wild pig, different from the domesticated wak-man-di.

4.441 Lizards

a-ring-ga n. a large water lizard.

dot-mi, dot-ni n. type of lizard, about 20 cm. long, that lives in holes in trees and says, 'kak-ku', or, 'dot-me'.

ga-ra n. a small lizard with a red throat that lives in the forest.

git-u-ra n. a water lizard that is a bit smaller than an a-ring-ga.

kan-chi-dik n. small, common house lizard.

map-pru n. large long-tailed forest lizard that lives in trees.

mit-dil-wak n. jungle lizard, smaller than a map-pru, about 30 cm. long; a fat woman.

4.443 Snakes

chi-ni-chip-pu n. a nonpoisonous water snake.

chip-pu n. snake, general term.

chip-pu-bol-gi-si n. a small snake that bites.

chip-pu-gram n. a black poisonous snake.

chip-pu-ja-da n. large snake, python.

chip-pu-ri-ti n. cobra.

chong-brang-chong-mit-chang n. a snake with rings of colors that, it is said, can be counted in such a way that if one ends on chong-mit-chang it is good luck, but if ending on chong-brang it is bad luck.

tum-rang-tum-bit-chang n. a kind of striped snake, (same as chong-brang-chong-mit-chang.

4.445 Turtles

chep-a n. a small variety of edible turtle that lives in water, (Beng. kat-tu-a).

chi-jong n. a large turtle, larger and flatter than a chep-a, (Beng. ka-sim).

chi-jong-man-di n. a kind of turtle, a kind of chi-jong.

chi-jong-sim n. a type of black turtle, a kind of chi-jong.

gut-a-ma-ra n. a kind of turtle, a kind of chi-jong.

kang-kil-ak-a n. small kind of turtle with hard shell.

kat-tu-a n. an edible turtle, smaller than, and a different species from, chi-jong, (same as chep-a). <B

4.447 Frogs and Toads

beng n. frog.

beng-bil-ek n. a small frog.

beng-bil-ok n. a type of frog with a high-pitched croak that is a bit bigger than a beng-bil-ek.

beng-bong n. a large type of frog, with a deep croak.

da-ling-ja˙-wek n. black water-living frog-like animal that puffs up in anger.

dip-il-ok n. frog-like animal that lives on land, even in people's houses, and that is seen and heard in the rainy season.

ga-wa beng n. a large kind of frog, (same as beng-bong).

gan˙-drak n. a white jumping frog-like reptile, about 20 cm. long that lives in trees in the forest, and makes a ga-ak sound in the rainy season.

4.454 Fish

be-da-ku-ak na˙-tok n. kind of fish with large mouth.

chi-chi-top-a n. an inedible kind of fish that can puff up its belly.

da-na-pa-ri na˙-tok n. a fish said to live in holes and that is similar to na˙-dang but smaller. <B

han˙-cheng-bit, na˙-cheng-bit n. a kind of edible fish that is smaller than a sardine.

kar-pu n. a kind of fish, carp. <B

kui-cha, kut-chi-a n. eel.

mul-a, mul-a na˙-tok n. a small white fish that is without 'whiskers' ( ku˙-sim-ang), (Beng. dang-ki-na). <B

na˙-chi-gol-dang n. kind of fish, similar to sai-tan but white, (Beng. bai-la).

na˙-chi-kal-tok n. kind of fish with white patches on its skin; a skin disease characterized by small depigmented areas.

na˙-dang n. a type of fish that is as long as an arm.

na˙-ku-dep n. a kind of fish, (Beng. ma-gur).

na˙-ma-su n. a kind of fish with a flat mouth, (Beng. ti-mi).

na˙-rim-il n. a slippery kind of fish, (same as sing-gi na˙-tok).

na˙-rong n. a large kind of fish.

na˙-su-deng-ga n. a kind of fish with a long mouth, (Beng. kai-ka).

na˙-tok n. fish, general term.

put-ka mach n. a fish that puffs up if you blow on it. Children make a ball from it and play with it. <B

sai-tan n. kind of fish, (Beng. ta-ki).

sal-gon-da-ri n. a long and striped kind of fish, (Beng. go-sul).

sing-gi na˙-tok n. small stinging fish, edible.

u-pol n. a kind of fish, (same as sai-tan).

4.458 Shellfish

a-pi n. clam.

a-pu n. a large type of snail, 4—5 cm.

chot-chru, chot-chu-ru, chot-ru n. small edible snail, 1—2 cm.

hang˙-ki, ang˙-ki n. crab.

na˙-tik n. edible freshwater shrimp.

spru, spu-ru n. small edible snail, (A˙ pal, A˙ chik), (same as chot-chru).

4.461 General

jong˙-, jong n. bug, worm, insect, (A˙ chik: jo˙-ong).

mal-gip-a n. crawlers, crawling animals, snakes, insects, etc.

4.462 Flies and Mosquitoes

chap, chap-ma-git-ok n. large fly that eats blood, especially of cattle.

gan-ti n. a small fly that makes a noise but does not bite.

gang-gu-a n. mosquito.

sang˙-et, sang˙-ret n. firefly.

su˙-sam n. small biting fly, gnat.

tam-pi n. fly.

tam-pi-a-mak n. a small fly that bites cows and sometimes people.

tam-pi-rong-reng, rong-reng n. big blue fly that eats dung, horsefly.

tam-pi-sim-ik n. tiny non-biting fly that comes out in swarms, gnat.

4.463 Bees, Wasps

bi-ja n. bee.

bi-ja-a-ma n. a large variety of stinging bee that builds its hive along tree branches; a beehive of this type.

bi-ja-kol n. a kind of bee that builds its hive in a hole in a tree; the hive of this kind of bee.

bi-ja-si-ik n. a stinging red bee-like insect that does not produce edible honey, (wasp?).

bom-bin-eng, bong-bin-eng n. bumblebee that stings and makes its nest in a tree hole.

chi-gring n. a reddish finger-sized wasp that builds nests from dirt, sometimes on houses.

kal˙-mik n. a small variety of bee that makes very good honey.

meng-meng-ka-ri n. small bee-like insect, that makes no honey and does not sting, but makes lots of buzzing sound.

ong n. a large stinging hornet that builds a very large nest with an opening at the bottom.

4.464 Spiders

gu-ang n. spider.

gu-ang-dom-dom-pa n. a large kind of spider that lives in the forest and builds large round nests. Said to be able to catch birds.

gu-ang-jap-jap n. a type of spider that comes into houses.

ha˙-ning-gu-ang, a˙-ning-gu-ang, gu-ang-ha˙-ning n. a poisonous ground living spider.

nok-ni gu-ang n. a small type of spider that lives in people's houses.

4.465 Ants

Since early in my acquaintance with the Mandis, I have been puzzled by the proliferation of names for various kinds of ants. Oddly, they have no single general term that corresponds to our 'ant', but only a large number of terms for specific kinds of ants. They have plenty of experience with ants of many kinds—black, red, red-on-one-end-black-on-the-other, big, small, with wings, without wings and so on, and Mandis certainly recognize the general similarities of the class. So many different kinds of ants are dignified by their own name that one has to wonder what special role ants could have in Mandi culture to attract so much attention, but I have never been able Page  128to detect any such role. Ants can be a nuisance, just as they can to non-Mandis, and some varieties have a painful or itching bite, but they are not dangerous and they figure no more than dozens of other animals either in myths or in the attention they receive from people. The many names for ants are enough to undermine a linguistic anthropologist's faith that lexical exuberance reflects cultural importance. I list only some of the words I have heard at one time or another.

at-ching n. stinging black ants that cause itching, bigger than sim-il-chak but smaller than ket-chi-ra.

breng-gu n. small red or black ant living in the ground that bites and causes itching, similar to an at-ching.

gong-gang n. a large type of stinging black ant.

ha˙-kin, a˙-kin n. type of white ant that builds large ant hills, and that bores into and lives in the mud walls of houses.

ket-chi-ra, ket-chra, ki-chra n. a red ant that appears in large swarms and that has a painful but non-poisonous bite. It makes nests in folded leaves.

kom-pru n. a big kind of black stinging ant that comes out in rainy season, (same as gong-gang).

rang-sal-git-chak n. kind of red ant that is larger than smil-chak, (same as breng-gu.

se-ram-pu n. a very small red or black ant, (same as sim-il-chak).

sim-al n. tiny red or black ant, (A˙ pal), (same as sim-il-chak).

sim-il-chak n. tiny red or black ant that swarms in large numbers and often lives in houses.

4.466 Leeches

el-u n. biting water leech, a few inches long.

ru-at n. land leech, smaller than a water leech.

4.467 Worms, Centipedes, Caterpillars

chik-il n. reddish and very poisonous ground-dwelling worm without legs, that bites people, and can kill like a snake, as much as 20 cm. long.

jong˙-kang-ku n. inchworm.

jong˙-sip-in n. a large hairless leaf-eating caterpillar with colored spots.

jong˙-su n. a small caterpillar with stinging hairs that causes an itch.

kan˙-chi-ri n. worm that lives in ground and makes knobly little dirt piles, does not bite.

kan˙-chi-ri chon-gip-a n. a small kind of kan˙-chi-ri, smaller than kan˙-chi-ri-ron-da.

kan˙-chi-ri ron-da n. long thin worm, a large variety of kan˙-chi-ri, about 15 cm long.

mang-gu-ak n. a small, nonbiting centipede.

mang-gu-ak git-chak n. a small type of centipede, that sometimes lives in roofs.

mang-gu-ak jol˙-si n. a small and thin, but long centipede that lives in the ground.

mang-gu-ak mi˙-bram n. a small type of centipede, that appears in large numbers.

mang-gu-ak pil-dep n. small black centipede.

mang-gu-ak ron-da n. a large type of centipede.

mang-tip n. a small caterpillar with stinging hairs that irritate the skin when touched, smaller than a jong˙-su.

na-ron-chi n. a white insect that lives in dung and does not bite.

reng-si n. a ground-dwelling worm that eats cloth, earth-needle, (same as sil-eng-si).

sil-eng-si n. kind of ground-dwelling worm that eats cloth, (same as reng-si).

sin-a-ru n. a poisonous kind of centipede.

sin-a-ru-du˙-ka n. a black centipede, less poisonous than sin-a-ru-git-chak.

sin-a-ru-git-chak, sin-a-ru-dal˙-gip-a n. a large very poisonous centipede.

sol-sol-a n. silkworm.

4.468 Vermin

dip-a n. bed bug.

ma-mon-chi n. very small red tick-like insect that bites the naval, eyes, and ears, and causes itching.

na-sik-et n. tick, insect that bites people and cattle, and grows round as it fills with blood.

tik n. louse, head louse.

4.469 Beetles and Misc.

al-ang n. flying green finger-sized leaf-eating insect.

cheng-ga-ru, cheng-ga-ri n. flying insect, similar to, but larger than a po-da-neng or mai-jing-jing, that makes noise in April and May evenings.

gan-di n. a small, smelly beetle.

ha-da-su-rang, ha-du-srang n. dragonfly.

ha-guk, a-guk n. grasshopper.

ha-guk-a-reng n. a large kind of grasshopper.

ha-guk-ging-srok n. a kind of grasshopper with a long head.

ha-guk-gok-chi-ri, ha-guk-gok-si-ri, a-guk-gok-chi-ri n. a small but long kind of grasshopper.

ha-guk-ma-du-pa n. a big type of grasshopper.

ha-guk-mit-im n. a small type of grasshopper.

jong˙-chret n. a small insect that lives in thatch and eats paper and cloth.

jong˙-dol n. ground-dwelling insect, larger than a grasshopper, that makes noise in evening.

jong˙-mot n. small bug, hardly 3 mm. long, that eats small channels in bamboo or wood.

jong˙-tim-brot n. black insect that lives in the earth and curls up, the size of a finger joint.

ka˙-ra-o, ka˙-ra-u n. a bad smelling cockroach that is larger than an ordinary sel˙-uk cockroach, and that lives in people's houses and eats things.

ki˙-bit-bit n. dung beetle.

mai-jing-jing n. noisy, finger-sized insect.

pak-ma-ri n. butterfly.

po-da-neng n. finger-sized insect that makes noise during the daytime in April or May.

sel˙-uk n. cockroach.

4.471 Body Parts, Birds

am-pat-ti, am-pan-ti n. bird's gizzard.

do˙-bik, du˙-bik, do˙-bi-bik n. bird's intestines, used in divination.

gang-chu n. outer (distal) part of a bird's wing.

gang-pak n. the part of a wing that is close to the body.

gang-ping n. upper part of a wing, part near the body.

grang n. wing, feather.

ja˙-ping n. thigh of a bird; upper part of a human leg, thigh.

ka-bak n. breast of a bird, front of the body.

na-gring n. cock's comb.

pe-chu, pi-chu n. bird's crop.

4.472 Body Parts, Insects

bi-ri n. stinger of an insect such as a bee.

ga˙-teng n. insect's leg; stick or small branch that has been cut off.

grong n. feelers of an insect, horn of cattle, deer, etc.

ja˙-git-teng n. large leg of an insect; leg of a bird; human leg.

jak-pa n. end part of an insect leg, palm of the hand.

jak-si n. distal portion of an insect leg; finger.

jang-gil n. back of an insect, back of anything.

ki˙-sam-bu n. the back end of an inchworm; anus.

ku˙-sik n. front end of an inchworm, mouth.

4.473 Animal Body Parts, Other

bi-king n. turtle shell; shell of an insect; do˙-chi-bi-king eggshell; mes bi-king matchbox; sko-bi-king skull.

bu-su n. fish bone, thorn.

chep-a bi-king n. shell of a chep-a (small turtle).

chu-ri n. long, thin, knife-shaped and reddish internal organ of pigs, near the liver; knife.

ging-tong n. the snout of an animal, esp. a pig's snout.

grong n. horn of cattle, deer, etc., feelers of an insect.

ja˙-skil n. claw, toenail.

-kan-ta dns. lacking a limb or tail: jak-kan-ta lacking an arm; jak-si-kan-ta missing a finger.

ki˙-me, ki˙-mi n. tail; the projecting upper part of the top of a house post cut to fit a cross piece.

ki˙-sang-ti n. hind end of an animal; buttock.

sin-chi n. the hump of cattle.

wa-ching n. tusk, of an elephant or pig, canines of a dog.

4.474 Stages of Insect Maturation

bi-jong n. grub of a bee, immature bee that lives in a cell of a comb; the part of the hive where the young grow.

ge-gak, ge-gat n. late stage of a maturing insect that is able to fly.

jong˙-king n. immature grub of a ground dwelling insect.

jong˙-men n. grub, larva, early stage of an imature insect, before na-di.

na-di n. a stage of a maturation of a bee or other insect when the wings begin to grow but it still cannot fly; grub.

4.475 Animal Products

a-no n. egg yolk.

beng-ki, bi-ja beng-ki n. beeswax.

bi-ja-a-ma n. beehive of the type that is attached to a tree branch; the kind of stinging bee that builds these hives.

bi-ja-bit-chi n. honey, (lit. bee-juice).

bi-ja-kol n. beehive located in a hole in a tree; the kind of bee that makes these hives.

bi-jong n. part of the hive where the young grow; grub of a bee.

bi-kil-ap, do˙-chi bi-kil-ap n. the membrane inside the shell of an egg.

bi-rang, bi-ja-bi-rang n. honeycomb.

bi-stil n. egg yolk.

bi-tip n. nest, cocoon.

bi-top n. nests of some insects, such as wasps and biting red ants, that are made in folded tree leaves.

do˙-bit-chi, du˙-bit-chi, do˙-chi, du˙-chi n. egg, bird's egg.

do˙-ki, du˙-ki, du˙-ni ke˙-em-a n. bird droppings.

do˙-stil, du˙-stil n. egg yolk.

gip-ok n. egg white.

gu-ang-sring n. spider web.

gu-bol n. cow dung. <B

ha˙-pru, ha˙-pu-ru, ha˙-pru-tot, a˙-pru n. big anthill made by a˙-kin ants.

hang˙-ki ha˙-kil-ok, hang˙-kil-ok n. crab hole.

ket-chi-ra bi-top, ket-chi-ra bi-tip n. nest of leaves made by red ants, with jong˙-men (grubs) inside.

ma˙-su-ke˙-em-a, ma˙-su-ki n. cow dung.

4.476 Animal Noises

Many of the terms that name animal calls and cries have a somewhat onomatopoetic character. They generally seem to have a clear and normal phonological structure, but when actually pronounced, speakers often give them an extra intonation or rhythm, much as English speakers may lengthen and exaggerate the vowel in 'moo'.

am-a vi. roar, as a tiger.

bet-bet-a vi. call by a bull or male goat to a female.

chrik-pret-a vi. scream loudly; squeal by pigs.

drok-a vi. cluck of a hen when calling her chicks.

ga-ak-a vi. crow, the cry of a crow.

gi-sik-a vi. crow, cock's crow.

gring-a vi. howl, of dogs, jackals.

hop-a, hu-ap-a vi. cry made by animals such as a barking deer.

im-be-a vi. bleat of a calf.

im-bo-a vi. moo, sound made by a calf or cow.

mik-u-a vi. cry made by any animal, meow, bleat, moo, etc.; sound, make a noise; sound, of a musical instrument or machine; squeak.

ok-gil-a vi. noise made by a bull when wanting to lock horns.

ran-a vi. growl, roar, of a dog, tiger, etc.; purr, of a cat.

ro-rot-a, ru-rot-a vi. cackle, sound made by a hen when she lays an egg.

sing˙-a vi. bark, of dogs; ask a question.

tik-tik-a, dik-dik-a vt. cluck, sound made by hen to call her chicks.

til-e-reng vi. call of do˙-til-eng bird.

ting-ku-ting-ku adv. squeal of a pig; loud, of a rice pounder, of angry talking.

ul-guk-a vi. noise made by tiger.

4.482 Animal Actions, Misc.

ba˙-a, pa˙-a vi. perch, of birds; cling, of flies, as on a wound.

bal-a, bal-o-rot-a, bal-u-rot-a vt. carry in the mouth or beak, like a dog or bird: bal-e kat-a, bal-e ra˙-ang-a carry off in the mouth.

bam-a vt. sit on eggs, brood.

bit-a vt. make a hole in the earth or mud, by a worm or animal; burrow; pierce, penetrate.

bu-del-a vi. stand on end, as the hair on a dog.

cha-tip-tip-a vi. gather in large numbers, flock, swarm, of animals or people.

cha˙-bil-a vi. come to surface and open mouth, of fish.

chi˙-a, bit-chi chi˙-a vt. lay eggs, by birds, insects.

dang-brit-a vt. scrape backwards with feet, as a dog scrapes the ground or a bird scrapes when looking for food.

del-a vt. sting, as bees.

del-kom-tet-a vt. sting while curled up.

ga˙-brit-a vt. scrape back with feet, as a bird scrapes the ground when looking for food.

ga˙-chrak-a, ga˙-chi-chrak-a vt. push back grain with feet like birds; scratch up dirt like dog.

ga˙-min-ek-a vt. step on and squash, as a cow steps on rice plants; mix with the feet, as mud and water.

ga˙-pin-ek-a vt. step on something and crush it, as cattle step on rice plants.

ga˙-tek-a vt. kick, by an animal, cow, goat, etc.; stretch out a leg quickly, kick out once.

geng-kon-a vi. curl up and turn, as a dog turns when lying down.

gil-si-ri-a, gil-sri-a vt. shed, as a snake sheds its skin; peel, peel off bark; peel off loose skin, as from a skin disease: chip-pu bi-gil gil-si-ri-ing-a the snake is changing its skin.

git-ik-a vi. move, squirm, wiggle, of people or animals; be shaken, as in an airplane.

jal-a vi. swarm, of animals or insects such as lice that come in large numbers, increase in numbers; crowd, of people.

ke-a, ki-a vt. butt with horns.

ke-grik-a vt. push or fight each other with horns, as buffalo.

kon˙-a vi. curled up, like a snake, dog, cat; coiled up in a circle or spiral, as a string.

ma-rai-a vi. whine, seek attention, pester, as a hungry baby, or a dog that rubs against someone.

mal-gek-a vi. be very tame, of an animal.

mik-gau-a, mik-gek-a vi. open eyes, as when puppies first open their eyes.

not-brak-a, not-brok-a vt. rub a part of the body against something in order to scratch it, of cows, buffalo or even people.

not-grot-a vt. rub up against something in order to scratch, generally used for animals.

rit-im-pil˙-a vi. grow new skin, of a snake; grow, get new leaves or bark; sprout, as from a tree stump.

ro-a, ru-a vi. mate, of animals, not used for people.

sa˙-a vt. build a nest, build a hive, by birds or bees, on a branch or on the ground but not a hanging nest.

sel˙-pu-a vi. stand on end, of hair.

tat-a vt. prick with spikes but without poison, as by some fish; pick at, hurt with thorns; poke a thorn into infected flesh.

top-a vt. build a hanging hive, by bees.

4.486 Flying, Flapping Wings

bil-a vi. fly, of birds, insects, airplanes; fly about in the air, of paper, leaves, etc.

bil-cha-a vi. fly up from a surface, take off.

bil-chok-a vi. fly down.

bil-du-a vi. fly up.

bil-jeng-jeng-a vi. fly with slowly flapping wings.

bil-on-a vi. fly down.

bil-pak-pak-a vt. fly with flapping.

bil-ru-rat-a vi. fly back and forth.

bil-wen-a, bil-wen-wen-a, bil-wil-wil-a vi. fly in circles.

dim-a vi. swarm, settle down in large numbers, of insects, etc.

jip-a, grang jip-a vt. flap wings slowly, soar; fan.

pak-pak-a vt. wave hand up and down; grang pak-pak-a flap wings quickly, as when preparing to take off; flap ears, of a dog; slap the upper arm against the side.

pil-ip-pil-ip, pil-ip-pil-ip dak-a adv. flutter in the wind, of cloth, of feathers on a bird.

sap-a vi. swoop down, dive, as hawks swoop down to grab meat.

sap-srak-a vt. dive to catch, as a hawk catches baby birds: du˙-reng du˙-pi˙-sa-ko sap-srak-a the hawk dives to get the baby bird.

4.487 Animal Actions: Eating, Foods

a-dal n. food given to animals, especially that given to pigs; bait. <B

cha˙-che gin-di, cha˙-chi gin-di n. food for pigs made from rice husks.

chik-wak-a vt. bite and hold on as an animal does, bite off pieces as one eats an apple or banana.

gak-a vt. peck, as a bird pecks at rice; nibble at, of people.

gat-a vt. eat holes in paper or cloth, of insects.

ke-ching-chri-a vt. poke with horns: ma˙-su grong-cha ke-ching-chri-ing-a the cow pokes with her horns.

pu-a vt. drill or eat holes in wood, fruit, etc., of worms or birds; make a hole, as with a chisel; plant with a digging stick.

ring-gil-a vt. root up ground with the snout, like a pig; move food around with the nose, like a cow.

su-a, so-a vt. peck, peck at, by birds.

su-grik-a vt. peck at each other, of birds.

su-kul-ot-a vt. pecking, by birds.

su-tet-a, su-tet-e cha˙-a vt. peck like a bird, peck and pick up or carry off.

4.488 Animal Actions: Wag Tail

dok-chrak-a, ki˙-me-cha dok-chrak-a vt. knock down, knock off with the tail, as brushing off flies, of cows, buffaloes.

dok-ro-rek-a, ki˙-me dok-ro-rek-a vt. wag tail, move tail back and forth, of cows, dogs, cats.

dok-rok-a vt. brush off, as a cow brushes off flies with its tail; knock one thing against another, as when knocking dirt from a basket; slap dirt off.

dok-srap-a vt. knock off, brush off, as a person might flick off dirt with a clocth.

gi˙-gang-gil-a, ki˙-me gi˙-gang-gil-a vt. raise up tail, as a cow does when eliminating.

rak-rak-a vt. wag, of a dog's tail; swing knees or feet back and forth, of people.

rek-rek-a vt. move back and forth; wag tail, swish tail like a cat getting ready to pounce; shake (as a fruit tree to knock down fruit): ki˙-mi-ko a-chak rek-rek-a the dog wags (its) tail.

4.630 Forest

ba-ang-a n. thin, of forest; empty of trees.

bi-pang n. tree; a tree or bush that grows with a single trunk or central stalk; trunk of a tree or banana plant; stalk of even a small plant such as mustard.

bol n. wood; tree. bol- cp. categorizing prefix for names of types of trees. bol- cls. classifier for trees, axes, bamboo knives ( at-te), drums.

bol-bi-pang n. tree.

bol-grim n. dense with trees.

bol-pang n. tree.

bring n. forest, jungle, (A˙ chik: bu-rung).

bring-go-ra n. thicket, thick forest.

chi-rang-rang adv. clear, of growing things; bare, of fallen leaves.

-go-ra dns. thicket: wa˙-go-ra bamboo thicket; bring-go-ra thick forest.

pang˙-si-dim-dim n. lacking trees or bamboo, without growing things, empty of plants or buildings, bare.

pang˙-si-ru-ru, pang-si-rim-rim n. cleared, especially of trees and brush, clear and nice.

re-jap n. reserved forest, reserved seat on a bus. <E

4.632 Trees, Uncultivated (cf. 5.22 Cultivated trees)

I became interested in tree names and inquired about them more extensively than I asked about most other natural categories, and this is why so many names for trees are listed here. Even so, the list is surely far from complete. Many tree names start with the categorizing prefix, bol-, but the Modhupur Mandis call a fair number of trees by names borrowed from Bengali. I find this surprising, since the Mandis are, in origin, a forest people who might be expected to know more about their trees than their less forested neighbors. Still, the forest origin of the Mandis is shown by the ability of people I spoke with to give Mandi names for the great majority of trees that I asked about, while they often acknowledged ignorance of their Bengali names. This is one area where people have gained their knowledge through the medium of the Mandi language and where knowledge of Mandi words remains clearly superior to that of their Bengali equivalents.

I have had most of these trees pointed out to me as I walked through the forest with Mandi friends, but I have not been able to make any careful botanical identification. When I give Bengali equivalents for Mandi names, these are simply the names that Mandis have given me, and I cannot vouch for the accuracy of any particular identification. Mandis do have a wide and deep knowledge of the forest and its products, however, and I believe their reports are largely accurate. As with birds and fish, where I give Bengali equivalents, they are transcribed as Mandis pronounced them for me, and these pronunciations are likely to deviate substantially from the pronunciation of a native speaker of Bengali. Names that are (to a linguist) clearly borrowed, are sometimes, though not always, given slightly different pronunciations when they are said to be "Mandi" words than when described as "Bengali" words.

When distinguishing trees from one another, I always tend to ask about their size and shape, the form of the leaves, the type of bark and so on. Mandis are much more inclined to explain the uses to which the wood can be put or the degree of edibility of their fruit. Mandis take the characteristics of bark and leaves so much for granted that they never think to mention them. They did think I might need some instruction on what the wood of each species might be used for. Nevertheless, I have given very rough descriptions of many of the trees, hoping these descriptions might offer someone a first step toward identification.

a-du-rak n. medium-sized tree with opposite leaves that are sour when cooked.

a-ga-chi n. a beautiful flowering tree with huge leaves and slightly reddish pea-sized buds in January, and later yellow-red flowers, good red wood, trunk mottled with white, (Beng. a-juk-i). <B

a-ga-ja-ri n. a large tree with somewhat whorled leaves, (Beng. ja-rul).

a-gen-drak n. a medium-sized tree with fruit that is edible if cooked, (Beng. ping-gi-la).

am-bi-ri n. tree with a mottled trunk, sour but edible fruit and short almost needle-like leaves; as with a gim-bil tree, a cow may be tied to it by a dead person on the way to Chik-mang, the place where dead people go.

am-bil-et-tong n. tree with sour edible fruit.

am-sup-a-ri n. tree with flaky eucalyptus-like bark and sweet white edible fruit, (Beng. pe-ra, so-bri).

ba-ba-ri n. tree with red flowers and 25 cm. round leaves said to cause a rash, (Beng. bew-la).

ban-chan n. sal tree, (Beng. gojari).

ban-duk-ri n. tree with light bark and 10 cm. leaves, (Beng. bas-ku-ra).

ben-a n. small tree with fruit ripening in April is sold to traders, and from which oil is extractd, 25 cm. hand like leaves. <B

bo-ga n. kind of tree, probably a locust, with locust like leaves and long, skinny, inedible pods.

bo-kul n. variety of tree with fragrant flowers. <B

bol-a-chan-chok n. small forest tree with 12 cm. pointed oval leaves that is used for rafters.

bol-bit n. common large tree with large plain leaves. Good for handles of bamboo knives, (Beng. poi-ru-ja).

bol-bret n. a large forest tree with sumac-like leaves, and good heartwood. The leaves are cooked with pork to add flavor.

bol-chu n. tree with a thorny trunk, long narrow leaves, and a cottony inedible fruit that ripens in February.

bol-dim-it n. tree with dark trunk and no heartwood, (Beng. gan-di-go-ja-ri).

bol-do-reng n. big tree with heart shaped leaves, (Beng. kai-ka).

bol-du-bak n. tree with roundish 10 cm. leaves, good for firewood.

bol-du-kak-ki n. large kind of tree that gives sap.

bol-kak-ka-ru n. big tree with mottled trunk and 3 cm. leaflets on 20 cm. leaves.

bol-mat-ra n. a large tree with long slender pods, inedible fruit, and 20 cm. oval leaves. Good for firewood, (Beng. dut-krus).

bol-pil-eng n. tree with yellow flowers, little green five sided fruit, and 20 cm. undistinguished leaves.

bol-pru n. very large tree with horizontally marked trunk and tiny, almost fern-like leaflets on compound leaves, (Beng. ses-ra).

bol-sal n. sal tree, (Beng. go-ja-ri).

bol-si-bret n. large tree with ugly crinkly 15 cm. lozenge shaped leaves and inedible fruit.

bol-sil n. very large tree with dusty trunk, leaves like a sal tree and good, very hard, hearwood, (lit. iron-tree).

bol-srem n. large tree with small, somewhat holly-like, shiny green leaves, without fruit but cattle eat its leaves.

bol-u-ri n. tree with 15 cm. leaves, orange flowers that bloom in January, and inedible fruit.

bu-su-bal-ma n. a kind of tree with very large thorns, (Beng. mon-kan-ta).

but-bu-ri bu-su n. small thorn tree with 2 cm. round leaves and edible small round fruit.

chram n. a tree with a very sour fruit, (Beng. cham-bol).

gak-gil n. large tree with gray trunk, small round leaves and small inedible fruit, good for firewood, (Beng. si-riis).

gam-ba-ri n. large tree with fairly large lozenge-shaped leaves. good heartwood and good for making drums, (Beng. jo-gin-i-chok-ro).

gan-di-go-ja-ri n. a tree with large fibrous leaves, bunches of soft purple grape-like fruit; not the same and not as valuable as the go-ja-ri. <B

gim-bil n. tree with oval reddish 20 cm. leaves that are used to wrap biris. This is the tree to which one ties his cow on the trip to Chik-mang after death, (Beng. kum-bir).

go-ja-ri n. sal tree, ( shorea robusta). <B

gok-a-rek n. small tree, the size of sugar cane, that grows beside river with big flowers.

ja-rul n. tree with pale trunk, leafless in January but with little round fruit and beautiful flowers. <B

jam n. tree with light, much incised bark and twisted trunk and branches: a small variety has willow like leaves, a larger variety has 15 cm. dark green leaves, edible fruit in July. <B

jam-bu n. larger variety of jam tree. <B

jam-ti-ti n. smaller variety of jam tree. <B

ji-ga n. a flowering tree, leafless in winter but with red or green bulbous hard fruits at end of the branches. <B

ji-ga-a-gu-ru n. a red variety of ji-ga tree.

ji-ga-du˙-mi n. a variety of ji-ga tree.

ka-mil-eng-ga n. tree with five lobed sour green edible fruit, liked by pregnant women. <B

ka-si, ka-si bol, ka-si-jak-srem n. a medium sized thorny tree with small, somewhat willow-like leaves, lots of little round fruit eaten by birds, and good heartwood for posts, (Beng. kui-ra-ka-ta).

kan˙-tap n. tree with 25 cm. fuzzy indented leaves and small round inedible fruit.

kang˙-ka-ri n. small tree with 2 cm. round leaf, edible sour, puckering, or slightly sweet red fruit when ripe, (A˙ pal), (same as te˙-seng-ki).

ke-ring bol n. small tree with three-part leaves and large inedible fruit.

kel-wi n. tree with rather dusty yellowish bark, thin 15 cm. seed pods and smallish 2 cm. leaflets on 20 cm. leaf, (Beng. ko-roi).

ken-ti-ri n. very small-leafed flowering tree, with sour fruit liked by pregnant women, (Beng. te-tul).

ko-dom n. undistinguished tree with ordinary 15 cm. leaves and inedible fruit. <B

kon-jon n. a locust tree with flowers, small oval leaflets on compound leaves, and long skinny edible fruit that is sometimes eaten with dahl, (Beng. sa-di-na).

ma-kan-chi n. tree with 20—30 cm. lozenge shaped leaves.

ma˙-su ri˙-sip-il n. tree with 12 cm. leaflets on 40 cm. forked leaf, (lit. cattle testicles), (Beng. pi-tras).

man-dal n. small tree with large poplar-like leaves and colorful flowers, with thorns on the trunk and branches; used to build fences.

men-di-ka-ta n. small tree with small opposite leaves, that is planted and cut off to make fences. <B

o-mak n. largish tree with lovely flowers, the bark of which is used to make tump lines, (Beng. ga-ton).

o-ro-la n. a tree, not found in Modhupur and known only from stories; it is said to grow wild and to bear an edible fruit.

pak-kram n. tree with a pale trunk.

pi-prot-ki˙-sang n. tree with red, somewhat sumac-like fruit in the cold season; named for the bird of the same name.

prap n. banyan tree, (Beng. bot).

ra˙-kol-kat-a n. a knobly trunked tree with edible fruit that is ripe in July.

rang-i, rang-ri n. largish tree with willow-like leaves and somewhat spotted bark, (Beng. ga-ton).

se-reng-ki bu-su n. thorny tree with small sour leaves that are cooked with curry.

seng-su n. large tree with small leaves.

sin-a-ru n. large tree with light colored trunk and strong golden colored wood that is good for posts, (Beng. su-nal-u). <B

sok-chon n. tree with white sap and 12 cm. whorled leaves.

su-ri n. large tree with good wood, a few vertical cuts in the bark, and fruit that has a nut-like core, (Beng. boi-ra).

su-stim n. tree with shaggy reddish bark, and 30 cm. pods that are ripe in April and eaten by cows but rarely by people, (Beng. chu-ka-ko-la).

su˙-mit-cheng n. large tree with very thorny trunk and vaguely sumac-like leaves that are used in cooking, and oil is made from the fruit.

tal n. kind of palm tree with fan-like leaves, the fruit of which is cooked but not eaten raw. <B

te˙-kring, ti˙-kring n. tree with willow-like leaves and red sour fruit that is ripe in July, and wood that is good for house posts, (Beng. ne-ur).

te˙-na-rang, ti˙-na-rang n. tree with a lemon-sized edible fruit that looks like a gourd but is soft, and that is bitter when unripe, (Beng. pa-hai-ra bo-roi).

te˙-seng-ki, ti˙-seng-ki n. tree with 2 cm. round leaf, edible red sour fruit that is a bit sweet when ripe in May, (same as kang˙-ka-ri).

te˙-seng-ki-mak-bil, ti˙-seng-ki-mak-bil n. tree with pointed oval leaves and edible fruit ripe in May, (Beng. jong-la bo-roi).

wak-kin-te, wak-kin-ti n. kind of tree that looses leaves in the cold season, (Beng. but-tum).

4.637 Bamboo

It would be hard to exaggerate the importance of bamboo to the Mandis. It is in much shorter supply in Modhupur now than it used to be, so it is no longer used to build houses, but many smaller household objects are still made from bamboo, and a number of men use bamboo strips to make lovely baskets that they continue to use themselves or that they sell for the international crafts market. Many varieties of bamboo are known. People even know the names of some types of bamboo that are not grown locally.

ba-hi-ni n. a very large variety of bamboo, (same as rang-gi). <B

ba-lu-ka-ja-wa n. type of bamboo that is good for basketry.

bo-ro-a n. a very large variety of bamboo that is very good for making baskets, (Beng. bu-rak). <B

kes-ki wa n. medium sized variety of bamboo that is good for basket making. <B

tol-a n. a large and dark kind of bamboo that is good for making baskets. <B

wa˙-, wa, wa˙-a n. bamboo. wa˙- cp. prefix for bamboo parts, varieties, and object made from bamboo: wa˙-ma a large variety of bamboo; wa˙-si split bamboo matting; wa˙-kop one half of a split length of bamboo.

wa˙-go-ra n. thick growing bamboo.

wa˙-kan-ta n. a thorny variety of bamboo that grows wild, (Beng. kan-tai). <B

wa˙-pang n. bamboo 'trunk', stalk of bamboo.

wa˙-rik-i n. the top of bamboo.

wa˙-ru-ri n. a kind of bamboo said to grow in the Garo Hills.

wa˙-sim n. a kind of bamboo, said to grow in Agartola.

wa˙-srep n. small variety of bamboo said to grow in the Garo Hills.

wa˙-ti-ri, wa˙-tri n. a smallish variety of bamboo, about 4 cm. diameter.

4.652 Grass

a-gal n. a kind of grass that makes long-lasting thatch.

am˙-pang n. thatch, thatching grass.

am˙-pang-man-di n. a very tall type of grass that is the best type for thatch, thatching-grass.

am˙-pang-pang-si n. a short variety of grass that is used for thatching.

bin-da-su-ba am˙-pang n. a tall grass that grows in clumps and has spreading seeds on top, and that can be used for thatch.

che-sul n. grass growing in the fields that grows high in high water.

du-bil-a n. a kind of short grass that is eaten by cows and goats and is useful for stopping blood. <B

gai-a n. a kind of short grass eaten by cows.

gong n. a reed with stalks of finger thickness, almost lily like leaves, and as tall as a person. Central part can be eaten.

jeng-gim n. a plant that grows in water at the ends of rice fields, taller than a man and of finger thickness. Used to make fences.

neng-ra-bon n. a very fine short grass with tiny burrs.

sam n. grass, herb; medicine; curry. sam- cp. prefix for grass and small herbs: samsi crab-grass; sam-mik-chip sensitive plant.

sam-si n. crabgrass.

4.653 Tubers, Wild (cf. 5.27 Cultivated Tubers)

Mandis cultivate a number of tubers and they also have extensive knowledge of wild tubers. They know what each looks like, how it grows, and whether or not it is edible. Their knowledge of tubers, both wild and cultivated, is so extensive that it can seem that one needs only to scratch through their rice eating exterior to find a tuber eating society lurking just behind. Today, however, tubers come poor second to rice as a part of the diet.

am-peng n. a wild but edible jungle tuber.

steng n. a wild tree-climbing vine with a large edible tuberous root that, if eaten, is filling.

ta˙-ak n. a large inedible wild tuber.

ta˙-git-chak n. an edible wild tuber.

ta˙-ja n. an edible wild tuber.

ta˙-mi-sel n. an edible wild jungle tuber.

ta˙-nu n. a large inedible wild tuber.

4.655 Vines

Many names for vines include a bi-du or bi-dil. These resemble categorizing prefixes such as bol- 'tree' except that, mysteriously, they come at the end of the word, rather than at the beginning, where categorizing prefixes normally belong. Why vines should be burdened with what acts like a suffix, instead of having a normal prefix, I have no idea.

-bi-dil dns. vine.

-bi-du dns. vine.

bu-su-du˙-bik n. somewhat rose-like vine with lots of little thorns, but different from bu-su-sil-kring.

bu-su-sil-kring n. somewhat rose-like vine with lots of little thorns but different from bu-su-du˙-bik.

but-bu-ri n. a large, wrist-sized vine with curved thorns that catch clothes.

dot-ni-ja˙-pa-bi-du n. a tree-climbing vine.

du˙-sim-a-bi-du, du˙-jong-ma n. large and very long vine, up to 5 cm. in diameter and with deep longitudinal cuts in its bark, with edible sour tips.

gi-la, gi-la-bi-du n. a large woody vine with a fruit, said to be poisonous enough to be deadly if eaten. <B

go˙-long n. vine with huge bean-like pods and red seeds.

ka-ku-bi-dil, ka-ku-bi-du n. wild pencil-sized vine with indented heart shaped leaves that are 10-20 cm. long and edible.

kim-bal-o-bi-du n. a thorny vine, thick as a thumb with 30 cm. leaves with parallel veins.

ma-ri-bi-du n. the largest vine that grows in Modhupur, woody and as thick as a person's leg, it has 25 cm. leaves, red sap, and grows wild in the forest: ma-ri-bi-du sek-i the red sap of ma-ri-bi-du that is drunk as a cure for watery diarrhea.

mak-kal-ri-gi n. vine that causes severely irritated skin if touched.

mi˙-gong n. a long vine with 40 cm. rather water lily like leaves with a 'v' cut at tip, (Beng. kan-chon).

pa-sim n. thin cultivated vine with little clumps of leaves along it that can be cooked with meat.

pal˙-wang-bi-du n. a rather tree like vine, with straight, but not standing, sections, and fern-like leaves and leaflets.

re, ri n. cane.

re-du-ra, ri-du-ra n. kind of cane used in basket making.

re-ma, ri-ma n. a large type of cane.

re-man-di, ri-man-di n. variety of cane used in basket making.

ro-a-tik-bi-du, ru-a-tik-bi-du n. a thin vine with much indented fern-like or fingered leaves, the middle finger being longest.

rok-ra-bi-du n. slender vine with long narrow leaves.

sa-wil n. a large vine with yellow flowers and a big fruit; used for pot scrapers.

si-ti-ri-bi-dil, si-ti-ri-bi-du n. a thin wild vine with 3—5 cm. edible scalloped leaves with indented bottom, and many-branched small greenish whitish flowers.

steng n. a wild tree-climbing vine with a large edible tuberous root that, if eaten, is filling.

te˙-rik-gal-wang n. pencil-sized vine with 10 cm. oval leaves, used to make the rims and vertical corner pieces of baskets, and as a substitute for cane, (Beng. ba-no-rel).

4.656 Herbs: Misc.

a-kon n. a large coarse plant with dusty white appearance, 12 cm. stalks and variable leaves up to 12 cm, inedible. Two kinds, one with white, one with lavenderish flowers. Used as a medicine to apply to skin.

bol-do-tek n. plant that grows in trees and that has little red seeds that birds eat.

bol-na-gil n. an edible lichen that grows on dead and dried out trees and that can be eaten with men-da.

chi-rot-ta n. bitter-tasting weedy plant, 60 cm. tall with purplish leaves, that is planted, dried, and later boiled into a bitter drink that is good against malaria and kala-azar.

dam-bong n. an edible mushroom.

do˙-reng-gang-pak n. plant that grows in trees, with big, long, and strongly toothed leaves.

do˙-tek-mi n. plant growing on tree branches with long, thin, almost needle like 3—5 cm. leaves and red to orange flowers but no roots, (Beng. por-ga-cha).

dom-kol-os n. little white-flowered bitter-tasting inedible wild herb, probably a mint. <B

dom-kol-os-git-chak n. an herb with white and pale purple flowers.

e-ren-chi n. a small edible fungus that grows on trees, distinct from bol-na-gil.

gam˙-ba n. 30 cm. a weedy herb with ugly, crinkly, fuzzy, leaves and tiny white-purplish flowers; bad smelling, dies down in the rainy season.

gam˙-ba dal˙-gip-a n. an 8 cm. weedy wild plant with smelly and fuzzy edible leaves.

gam˙-ba-jak-ma n. plant with large lettuce-like leaves.

gam˙-ba-jak-sem n. little purple flowered inedible plant with small leaves.

kung-chut n. bright red plant, about two feet high with vivid colored flower stalks.

ma˙-su-a-gong n. smelly 30 cm. tall weed with 10 cm. long, very skinny pods and leaves with six leaflets.

mi-si-na-chil n. small leafed herb, (lit. mouse ear).

no-gri, mat-cha no-gri n. plant with lovely yellow or orange, sweet pea-like flowers on 1.5 meter stalks that grows in the forest.

sam-ak-ki n. a ragged 1—2 meter plant with 15 cm. fuzzy, dark green, slightly heart-shaped leaves with lighter colored leaves in themiddle.

sam-ja-lik n. a small pinkish-flowered plant with clover-like leaves, small five-petaled yellow flowers, and a red stalk, inedible.

sam-jang-gi n. low herb with 8 cm. slightly indented leaf; the rubbed leaf is good on wounds, (Beng. pa-tor-chu-na).

sam-mik-chip n. sensitive plant, a little plant with tiny leaves that close up when touched.

sam-sim-a-ri n. tall plant with little, slightly violet, everlasting-like flowers. The stems are used to make light fences, and crude walls and partitions, and the crushed leaves are rubbed on wounds.

sam-su-eng n. small, slightly smelly herb.

sam-tak-a-ri n. little herb with small white flowers in clusters, much indented leaves, and burrs.

sam-tam-pret n. a jungle plant, used by an herbal doctor ( ko-bi-raj).

sam-ti, sam-ti-bi-te n. a 1 meter high plant with round burrs that are smaller than a pea but that catch clothing, different from sam-tak-a-ri.

si˙-chu n. cactus.

si˙-tap-pu n. somewhat chili-like plant with little yellow flowers, 3 cm. lantern shaped fruit; grows wild and is also a garden weed, but edible.

su˙-kang n. cactus-like plant with long sharp leaves on straight but leaning meter high stalk.

4.670 Stem, Trunk

bi-am-bong, bi-am-bing n. midsection of a bamboo or tree trunk, above the ja˙-ting base, but below the rik-i top.

bi-bak n. stem, of fruit, leaf, flower.

bi-dil n. the long growing stem of climbing vines such as gourds, squash, etc., (same as bi-du). -bi-dil dns. vine.

bi-dil-ni sang-gong n. tendrils, (lit. bracelet of vines).

bi-du n. the long growing stem of climbing vines such as gourds, squash, etc., (same as bi-dil). -bi-du dns. vine.

bi-pan-tu n. stem of a fruit or a leaf.

bi-pang n. tree; a tree or bush that grows with a single trunk or central stalk; trunk of a tree or banana plant; stalk of even a small plant such as mustard.

bol-ot-chong n. stump of a tree, the part left when a tree is cut.

ga˙-git-tong, ga˙-tong n. stubble, stalks of plants left after harvest.

ga˙-teng, ga˙-git-teng, ga˙-git-tong n. stick or small branch that has been cut off; manioc stalk that can be planted; stubble, stalks left after harvest; leg of an insect.

gan-tong n. stick, cut stalk of a plant such as manioc, stick of firewood.

hul-a n. dried jute stalks, used for carrying fire, firebrand. <B

ja˙-ting n. stubble left after harvesting; base of a tree, banana plant, etc.; base of a mountain; back end, of a pen, etc.

mi˙-bram n. edible middle part of the stalks of a banana plant.

na-ra, na-ra-deng-ga n. stubble, the bottom of rice stalks left standing after harvest. <B

na-ra-ja˙-ting n. rice stubble left after stalks have been cut.

rong-dik, te˙-rik rong-dik n. the thick part at the base of a banana trunk, (lit. banana-round pot).

sang-gong, bi-dil-ni sang-gong n. tendrils, (lit. bracelet of vines).

ta˙-bi-dil n. vine of a tuber plant.

wa bi-am-bong n. the middle section of a length of bamboo, between the root and the top.

4.671 Branch

bi-pek n. small branch of a tree: a˙-bol bi-pek small firewood; bi-pek-ja˙-si twig, (lit. branch-toe).

bi-rik-i n. top of a plant.

bol-chek-si n. twig of a tree.

bol-dail, bol-dal, dail, dal, dail-a, dal-a n. branch, limb, tree branch. <B

bol-kam-bi n. very top of a tree, top of the rik-i.

bol-pek-chrap n. fork of a tree where limbs divide.

bol-rik-i n. tree top.

bu-su n. thorn, fish bone.

chong-brong n. clump with stalks that divide from the base, such as the several stalks of a banana plant often do.

dal, dail, dal-a n. side branch of tree or plant. <B

gam-ra n. fork in a tree where branches divide.

jak-sil n. tendrils of plants.

pek-chrap n. growing close together, parallel, as tree trunks or branches.

wa˙-chek-si n. twig of bamboo.

wa˙-ni kun-cha n. small side branches of bamboo.

4.672 Sticks (cf. 5.833 Tools: Sticks)

bol-gan-tong, gan˙-tong, bol-tong n. log, stick.

bol-tong n. long stick, log; memorial post.

ga˙-teng, ga˙-git-teng, ga˙-git-tong n. stick or small branch that has been cut off; manioc stalk that can be planted; stubble, stalks left after harvest; foot of an insect.

gan-tong n. stick, rough unworked stick of wood, cut stalk of a plant such as manioc, stick of firewood.

gol˙-, gol, go˙-ol n. stick. gol˙- cp. categorizing prefix for sticks: gol˙-chok arrow; gol˙-a-reng long pole.

4.673 Wood, Bark

bi-gil n. bark, peel, pod, skin of humans and animals, leather.

bi-kil-ap n. bark, shell husk of coconut, areca nut, etc.; harder than bi-gil.

bi-kop n. peel, of banana, etc.; segment of a garlic clove.

bol-gop-ang n. hole in a tree.

bol-kil-ok n. hole in a tree.

bol-kong-bang n. hole in a tree.

chel-i n. chips from chopping, small and thin. <B

ga˙-brong n. central part of a tree trunk; the tough central portions of some fruits (such as pineapple, jackfruit); the soft central portion of some kinds of sticks, pith.

gol˙-ding-ding n. chips of wood.

gol˙-si-ri n. chips, as from wood or bamboo.

kong-bang, bol-kong-bang n. hole in a tree trunk, hollow space at base of a tree or higher up.

ku-ro, ku-ru n. heartwood, hard central wood.

4.674 Sap, Juice

bit-chi n. juice, as fruit juice, sap, honey; egg.

sek-ki n. sap, tree sap.

4.675 Leaves

bi-jak n. leaf.

bol-bi-jak n. leaf of a tree.

e˙-chu, i˙-chu n. tip, end portion of a banana leaf, used in some traditional ritual offerings. e˙-chu an-a, i˙-chu an-a vph. spread out the end portion of a banana leaf (at the base of an altar as part of a sacrifice).

e˙-gong, i˙-gong n. midrib of a banana leaf.

ga˙-gong n. mid vein or stem of a leaf; stem of fruit or a flower; stem and midrib of a banana leaf; stubble of cut rice plants.

gu-a-si n. side vein of a leaf; rib bone.

he˙-sal, hi˙-sal, ri˙-sal, i˙-sal n. banana leaf.

he˙-sip-a, hi˙-sip-a n. banana leaves.

4.676 Buds, Flowers, Fruit

bi-bal n. flower, blossom.

bi-te, bi-ti n. fruit; pod such as that of mustard when seeds are still in place.

bol-dim n. sprouts, green twigs, green stalks.

ge-na-si bi-gil n. edible pod of ge-na-si beans.

kam-bi n. top of head; flower bud, leaf bud, end of a growing vine; end, tip, extreme point; top of a tree.

kil-ap n. cotton fluff after the seed has been ginned out; the cottony part of a bol-chu tree.

pul n. flower; diamond-shaped 'flower' pattern of basket weaving. <B

reng-si n. string of flowers, fruit, fish, etc.; a string or stick on which to hang flowers, etc.; needle.

sam bit-e, sam bit-i n. a little round burr.

so-bok, te˙-rik so-bok n. banana bud or flower.

4.677 Grain, Seeds

be-bu, bi-bu n. a defective rice grain that has a husk but no inner seed.

bi-gra n. rice husks, corn tassels, dried and seedless pods of mustard, etc. that are useless and thrown away.

bi-gron n. pit of fruit, seeds in a pod of beans, of chili, etc.; not used for seed to be planted.

bi-ma n. rice grains with husks still on, especially those few remaining after most have had their husks removed.

bi-rong n. grain, the edible grain of rice that lies inside the husk; iris of the eye; coin.

bit-chi-ri, bit-chri n. seed for use in planting, not a general term for all seeds.

cha˙-che, cha˙-chi n. rice husks, chaff.

jal-a n. rice seedling before transplanting.

kil-gon, kil-gron n. cotton seed.

kil-te, kil-ti n. cotton ball before ripening, before it has burst.

kol-om, kol-om ka-ti n. cutting, sprout to be used in planting. <B

ku˙-sim-ang n. tassel at the end of a corncob; beard.

mik-sik, pu-ra mik-sik n. bits of rice grain that have been broken when pounded and that are given to chicks to eat.

ta˙-bit-chi-ri n. the top part of a tuber that is not eaten but that can be planted.

ta˙-sko, ta˙-sku n. the top part of a tuber that is not eaten but that can be planted, cutting, (lit. tuber-head).

4.678 Roots

ja˙-dil n. root; the part of the root that is above ground; tendon of hands and feet.

ja˙-dil ja˙-si, ja˙-dil-ni ja˙-si n. small roots, (lit. root-toes).

ja˙-dil-ma n. large roots.

ja˙-ting n. base of a tree, banana plant, etc.; base of a mountain; stubble after rice grain is cut; back end, of a pen, etc.

wa˙-ja-ting n. roots of bamboo.

4.679 Bamboo Parts

bi-sil n. the green outer surface of bamboo, green edge of a bamboo strip.

bi-sit-eng n. swelling at a node of bamboo where a side branch grows out.

bi-sku, bi-suk-ku n. node of bamboo, swelling at a node of bamboo where a side branch grows out, thick base of the branch.

gi-ro, gi-ru n. node of bamboo, branch that sticks out from a node of bamboo; joint of body, protruding bones such as ankle bones, knee. <B

me˙-a, mi˙-a n. edible bamboo shoots.

wa rik-i n. top part of growing bamboo.

4.690 Living, Fresh

dal˙-dal, dal˙-dal-ding˙-ding adv. fresh, of food, ready to eat.

git-tang-a, git-tang vi. living, not dead.

4.691 Grow, Sprout, Bloom

bal-a vi. bear flowers, bloom; pop, of corn.

bal-spu-a vi. open, of a bud, later stage than chong˙-a but before bal-a.

cha-a vi. get up, rise, grow, develop; sprout, as from a tree stump. aa. get up, grow, come to life: ni-cha-a look up, with head up; di˙-cha-a get someone up from sleep; bol-cha-a tall; tang-cha-pil˙-a come back to life.

cha-pil-a vi. grow again, grow back, as shoots from a stump.

chong˙-a vi. sprout, grow up from roots or from a cut trunk.

rit-im-a, rit-im-pil˙-a vi. grow, get new leaves or bark, sprout, as from a tree stump; grow new skin, of a snake.

4.692 Unripe

a-cha-ri-a vi. almost ripe, a bit riper than bri-a.

bi-sim-ol n. rice that ripens late and that is left at the first harvest to be collected later.

bri-a vi. nearly ripe, riper than ga-dom stage, but not quite min-a.

ga-dom adv. stage of maturation when fruit is filling out, riper than ga-stu but not yet bri-a.

ga-stu n. very early stage of maturation of fruit or vegetable when it is still very small, earlier than ga-dom.

git-ting vi. green, unripe, raw, uncooked.

ja˙-rik-i n. echo in bi-sim-ol ja˙-rik-i rice that ripens late and that is left at the first harvest to be collected later.

reng-si-a vi. at the ga-stu stage of early maturation.

rong-bok-a vi. rice that is almost but not fully ripe, riper than bri-a.

rong-chon-mit-ing adv. while small, an early ga-dom stage of maturation.

rong-git-chak-a vi. almost ripe, especially of rice, riper than bri-a.

4.694 Ripe

min-a vi. ripe, of crops, fruit; oozing, of a wound; cooked enough, done; turn white, of hair.

min-chi-a vi. very ripe and soft.

min-chu-ek-a vi. very ripe and soft, as bananas.

min-ku-ak-a vi. very ripe.

nang-a vi. produce, bear fruit, etc.: bi-te nang-ba-ing-jok the fruit has become ripe.

nang-chek-chek-a vi. ripe, of fruit, rice, etc.; fine, rich, plentiful, well developed; stage of rice beer when it is well mixed and good to drink.

rit-ok-rit-ok adv. falling by themselves, of fruit.

4.696 Overripe, Dry, Rotten

gang-gil-a vi. fall over, as crops in the wind; fall down, lie down, esp. fall on one's back.

-gi-si dns. old and dried out, of plants, wood, tree.

jrong-a vi. die down, of plants, almost dead.

min-dam-bek-a vi. over ripe, left too long before harvesting.

min-min-ek-a vi. a bit too ripe, very soft.

mon-dol-a vi. die down, about to die, of plants.

mring-a vi. knocked down, damaged, as crops from trampling animals or wind and rain.

ren-di-a vi. dried out and in poor condition for eating, of fruit and vegetables.

rin-ek-sin-ek, rin-ek-a-rin-ek-a adv. knocked down, smashed down, as rice plants that are knocked over; sick and unable to stand up.

si-dip-it-a vi. partly dead, but still a bit green, of plants.

sim-a vi. spoiled, smelly, not good to eat, of old rice.

sim-sim-sim-sim adv. starting to turn bad but not completely rotten, as old rice.

skot-a vi. intermediate between hard and soft, not too hard and not too soft, of fruit, things cooking; not fully ripe; intermediate between tight and loose. skot-skot adv.

so-a, su-a vi. rot, rotten.

so-brok-a, su-brok-a vi. completely rotten, not good to eat.

so-pok-a, su-pok-a vi. starting to turn rotten. so-pok-so-pok adv.

so-prot-a, su-prot-a vi. rotten, soft and old, full of holes, as wood when eaten by insects.

u-bit-chet-a vi. dried out before ripening, of fruits and vegetables that remain on dying plants.

wil-a, wil-grop-a vi. fall over, as crops in the wind.