“On Manchu Medical Manuscripts and Blockprints: An Essay and Bibliographic Survey”[1]

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The more historians use Manchu sources, the more balanced, complete, and complex become their narratives of Qing history.[2] Building on Bartlett, Fletcher, and other Qing historians who paved the path, publications in the past decade by Crossley, Elliott, Rawski, and Rhoades have more than proven this case.[3] The same point holds true for the Jesuit-Chinese exchange in the sciences and medicine practiced in the Manchu court. Yet, scholarship on the subject has been sparse, sporadic, and largely biased toward Manchu translations of European science and medicine. For most of the past century, if scholars discussed medical sources in Manchu at all, they focused on the one exceptional example of early eighteenth-century European anatomy translated into Manchu during the Kangxi reign sometime between 1710-1722. Officially titled in Manchu the Dergici toktobuha Ge ti ciowan lu bithe (Imperially-Commissioned Complete Record on the Body, #51 a-i), this Jesuit translation has generated considerable attention since the beginning of the twentieth century to the present.[4] In 1980, a fragment of this text stored in Copenhagen was made more readily available through a mediocre publication of a facsimile and partial translation titled simply The Manchu Anatomy.[5] As one of the earliest examples of the diffusion of Western anatomical knowledge to China and the first to use Manchu as the medium for Western anatomy, this Manchu translation is indeed one of the more illuminating sources on the process of scientific exchanges between early-modern Europe and China within the Qing court. It was nonetheless just one of Kangxi's Jesuit projects that despite its extraordinary scope and quality, had restricted circulation with no evidence of influence beyond the court. Furthermore, the greater scholarly attention to The Manchu Anatomy reflects a biased interest in the transmission of European medical knowledge into the Manchu court rather than the even more interesting questions about the actual practice of medicine within the court and the greater complexity of medical exchange and translation that the range of medical sources in Manchu reveal.

Fortunately, in the past decade, a few medical historians, Manchu scholars, and bibliographers have approached the subject from a broader perspective that embraces the full range of medical knowledge in Manchu. With the realization of a considerable corpus of Manchu sources on medicine, scholars are now beginning to explore new avenues of research. Instead of just illuminating the diffusion of Western medical knowledge into China through Manchu translations by Jesuits, one may examine the reverse process of Chinese medicine going to Europe through the medium of translations and interpretations. Chinese medical texts began to be translated into French as early as 1671 in the late seventeenth century and continued apace through the end of the eighteenth century.[6] Based on the extant Manchu sources on medicine, however, Russians diplomats, priests, physicians, scholars, and possibly merchants clearly played the most significant role in the transmission to Europe of Chinese medicine through Manchu translations during at least the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. For example, thirty Manchu medical texts are now preserved in four libraries in St. Petersburg-just over half of the known extant texts in the world. The largest holding is in the library of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, which alone has twenty-two known titles. In comparison, twenty-four texts are preserved in Chinese libraries, with eight in the library of the Palace Museum, another five in the Beijing Library, and the remaining eleven scattered throughout five other libraries.[7]

Manchu was not only the primary language of intercourse between the early Qing rulers and their Jesuit guests, it was the most important diplomatic language with Russia and one of the principle linguistic mediums through which knowledge about China reached Europe.[8] The clearest example of the Russian transmission of popular medical practices from China to Europe is in a Manchu version of arguably the most popular eighteenth-century Chinese treatise on childbirth. The Boo-can da s'eng bithe (#31) was based on a popular version of a Chinese manual on midwifery originally published in 1715 and titled the Baochan dasheng bian 保產達生編 (On Safe Pregnancies and Successful Births). This text did not represent the classical Chinese medical approach to obstetrics and gynecology, but rather was a practical guide to childbirth with a simple message. The author taught that childbirth was naturally easy, offered women a set of basic restrictions to follow while pregnant, and gave them a subset of the standard Qing repertoire of medicinal formulas to aid childbirth.[9] A Minister by the name of Fu in the Bureau of Colonial Affairs (Lifan yuan) sponsored the Manchu version of the childbirth manual located in the Institute of Oriental Studies in St. Petersburg. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, this Manchu version (or possibly one similar to it but no longer extant) was translated into Russian, German, and Polish between 1810 and 1812.[10] It was not until thirty years later in 1842 that The Dublin Journal of Medical Sciences published an English translation of the same midwifery text by Dr. William Lockhart, which by then he had based on an 1825 Chinese edition.[11] The earliest versions of this Chinese midwifery text to reach Europe were in Manchu.

The Russians were also interested in Chinese smallpox inoculation methods.[12] From at least the early sixteenth century-nearly three centuries before Jenner's discovery of cowpox vaccination-the Chinese inoculated uninfected children with processed scabs from infected children to reduce mortality from smallpox. Following upon the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, the Russian Tsar sent students in 1694 to Beijing to learn Chinese smallpox inoculation methods. It is not entirely clear whether they actually learned inoculation methods, but the primary source does state that they were trained as smallpox doctors.[13] Evidence that is more concrete places the transmission to Europe of Chinese inoculation methods sometime between 1714 and 1721.[14] Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762), wife of the British ambassador at Constantinople, is credited with being the first recorded European to allow her family to be inoculated from smallpox using Chinese methods.[15] Against this background of the transmission of Chinese smallpox inoculation methods to Europe in the early eighteenth century, it is not surprising to find six of the seven extant editions of Manchu smallpox texts preserved in European libraries- five in St. Petersburg (#7-9, #12a, #12b) and one in Paris (#10).

By the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, the transmission of medical knowledge on smallpox prevention switched direction. Within a decade following the publication of Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of Variolae Vaccinae by Edward Jenner (1749-1823) in 1798, one of the czar's physicians Dr. Rehmann helped bring Jennerian vaccination at least to Siberia and Mongolia during a Russian embassy to China from 1805- 1806.[16] The Manchu language was also used to introduce the Jennerian method of vaccination to China in a text titled the Dasamefoloho mama yabure ice arga (#8). This Manchu version was adapted from a Chinese text published in 1836 and titled Chongding yindou xinfa 重訂引痘新法 (Re-engraved New Method for Extracting Pox).

In addition to Chinese midwifery and smallpox inoculation methods traveling through the linguistic medium of Manchu from China to European readers, the St. Petersburg libraries also include Manchu sources on the following medical topics: basic concepts underlying classical Chinese medicine (#1-3, #5), longevity practices (#4c), pulse taking and diagnosis (#13-14), pharmacology and formulas (#17-18, #21-22), acupuncture (#25-26), macrobiotics (#28), pediatrics (#32), medical-related philosophical discourses (#33-34), alchemy (#38), medical prognostication (#44), and even veterinary medicine for horses (#35a).[17] During the two centuries before the transformations in scientific medicine of the twentieth century, one sees an exchange through Manchu language texts of medical ideas and practices across the Central Asian trade routes and through the Russian diplomatic and religions missions. Rather than the simple story of diffusion of European medicine to China through Jesuit translations into Chinese and Manchu, there was both an interaction between Chinese and European scholarly tradition within the court[18] and multiple nodes of exchange about Chinese and European medical practices in Manchu well beyond the Jesuit-Chinese encounter.

Another avenue of research that historians are beginning to examine concerns the medical practices, drug therapies, and knowledge within Manchu culture and what they translated from the Chinese medical corpus into Manchu during the Qing dynasty. The Chinese historian of medicine Yu Yongmin has been the most prolific on this subject, yet he remains unrecognized outside of China among scholars of Manchu and Qing historians. His first two articles focused on Manchu medical culture, cuisine, and food therapy.[19] His discussion of the Manchu preference for and use of ginseng is particularly insightful. He also published a bibliography of Manchu medical texts that combined titles listed in Chinese and international catalogues with his own discoveries of manuscripts not previously recorded.[20] Most recently, Yu has written on a newly discovered Mongolian manuscript on medicinal formulas that the Manchus may well have also used.[21] Chuang Chi-fa wrote an essay on shamanism and popular medical therapy that sheds further light on the range of healing practices among the Manchus.[22] Another Chinese scholar, on the other hand, has written recently on the rare Jesuit translation into Manchu of Western medicinal substances preserved at the Palace Museum library.[23]

In Europe, Hartmut Walravens has made the greatest contribution to this new field that combines Qing history, Manchu studies, and Chinese medical history by publishing two bibliographies of Manchu medical texts.[24] The first 1996 article focused on the editions of The Manchu Anatomy, but also discussed the three other extant examples of European medicine in the Manchu language. His second bibliography published in 2000 casts a larger net by covering all known medical titles in the catalogues of Manchu sources from Chinese, Japanese, European, and especially, Russian libraries. Walravens argues against an independent Manchu medicine beyond basic drug therapies acquired through interaction with other nomadic cultures on the steppes. He finds that medical sources in Manchu have the greatest potential to inform historians about both the transmission of Chinese medical knowledge to Europe and the assimilation of Chinese medical concepts and practices among the Manchus.

The bibliographies of Volkova of Manchu literature in Russian libraries and Tatjana A. Pang on the Manchu collections in Paris are particularly useful for Manchu medical texts in the most important European collections.[25] Pang's article about a rare Manchu manuscript on acupuncture she found in the Institute of Oriental Studies Library in St. Petersburg is particularly illuminating about the portrayal of Manchu ethnicity in the colored illustrations of acupuncture and moxibustion points.[26] Unlike the classical Chinese medical texts on acupuncture upon which this translation was clearly based, however, the artist did not follow the standardized drawings of points connected along specific channels on the body; rather he drew in just the few point locations that were directly related to the specific treatments discussed in the text. The explanations that relate point locations to certain illnesses and step-by-step instructions on how to apply moxibustion further reflect the pragmatic orientation of this manual. It was intended to be present at the clinical encounter between the Manchu physician and his patient. Judging from the quality of the manuscript and the content of the illustrations, the patient, if not also the physician, was of high social status and wealthy. This rare acupuncture manuscript in Manchu shows how translation is a form of negotiation that transforms knowledge in the process of communicating it into another language for practical purposes. Not only did the Manchus have their own medical practices from living on the steppes and through their interactions with other frontier cultures, they chose what they found useful to translate within the classical Chinese medical corpus and adapted some of this medical knowledge to their own priorities. Manchus under the Qing dynasty lived in a pluralistic medical system drawing from their own healing practices and those of other non-Han frontier cultures as well as what became available to them through both Jesuit translations of European medicine and the classical Chinese medical corpus.

We are only now beginning to see the complexity of the world of medicine among the Manchus and within the imperial court of the Qing. This bibliographic survey is intended to aid further research on the subject. It synthesizes the information on Manchu medical texts in the foundational sources discussed above with all relevant material in other published bibliographies, library catalogues, and articles on Manchu literature. In this synthesis, the final number of Manchu medical texts increased from the 31 titles-which were recorded separately in Yu's bibliography and in Walravens' two articles put together-to 58 distinct titles.[27] Of these titles, nine are probably lost,[28] but 49 of these are still extant and available in 66 separate editions preserved in 17 libraries and institutions throughout the world.[29]

To facilitate cross-referencing, this bibliography follows the categories and order of the 29 texts listed in the most recent bibliography of Manchu medical sources by Hartmut Walravens (2000). All additional titles have been added to one of Walravens' eleven categories or to the following eight new categories: XII Materia Medica, XIII Medical Prognostication, XIV Religious, XV Personal Hygiene, XVI Forensic Medicine, XVII Western Anatomy, XVIII Western Medicine, and XIX Unknown. The 58 titles in this updated bibliography are arranged under the following 19 categories: I General (6), II Smallpox (6), III Pulse Diagnosis (4), IV Pharmacology (8), V Acupuncture (2), VI Macrobiotics (3), VII Gynecology and Midwifery (2), VIII Pediatrics (1), IX Medical-Related Subjects (2), X Equine Medicine (3), XI Alchemy (1), XII Materia Medica (5), XIII Medical Prognostication (1), XIV Religious (4), XV Personal Hygiene (1), XVI Forensic Medicine (1), XVII Western Anatomy (1), XVIII Western Medicine (3), and XIX Unknown (4). The nine editions of the Manchu Anatomy listed in Walravens (1996) are listed under XVII Western Anatomy. The three other extant Jesuit medical translations are listed in XVIII Western Medicine. All of the titles in XII Materia Medica and XIX Unknown are recorded here because they were catalogued in Julien (1889), and von Möllendorff (1890), respectively, and give a better sense of the range of medical knowledge in Manchu at the end of the nineteenth century. There is no evidence, however, that these nine titles survived into the present.

The main entries of the bibliography are organized according to the following format: 1) the Manchu title, when known, and English translation; 2) the Chinese title of the original, or given by bibliographers, in pinyin followed by Chinese characters and English translation; 3) the other titles of texts or fascicles when the main text is a compilation; 4) the title of the original Chinese source and author, when this can be verified, otherwise a statement that the origin is unknown; 5) when the text is known to have a Chinese origin, the index number according to the Quanguo Zhongyi tushu lianhe mulu (LHML) and the earliest known date of publication; 6) bibliographic data about library editions (if text still extant) and indication of whether it is a blockprint or manuscript; 7) relevant secondary scholarship, 8) current library locations of editions; and 9) references to catalogue and bibliographic identification.

All library holdings are indicated below with the unique numbers designated to each text in the main bibliography. To facilitate reference, the totals for each category are in alphabetical order with roman numerals indicated in parentheses. A preliminary chronology of 33 of the 58 texts directly precedes the main bibliography and is arranged according to the reign periods that largely follow designations in Yu (1993).

REFERENCES

A. LIBRARY CATALOGUES AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

• Avvakum. 1843-44. Katalog knigam, rukopisjam I kartam na kitajskom man 'czurskom mongol 'skom, tibetskom i sanskritskom jazykax, naxodjascimsja v biblioteke Aziatskogo departamenta. St. Petersburg, Eduard Prac.
• Banzarov, Dorzhi. 1848. Katalog knigam i rukopisam na mandzurskom jazyke, nachodjascimsjav Azijatskom Muzee imperatorskoj Akademii nauk. Bulletin de la classe historico-pjilogique, Academie imp. des sciences de St. Petersbourg 5: 83-92.
• Cordier, Herbert. 1893-95. Bibliotheca Sinica: Dictionnaire bibliographique des ouvrages relatifs a l'empire chinois,; rev. edition, 4 vols., Paris: Guilmoto, 1904-8. Rep. New York: B. Franklin, 1968.
• ———. 1901. L'imprimerie sino-europiene en Chine. Bibliographie des ouvrages publies en Chine par les Europeens au XVIIe et au XVIIIe siecle. Publications de l'Ecole des langues orientales vivantes. Ve srie, tome III. Paris.
• Fletcher, Joseph F. Jr. 1973. “Manchu Sources,” in Donald D. Leslie, Colin Mackerras, and Wang Gungwu, eds., Essays on the Sources for Chinese History, 141-146. Canberra: Australian National University.
• Fuchs, Walter. 1932. “Neues Material zur Mandjurischen Literatur aus Pekinger Bibliotheken.” Asia Major 7: 469-482.
• ———. 1936. Beitrage zur Mandjurischen Bibliographie und Literatur. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fir Natur- und Vlkerkunde Ostasiens. Tokyo.
• ———. 1942. “Neue Beitrage zur Mandjurischen Bibliographie und Literatur.” Monumenta Serica VI: 1-37.
• Fuchs, Walter; Martin Gimm. 1991. “Die manjurische Sammlung der Koninglichen Bibliothek zu Koenhagen.” Aetas Manjurica 2: 43-116.
• Giles, Herbert A. 1898. A Catalogue of the Wade Collection of Chinese and Manchu Books in the Library of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Rep. Leyden: E. J. Brill, 1948.
• Hessig, W. 1961. Mongolische Handschriften, Blockdrucke, Landkarten. Verzeichnis der Orientalischen handschriften in Deutschland, I. Wiesbaden.
• Iakhontov, K.S. 1991. Man'chzhurskie rukopisy i ksilografy gosudarstvennoi publichnoi biblioteki imeni M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina. Leningrad.
• Ikegami, Jiro. 1962. “Y6roppa ni aru Manshugo bunken ni tsuite,” T6y gakuh6 45.3: 105-21.
• ———. 1964. “Y6roppa ni aru Manshugo bunken ni tsuite (hoi),” Toy gakuh6 47.3: 144-46.
• Julien, Stanislas. 1889. “Bibliographie Tartare: Traductions Mandchoues d'ouvrages chinois,” in Mimoires de la Societe Sinico-Japonaise (Paris): 5-19. This is posthumously published list of titles that were either in the possession of Stanislas Julien or in libraries he had visited. He gave no indication where these titles were located and many are now lost, including the five materia medica titles.
• Kanda, Nobuo. 1968. “Present State of Preservation of Manchu Literature.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Oriental Library) 26: 63-95.
• Laufer, Berthold. 1908. “Skizze der Manjurischen Literatur,” Keleti Szemle 8: 1-53. Republished in Hartmut Walravens, ed., Kleinere Schriften von Berthold Laufer (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1976).
• Li Teh Ch'i 李德啓; ed. by Yu Dachyuan 于道全.1933. Union Catalogue of Manchu Books in the National Library of Peiping and the Library of the Palace Museum. Beijing: National Library of Peiping and the Library of the Palace Museum.
• Ligeti, Louis. 1952. “A propos de l'ecriture manchoue.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 2: 235-98.
• Matsumura, Jun. 1976. “A Catalogue of the Manchu Books in the Library of Congress,” TG 57.1-2: 230-53.
• Ning Chia. 1992. “The Manchu Collection in the Johns Hopkins University” Central and Inner Asian Studies 6 : 34-43.
• Pang, Tatjana A. 1998. A Catalogue of Manchu Materials in Paris: Manuscripts, Blockprints, Scrolls, Rubbings, Weapons. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden.
• ———. 1997. “Manchu Collections in Paris.” Manuscripta Orientalia: International Journal for Oriental Manuscript Research 3.1 (March): 33-39.
• Pfister, Louis. 1932, 1934. Notices biographiques et bibliographiques sur les Jesuites de l'ancienne mission de Chine 1552-1773. 2 vols. Shanghai.
• Poppe, Nicolas, Leon Hurvitz, and Okada Hidehiro. 1964. Catalogue of the Manchu-Mongol Section of the T6y Bunko. Tokyo, Toy6 Bunko; Seattle, University of Washington Pres.
• Puyraimond, Jeanne-Marie, under the direction of Walter Simon and Marie-Rose Sguy. 1979. Catalogue du Fonds Mandchou. Bibliothèque Nationale Departement des Manuscrits, Division des Manuscrits Orientaux. Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale.
• Quanguo Manwen tushu ziliao lianhe mulu 全國滿文圖書資料聯合目錄 (National Union Catalogue of Manchu Literature in Mainland Chinese Libraries). 1991. Ed. by Huang Runhua 黃潤華, et al. Beijing: Shumu wenxian chubanshe. Abbr. Quanguo.
• Quanguo Zhongyi tushu lianhe mulu 全國中醫圖書聯合目錄 (National Union Catalogue of Chinese Medical Books). 1991. Xue Qinglu 薛清錄, et al., eds. Beijing: Zhongyi guji chubanshe. Abbr. LHML.
• Shijie Manwen wenxian mulu 世界滿文文獻目錄 (International Catalogue of Manchu Literature). 1983. Beijing: Zhongguo minzu guwenzi. Abbr. Shijie.
• Simon, Walter; and Howard G. H. Nelson. 1977. Manchu Books in London: A Union Catalogue. London: The British Library.
• Sinor, Denis. 1963. Introduction to Manchu Studies. American Council of Learned Societies, Research and Studies in Uralic and Altaic Languages, Project no. 104.
• Stary, Giovanni. 1985. Opere Mancesi in Italia e in Vaticano. Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag Otto Harrassowitz.
• ———. 1990. Manchu Studies: An International Bibliography. Wiesbaden: Kommissionsverlag Otto Harrassowitz.
• Volkova, Majja Petrovna. 1965. Opisanie Man'chzhurskikh Rukopisei Instituta Naradov Azii AN SSSR (Description of Manchurian Manuscripts at the Institute of Oriental Studies). Moscow. Catalogue of Manchu texts in the Library of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg.
• Volkova, Majja Petrovna. 1988. Opisanie Man'chzhurskikh Ksilografov Instituta Vostokovedenija AN SSSR (Description of Manchurian woodblock printed editions at the Institut Vostokovedenija). Moscow. Catalogue of Manchu texts in the library of the Vostokovedenija Institute in St. Petersburg.
• von Möllendorff, Paul Georg. 1890. “Essay on Manchu Literature,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, v. 45, XXIV no. 1: 1-45.
• Walravens, Hartmut. 1976. “Vorlaufige Titelliste der Mandjurica in Bibliotheken der USA,” Zentralasiatische Studien 10: 551-613.
• ———. Unpublished. “Handschriftlicher Gesamtkatalog der russischen Mandjurica.” Handbook.on Manchu Materials in Russia.

B. SECONDARY SOURCES

• Acherknecht, Erwin H. 1982. A Short History of Medicine. Revised Edition. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Bartlett, Beatrice. 1985. “Books of Revelations: The Importance of the Manchu Language Archival Record Books for Research on Ch'ing History.” Late Imperial China 6.2: 25-36.
• ———. 1991. Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723-1820. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Chu Ping-yi 祝平一 .1996. “Shenti, linghun yu tianzhu: Mingmo Qingchu xixue zhongde renti shengli zhishi” 身體靈魂與天主：明末清初西學中的人體生理知識 (“Body, Soul, and God: Knowledge of Human Anatomy at the end of the Ming and early Qing”). Xinshi xue 7.2: 47-98.
• Chuang Chi-fa 莊吉發. 1996. “Saman xinyang yu minsu yiliao” 薩滿信仰與民俗醫療 (Shamanism and the popular medical therapy). In his Qingshi suibi 清史隨筆 (Jottings on Qing History), 152-162. Taibei: Boyang wenhua shiye.
• Clod-Hansen, A. 1906. “Die manschuische Übersetzung von Bartholin's Anatomie.” (“The Manchu Translation of Bartholin's Anatomy”). Skandinavisches Archiv fur Physiologie 18: 321-322.
• Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1990a. Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• ———. 1990b. “Thinking About Ethnicity in Early Modern China.” Late Imperial China 1: 1-34.
• ———. 1997. The Manchus. The Peoples of Asia Series. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers.
• ———. 1999. A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Crossley, Pamela Kyle; and Evelyn Rawski. 1993. “A Profile of the Manchu Language in Ch'ing History.” HJAS 53.1 (June): 63-102.
• Elliott, Mark. 2001. The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Fletcher, Joseph. 1975. “Manchu Sources,” in Donald Leslie, et al eds., Essays on the Sources for Chinese History (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press): 141-146.
• Goodman, Howard L; Anthony Grafton. 1991. “Ricci, the Chinese, and the Toolkits of Textualists.” Asia Major Third Series III: 95-149.
• Grover, Mme. Y. 1977. “La Correspondance scientifique du Père Dominique Parrenin (1665- 1741),” in Actes du 1ie Colloque Internationale de Sinologie. Chantilly, France.
• Guy, R. Kent. 2002. “Who Were the Manchus? A Review Essay.” JAS 61.1: 151-164.
• Hsieh, H.T. 19221. “A review of ancient Chinese anatomy.” Anatomical Record vol. 20: 97-127.
• Huard, Pierre. 1953. “La diffusion de l'anatomie européenne dans quelques secteurs de l'Asie.” Archives internationals d'histoire des sciences 32: 266-278.
• Huard, Pierre; Ming Wong. 1967. La Médicine des Chinois. L'Univers des connaissances, 23. Paris: Hachette.
• Ishida Mikinosuke. 1953. “Shin no Kȏki tei to kaibȏgaku: Fukuseisarata kikȏsho.” (K'ang-his and His Study of Anatomy: On the Reproduction of a Rare Manchu Book). Buka kȏryȗ 2: 17-20.
• Johnsson, John W.S. 1928. “L'anatomie mandchoue et les figures de Th. Bartholin: Etudes d'iconographie comparee” Kgl Danske Videnskabernes Selskab Biologiske meddelelser: 7.1. Published as a 42 pg. book in Copenhagen: A.F. Host, 1928.
• Li Huan 李歡. 1999. “Qing gong jiuzang manwen 'Xiyang yaoshu”' 清宮舊藏滿文西洋藥書 Zijin cheng 紫禁成: 4: 30.
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• Lockhart, William. 1842. “Art. XI.-A Treatise on Midwifery. A new Edition published in the fifth Year of Taou Kwong (1825),” The Dublin Journal of Medical Science vol. XX, no. 60 (January): 333-369.
• Madsen, Victor. 1928. Anatomie Mandchoue. Facsimilé du Manuscrit No. 11 du Fonds Oriental de la Bibliothèque Royale de Copenhague. Publié sous les Auspices de M. Abr. Clod- Hansen, par Victor Madsen. Translation by M. Vilhelm Thomsen. Copenhagen.
• McKnight, Brian E. 1981. The Washing Away of Wrongs: Forensic Medicine in Thirteenth- Century China. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan.
• Needham, Joseph, with the collaboration of Lu Gwei-djen. 2000. Science and Civilisation in China, Vol. 6 Biology and Biological Technology, Part VI: Medicine. Edited and with an Introduction by Nathan Sivin. Cambridge University Press.
• Pang, T.A. 1994. “An Introduction to the Literature of the Sibe-People.” Central Asiatic Journal 38.2: 188-213.
• ———. 1999. “A Manchu Manuscript on Acupuncture.” Manuscripta Orientalia 5.2 (June): 65-70.
• Pang, T.A., G. Stary. 2000. “On the Discovery of a Printed Manchu Text Based on Euclid's “Elements”.” Manuscripta Orientalia 6.4: 65-70.
• Rawski, Evelyn. 1996. “Presidential Address: Reenvisioning the Qing: The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History.” JAS 55.4: 829-850.
• ———. 1998. The Last Emperors: A Social History of the Qing Imperial Institutions. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Rhoads, Edward. 2000. Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861-1928. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
• Saunders, John B de C.M. and Francis R. Lee. 1981. The Manchu Anatomy and Its Historical Origins. Taipei: Li Ming Cultural Enterprise.
• Shapiro, Hugh. 2003. “How Different are Western and Chinese Medicine? The Case of Nerves,” 351-372. Helaine Selin, ed., with Shapiro, asst. ed., Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
• Spence, Jonathan. 1974. Emperor of China: Self-portrait of Kang-hsi. Repr. New York: Vintage Books, 1988.
• Standaert, Nicolas. 2001. “Late Ming-Mid Qing: Themes, 4.2.7 Medicine,” Handbook of Christianity in China, Volume One: 635-1800, 786-802. In Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section Four, China, ed. by E. Ziircher, S.F. Teiser, M. Kern. 15/1. Leiden/Boston/K6hn: Brill.
• Talpe, Lode. 1991. “The Manchu Text of the Hsi-tu-shih or Lapis Serpentinus.” Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 22: 215-234.
• Walravens, Hartmut. 1996. “Medical knowledge of the Manchus and the Manchu Anatomy.” Études mongoles et sibériennes, cahier 27: 359-374.
• ———. 2000. “Mandjurische Medizin-eine Bibliographie der originalsprachigen Quellen.” (“Manchu Medicine-A Bibliography of sources in the original language”). Zentralasiatische Studien 30: 91-102.
• Weiers, Michael. 1980. “Fragment einer Anweisung zur Moxibustion oder Akupunktur in mandschurischer Sprache” (A Fragment of Instructions on Moxibustion or Acupuncture in Manchu). Heilen und Schenken Festschrift für Ginter Klinge zum 70, H. Franke and W. Hessig, eds. (Geburgstag, Weisbaden, 1980): 139-44. A description of the fragment, which was kept in Marburg (sign. Ms. or. fol. 1593-7), can be found in Hessig (1961): 79, no. 122.
• Wu, Yi-Li. 2003. “The Idealization of Easy Childbirth and Its Influence on Classical Chinese Obstetrics,” Paper presented at “A Conversation about the Future History of East Asian Science, Medicine, and Technology,” The Johns Hopkins University, Sept. 12-13.
• Young, Kue-Hing T; Regina Sask. 1974. “French Jesuits and the 'Manchu Anatomy': How China Missed the Vesalian Revolution.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 111: 565-568.
• Yu Yongmin 于永敏. 1990. “Youguan Manzu zaoqi yixue wenhua chutan” 有関滿足早期 學文化初探 (Preliminary survey of things related to the early medical culture of the Manchus), in Li Di 李迪 ed., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu keji shi yanjiu 中國少數民族科技史驗究 v. 5, (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe): 160-172.
• ———. 1992. “Manzu yaoshan yu shiliao jingyan” 滿足藥膳與食療經驗 (The Manchu Knowledge of Medicinal Cuisine and Food Therapy), in Li Di 李迪, ed., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu keji shi yanjiu 中國少數民族科技史驗究, v. 7, (Hohhot: Neimenggu renmin chubanshe): 165-169.
• ———. 1993a. “Zhongguo Manwen yixue yizhu kaoshu” 中國滿文醫學譯著考述(Annotated Bibliography of Manchu Medical Texts in China). Manzu yanjiu 2: 54-60.
• ———. 1993b. “Zhongguo Manwen gu yiji yizhu kaoshu” 中國滿文股醫籍譯著考述 (Annotated Bibliography of Chinese Ancient Medical Texts in Manchu). Zhongguo keji shijiang 4: 91-97. (Same article as 1993a in Manzu yanjiu).
• ———. 1996. “Xin faxiande 'Menggu yaofang' kaoshi” 新發現 ‘蒙古藥房’考試 (Examination of the newly discovered “Mongolian Medical Formulas”), in Di 'er jie zhongguo shaoshu minzu keji shi guoji xueshu taolun huilun wenji 第二屆中國少數名族科技史國際學術討論會論文集 (Proceedings of the Second International scholarly meeting of the history of minority science and technology in China): 308-312.

1. I thank Mark Elliott for sending me on this path, lending me his bibliographies of Manchu sources, and inviting me to discuss my research on medical knowledge in Manchu first at Harvard in the spring of 2001and then in Portland in May of 2003. I want to acknowledge Doug Stiffler for going to St. Petersburg to purchase microfilm copies of several Manchu medical texts in the Institute of Oriental Studies collection and for his assistance with the Russian materials. I also thank Rebecca Markovits for assistance with the German sources

2. See especially Fletcher (1975). For Manchu sources in the imperial archives and the light they shed on early-Qing imperial institutions, see Bartlett (1985, 1991). Crossley and Rawski further strengthened this position in their "A Profile of The Manchu Language in Ch'ing History" (1993). Rawski synthesized the scholarship on how the Manchus made the Qing dynasty different from all previous dynasties in her "Presidential Address: Reenvisioning the Qing: The Significance of the Qing Period in Chinese History"(1996)

3. In addition to Crossley (1990a, 1990b, 1997), see more recently Rawski (1998), Crossley (1999), Rhoades (2000), and Elliott (2001). See especially the review of these four recent books by Guy (2002).

4. See, for example, Clod-Hansen (1906); H.T. Hsieh (1921); Madsen (1928); Johnsson (1928); Ishida (1953); Huard (1953); Tsang (1959); Huard and Wong (1967); Spence (1974); Young and Sask (1974); Grover (1977); Saunders and Lee (1980); Chu (1996); Standaert (2001); Shapiro (2003).

5. I refer to the publication by Saunders and Lee (1980).

6. See "La Medicine" in Huard and Wong (1966): 163-175.

7. See the list of Library Holdings following this introduction.

8. Crossley and Rawski (1993): 88-89.

9. Yi-Li Wu made these assessments of the Dasheng bian in a paper "The Idealization of Easy Childbirth and Its Influence on Classical Chinese Obstetrics," delivered at The Johns Hopkins University, Sept. 2003.

10. Walravens (1996): 359-360, fns. 2-5.

11. See Lockhart (1842). I thank Yi-Li Wu for sending me a copy of this article.

12. See discussion in Needham (2000): 149.

13. Editor's note to Needham's discussion of the Russians learning smallpox inoculation (2000): 149, fn. 131.

14. Needham (2000): 116

15. Needham (2000): 116. See also brief reference to this situation in Ackerknecht (1982): 142.

16. On Jenner, see Ackerknecht (1982): 143; on Rehmann, see Walravens (1996): 360, fn. 7.

17. See the Bibliography following this introduction.

18. The best argument for this interaction is in Goodman and Grafton, "Ricci, the Chinese, and the Toolkits of Textualists," (1991).

19. On Manchu medical culture, Yu (1990); on Manchu medicinal cuisine and food therapy, Yu (1992).

20. This bibliography was published twice in separate journals. See Yu (1993a, 1993b).

21. See Yu (1996).

22. See Chuang (1996).

23. See Li Huan (1999).

24. See Walravens (1996, 2000).

25. For the Russian collections, see Volkova (1965, 1988); and for Manchu medical sources in Paris, see Pang (1997, 1998).

26. For the Manchu acupuncture manuscript, see Pang (1999).

27. See Yu (1993) and Walravens (1996, 2000).

28. I refer here to the Manchu medical titles listed in Julien (1889) and von Möllendorff (1890).

29. A separate article that reviews the literature on this subject, discusses specific titles in this bibliography, and offers new interpretations of the material is forthcoming as "The Significance of Medical Knowledge in Manchu" in the Proceedings of the North American Conference on Manchu Studies, Portland State University, May 9-10, 2003 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag).