The Language of the Modhupur Mandi (Garo), Volume 1

Category Prefixes

(B)

This and the following two sections will describe the ways in which compound nouns are formed. First, a very large class of compound noun stems are constructed from what I will call a "category prefix" followed by one or more additional syllables. Some of the additional bits have an identifiable meaning of their own, but many do not. The category prefixes give a kind of categorization to many of the objects of the world.

do'- 'bird'. do'- forms the first syllable of dozens of names for birds. Used alone do in Mandi ( do'-o in A'chik) means 'bird', especially 'domestic fowl'. Many compounds formed with do'- refer to particular species of birds. Mandi examples include do'-gep 'duck', do'-gu-gu 'wild pigeon, dove', do'-di 'peacock', do'-ka 'crow', do'-til-eng 'woodpecker', do'-reng 'hawk', and dozens of others. A second level of compounding sometimes occurs when subvarieties are recognized. Within the category of do'-reng various types of hawks are distinguished as do'-reng-chi-jeng, do'-reng-gan-tong, do'-reng-gek, do'-reng-sa-na and do'-reng-wal-ju-si . Do'-bak 'bat' shows that the Garo classification does not always conform to the classification of biologists. The same prefix appears in a number of compounds that are not species names but that relate to birds in some way: do'-bik 'bird's intestines' (important because they are used in divination), do'-gring 'bird basket, a place for keeping birds', do'-bi-ma 'hen', do'-pi'-sa 'chick, baby bird'.

The meaning of do'- in these compounds is perfectly clear, but the meaning of the remaining syllables is often obscure. When the context is clear do or do'-o alone can mean 'domestic fowl' but the meaning can be made explicit by saying do'-man-de where man-de is the ordinary word for 'human being'. Thus do'-man-de means, literally, 'people's bird'. A number of bird names are felt to be onomatopoetic. A bird called do'-pin-chep hasPage  169a call that is regarded as sounding like pin-chep . Do'-gu-gu 'dove' and the do'-ka 'crow' can probably be regarded as having onomatopoetic second portions. I am unable to perceive any independent meaning in -til-eng or -reng which form a part of the words for 'woodpecker' and 'hawk'.

Some compounds that do not name a species have more readily identifiable meanings. Do'-bik 'bird intestines' is clearly related to bi-bik the general word for 'intestines' including those of human beings. -bi-ma is used to identify the female of any species while -bi-pa identifies the male. Even more, -ma and -pa reflect a-ma 'mother' and a-pa 'father'. Used as an independent word, pi'-sa is Mandi for (human) 'child', and when used as the second element of a compound, it identifies the young of an animal species.

Do'- is a good example of a "combining form". It can be regarded as the more basic form of the word, and it is the form from which the "free form" is derived. In Mandi, the free form is made by dropping the raka of the combining form. In A'chik the free form requires an echo vowel to be inserted after the raka. In both dialects, rakas are kept out of the word's final syllables.

With several dozen compounds, do'- is one of the most fertile of the Garo category prefixes, but many others are used as well. Many designate classes of animals and plants. Others refer to body parts, to nonliving natural phenomena, or to human artifacts. The various ways in which category prefixes are used can be seen from the examples which follow.

na'- . As with birds, so with fish. The names for very large number of fish varieties begin with the syllable na'- . Unlike do or do'-o , one of which serves as a general name for 'bird', neither na or na'-a is ever used alone to mean 'fish'. The general name for 'fish' is na'-tok , and the second syllable has no independent meaning that I can identify. Na'-rim-il is a slippery kind of fish ( rim-il-a 'slippery'), na'-cheng-bit 'a small edible fish', na'-su-deng-ga 'a kind of fish with a large mouth', na'-tik 'fresh water shrimp'. There are many others. As with birds, not all the words with na'- as the category prefix refer to species. Na'-kam is 'dried fish of the ordinary kind' ( kam- 'burn'). Na'-gran is 'a special kind of dried fish'.

mat- . This is a much less common category prefix than either do'- or na'- but it occurs in a number of words for mammals: mat-ma 'buffalo' ( -ma 'large'), mat-chok 'deer', mat-chu-ri 'civet cat', mat-ma-chi 'porcupine', mat-cha 'tiger, leopard'. A second level of compounding is possible with mat-cha : mat-cha-am-gip-a 'the largest variety of tiger'; mat-cha-ma'-jang-chi 'middle sized mat-cha ; mat-cha-a-rek 'leopard, smallest sized mat-cha '. Mat-cha-du is a human being who is capable of turning himself into a tiger. Mat-gil is 'hide' ( bi-gil 'skin'). Many other mammals are called by namesPage  170without a mat- prefix. Curiously, mat by itself, means 'squirrel', a much less prepossessing animal than most of those that have mat- as their first syllable. I know of no reason in Garo culture why a squirrel should have such terminological importance.

bol- is a prefix used for dozens of names of tree varieties, and in names for some parts of trees: bol-chek-si 'twig of a tree', bol-dim 'sprouts', bol-gong 'fallen tree', bol-gan-tong 'log, stick'. By itself bol can mean 'wood' as well as 'tree'. To talk about a tree, Mandi speakers often use bi-pang 'trunk, stalk, tree' instead of bol , but when they want to be fully explicit they say bol-bi-pang , achieving complete clarity by forming a compound from the word that can also mean 'wood' with the word that can also mean 'trunk, stalk'.

wa'- is used in names for the considerable number of varieties of bamboo that Garos recognize as distinct, and also for parts of the bamboo plant and for many objects made from bamboo: wa-srep 'a small variety of bamboo', wa'-ja-ting 'bamboo root' ( ja'- 'leg, foot'), wa'-chek-si 'twig of bamboo', wa'-gan-tong 'length of bamboo', wa'-si 'rough split-bamboo matting', wa'-sing 'bamboo cup', and many others.

ta'- is used as a category prefix for a number of tubers: ta'-bol-chu 'cassava, manioc', ta'-ma 'a large edible tuber' ( -ma 'big'), ta'-mil-ang 'sweet potatoes'.

bi- has two barely overlapping meanings. It is used as the prefix for a number of plant parts and also for some body parts of animals, but unlike the plant parts, most of the animal parts that begin with bi- are internal organs. Plant parts with bi- include bi-du or bi-dil 'the long growing part of a vine', bi-gra 'rice husks', bi-jak 'leaf' ( jak 'hand'), bi-bak 'stem of fruit, leaf or flower', bi-bu 'a defective rice grain that has a husk but no seed', bi-sil 'the green outer surface of bamboo', bi-gron 'pit of some fruit, seeds, but not those to be planted', bit-chri 'seed for planting', bit-chi 'juice' ( chi 'water'). The t of the last two examples is the result of a well lexicalized assimilation to the following ch . Whether it is the same prefix or a homophonous one, bi- is also used in bi-bik 'intestines', bi-bil 'afterbirth', bi-ka 'liver', bi-kit 'gall bladder', bi-ba 'breath', bi-jol 'mucus', bi-mang 'body of a person or animal', bi-gil 'skin'. bi-king can mean 'shell' for both plants and animals: 'egg shell', 'turtle shell', 'coconut shell', 'areca nut husk', and 'skull'.

ha'-, a'- . Several category prefixes refer to natural objects or substances. Of these ha'- 'earth, ground, soil' (always pronounced a'- in A'chik and sometimes in Mandi) is probably the most common. In the free form of ha ( a'-a in A'chik) the word can be used without a suffix, but it also occurs in a large number of compounds: ha'-ba 'agricultural land, fields', ha'-kin-te 'lumps of earth', ha'-kin-chi 'dust', ha'-dip-ek 'mud', ha'-rong-ga Page  171'uplands', ha'-dok 'area, region', ha'-gil-sak 'world, earth', ha'-chik 'hill, slope of a hill' from which comes A'chik , literally, 'hill dweller'.

wal'- 'fire' is used alone as wal (A'chik wa'-al ). In its combining form it occurs in many compounds: wal'-ku-a 'smoke', wal'-mi-si 'spark', wal'-jem 'fire brand of lighted sticks', wal'-gu-si 'dark color left by smoke', wal'-ki 'burning coals', wal'-tot 'a device for starting a fire by friction'.

chi- 'water' is used alone, but also in such compounds as chi-bol 'puddle', chi-mik 'spring, water source', chi-dek 'pond, wide place in a stream', chi-git-ok 'narrow place in a stream' ( git-ok 'neck'). Chi also occurs as the second member of other compounds, such as mik-chi 'tears' ( mik- 'eye, face') (see next section).

jak- 'hand, arm',ja'- 'foot, leg'. A number of category prefixes refer to parts of the body. jak and ja'- appear in jak-pa 'palm of the hand', ja'-pa 'sole of the foot', jak-sku 'elbow', ja'-sku 'knee', jak-si 'finger', ja'-si 'toe', jak-skil 'fingernails', ja'-skil 'toenails'. These pairs capitalize on the homologies between the upper and lower limbs, but not all the words for parts of the arms and legs are so well matched. Jak-pong is the 'upper arm' but ja'-ping is 'thigh'. Other words refer to things related to the arms or legs: ja'-kop 'sandal', ja'-gra 'snare, loop to catch an animal's foot', jak-mil-ong 'lacking a bracelet, naked of a bracelet', jak-ra 'right hand', jak-a-si 'left hand'. These two category prefixes are also found in a good many words where the sense is more metaphorical than literal. Ja'-ting 'base of a tree, stubble of rice plants', ja'-pang 'base of a mountain'. Jak- is also used as the first syllable of a number of verbs that refer to the way the hand is used: jak-jip-a 'wave', jak-si-ot-a 'point', jak-rak-a 'quick, fast, especially of working with the hands', jak-wat-a 'let go, drop from the hands'.

mik- is not used alone but it is found in many compounds that refer to the eyes and face: mik-ron or mik-on 'eye', mik-chi 'tears', mik-gil 'eyelid' ( bi-gil 'skin'), mik-sim-ang 'eyebrows', mik-sik-im 'forehead', mik-kang 'face'. The same morpheme is used in a number of verbs that concern the eyes: mik-cha-a 'like, love', literally 'eat with the eyes', mik-chip-a 'close the eyes', mik-dap-a 'get into the eye', mik-dat-a 'dazzled with glare', mik-brok-a 'dull, faded', etc. The postposition mik-kang-o 'in front of' is derived from mik-kang 'face'.

ku'- is not used alone but it is found as the category prefix in many words concerning the mouth: ku'-sik 'mouth, language', ku'-chil 'lip', ku'-chi 'saliva' ( chi 'water'), ku'-dim-bok 'chin', ku'-rang 'voice', ku'-sim-ang 'beard'. The same form is found in a number of verbs that have to do with the mouth: ku'-dim-a 'kiss', ku'-mi-si-a 'whisper', ku'-mong-a 'discuss, consult, agree', ku'-ra-chak-a 'agree', ku'-sim-ok-a 'whistle', ku'-mik-chet-a 'swear, promise'.

pak- is not used alone and it as far as I am aware it occurs as the initial syllable of only three compounds, but these are enough to make its meaning clear: pak-wal 'arm-pit', pak-krong 'shoulder', pak-sim-ang 'axillary hair'. Of the second portions of these words, -sim-ang appears in several compounds for various kinds of coarse body hair so its meaning is clear, but I am not aware of any other words that have either -krong or -wal in a recognizably related sense. Three words give pak- only the most tenuous claim to being a categorizing prefix, but, somewhat unusually, the same syllable occurs as the second member in a number of other compounds: jak-pak 'inside of the upper arm'; ri-pak 'inside of the upper part of a man's leg" si'-pak 'inside of the upper part of a woman's leg'; gang-pak 'the part of a bird's wing that is close to the body'. In all these words pak refers to the area where a limb connects to the torso,

kok- 'basket'. Kok is the usual word for basket in A'chik and particular types of baskets are named with compounds that have kok- as their first syllable. In the Mandi spoken in Modhupur, the usual independent word for 'basket' is to-ra , but kok- is found in a number of compounds. kok-kreng 'a roughly made openly woven basket', kok-sep 'a small basket generally used to hold small animals such as birds or fish', kok-si 'basket for carrying fish or eels'.

nok- 'house, building' is used in a large number of compounds, some for types of houses, others for parts of houses or spaces around houses, and still others for people or groups associated with houses. nok-chol 'opening in the side wall of a house', nok-di 'small house of a newly married couple', nok-mong 'main building, house of the senior couple of a family', nok-pan-te 'sleeping house for unmarried young men' ( pan-te 'unmarried man, adolescent'), nok-gil 'back end of a house, back door', nok-kap 'house site', nok-king 'roof', nok-krom 'male heir of a household', nok-na 'female heir of a household', nok-ma 'wealthy man, village leader ( -ma 'big'). Nok is also found as the second syllable of some compounds (see the next section).

a- orang- occurs as the first syllable of a considerable number of kinship terms, more in Mandi than in the dialects of A'chik that I am familiar with. The meaning of these prefixes is considerably more obscure than is the meaning of the other categorizing prefixes listed here, and perhaps they should not even be considered as the same sort of prefix. Two terms, a-bi 'older sister', a-da 'older brother', always have an initial a- . In other cases, the forms with a- or ang- alternate with forms that lack such a prefix. Examples include a-wang 'father's younger brother' and a-no 'younger sister', which alternate with wang or wang-gip-a , and no or no-gip-a . Ang- can be used as a part of a considerable number of Mandi kin terms, but it is used less often in some more northern dialects. Even in Mandi ang- forms alwaysPage  173alternate with those without the ang- : ang-jong, jong 'younger brother', ang-jik, jik 'wife', ang-se, se 'husband'. I find it difficult to avoid feeling that ang- has something to do with the first person singular pronoun ang-a , but if it ever meant that in these words, its meaning is slipping away. It is perfectly possible to say nang'-ni ang-jong 'your younger brother'.

In addition to the widely used category prefixes described here, many others have a more restricted scope. Category prefixes vary greatly in the number of compounds into which they enter. Some, such as do'- 'bird' and bol- 'tree' are found in dozens. Others are found in only a few, and as the numbers become smaller it is hard to know at what point to stop calling them prefixes at all. Tam-pi 'fly' occurs as the first part of tam-pi-rong-reng 'dung fly', tam-pi-sim-ik 'gnat', and tam-pi-a-mak 'a small biting fly'. Is this enough to make tam-pi count as a categorizing prefix? Whatever the case, an enormous number of compounds are constructed from a first part with a clear meaning, often but not always, a single syllable. Some second elements also have clear meanings, while many others are entirely obscure. It is much less common to find a compound with a clearly identifiable second element following an obscure first element, but there is one curious exception. Bi-du , a noun meaning 'vine', forms a number of compounds that name particular kinds of vines. Oddly, it is -bi-du that is their second element. The meanings of the first parts of these compounds are more obscure: kim-bal-o-bi-du 'a thorny vine as thick as the thumb; ma-ri-bi-du ' a very large woody vine that can be as thick as a man's leg; pal'-wang-bi-du 'a rather tree like vine, with straight, but not standing, sections'; ro-a-tik-bi-du 'a thin vine with much indented fern-like leaves'. I have no idea why -bi-du should come second in compounds when other words with parallel meanings come first.