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Contents

1. Foreign-language word processing: Manchu

2. Requirements of the Manchu writing system

2.1 The Manchu script

2.2 European/Western adaptations

2.3 Writing Manchu on the computer

2.3.1 General

2.3.2 Computer of Western configuration

2.4 Tools

2.4.1 Fonts

2.4.2 Keyboard manager (WinKeySwap)

3. Using the Manchu writing system

3.1 Writing texts and passages of text in Manchu

3.1.1 Selection of a word processing system

3.1.2 Applying WinKeySwap

3.1.3 Problems of layout when applying the European adapted form

3.1.4 Graphic creation and insertion of Manchu texts

3.2 Prospects and further developments

1. Foreign-language word processing: Manchu

Despite rapid increases in efficiency in the fields of hardware and software, writing foreign language texts on a PC is still an adventurous enterprise. This is all the more true in the case of languages considered to be as 'exotic' as Manchu, which is written from left to right and top to bottom (see Fig. 1, an imperial blockprint of the Wuying dian, ca. 1700). If someone turns to a computer specialist with such a problem, they will be informed about a number of complicated writing systems and even receive a proposal to program additional writing systems.

This method will not be followed here. On the contrary, it shall be shown that to solve the problem at hand, all the accessories required are available on the PC software market. All one needs is to intelligently apply the necessary specialized knowledge in dealing with a font editor, writing systems, keyboard managers and — as a matter of course — knowledge of the Manchu script. Even the demand to write Manchu on a western standard PC can be put into practice without further ceremony.

When in 1995 the desire was expressed to write Manchu on a computer, a system to do so was already available. However, it was very inconvenient and it did not cope with the Manchu writing technique and the elegance of the Manchu script. Pretty soon it became obvious that a particular procedure had to be developed for academic requirements. To write Manchu on the computer meant at that time to create a Manchu font in the first place. However, an additional input system adjusted to Manchu was likewise required so that the user would be able to work intuitively without constantly looking up character lists.

2. Requirements of the Manchu writing system

2.1 The Manchu script

The Manchu script is read and written letter by letter from top to bottom and line by line from left to right. It is thus different from Chinese and Japanese, both of which are traditionally read from top to bottom and right to left (unlike Manchu, the latter may also be written horizontally from left to right). Because Manchu has an alphabet, the letters of one word are connected, as in Arabic and Western handwriting. The base of one letter is added to the top of the following letter without any space. To the left and right of some letters diacritical elements (circles and dots) are added to indicate the sound value of the respective letter (e.g., 'k,' 'g,' 'h'). Furthermore, depending on whether a letter is written at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a word, or isolated on its own, different forms of the same letter occur.

Also, as with some Western languages, ligatures exist in the Manchu script, e.g., combinations of letters so closely combined, that almost a new character is created. Writing techniques lead to different textures of Manchu texts, depending on whether the text is engraved on printing plates (see fig. 1) or written with a brush (see fig. 2, Hu-ko-chin-t'ai, Ta-hu-erh ku-shih, Taipei, 1977). Manchu fonts were at first based on those hand-written characters, which were to supplement the script of the printing plates with their rather plain impression.

2.2 European/Western adaptations

When Westerners began to study Manchu culture more intensively in the seventeenth century and wished to have their books printed, the above-mentioned scripts had to be adapted to the European printing techniques. The Manchu vertical way of writing had to be adjusted to the horizontal European way of writing and printing. Figure 3 shows a mixed-language text of Manchu and French, where the Manchu text passage is read from right to left. This example is taken from J.Klaproth, Chrestomathie Mandchou, ou Recueil de Textes Mandchou (Réimpression de l'édition 1828, Osnabrück 1985, p. IX), using the Manchu font described further below.

2.3 Writing Manchu on a computer

2.3.1 General

The procedure consists of fonts and input techniques aimed first and foremost at the academic user. It provides for two methods: a) Writing a mixed text (horizontal style, fig. 3), and b) Creating texts in the common Manchu-style (top left to bottom right). The latter we call a graphic way of writing (figs. 1 and 2).

2.3.2 Computer of Western configuration

"Western configuration" means a computer including a West-European/U.S. Windows 3.1, together with a. word-processing or DTP system, e.g., WordPerfect or Pagemaker. An essential feature of these Western system is that text is written horizontally from left to right (LTR). While searching for methods to write vertically from left to right, as required by Manchu, the following deliberations led to the subsequent results: First, the text is typed horizontally from right to left (RTL-method). Then the text is rotated 90 degrees in a counterclockwise direction, thus appearing in the correct Manchu alignment. This RTL-way of typing will be realized by an add-on tool without reducing its practicability and acceptance. The keyboard manager WinKeySwap (see 2.4.2) has been employed with the procedure presented above.

Creating the fonts Manjul and Manju2 has been the central problem requiring most of our working time. The starting point was the descriptions of the basic elements of the Manchu script, which we took from E. Haenisch, Mandschu-Grammatik (Leipzig, 1961), Ji Yonghai, et al., Manju gisun-i kooli bithe/Man-yü yü-fa (Beijing,1986), and various other sources.

2.4 Tools

2.4.1 The fonts

With the help of the font-editor Fontographer, we developed three fonts, namely ManjuStandard, Manju2 and Manju3. In the course of this development, the most frequently-occurring letter forms were put in ManjuStandard, letter forms used in isolation and for transcribing Chinese were put in Manju2, and rare Manchu letters in Manju3. In view of the calligraphic development of Manchu writing for computer programs, fixing the width of the center line was of fundamental significance. Thus we determined the center width and then the length of the side strokes on the left and right. A background grid served as the basis for harmonious balance of an aesthetic relation between the center and the sides. Similar arrangements were found in the woodblock prints and in writing done with a brush.

The creation of Manchu characters alone does not meet all the requirements. Kerning plays a decisive role as well. With kerning, characters and letters are not only lined up in a row, but the distance between the characters is controlled. The font-editor defines pairs of kerning, so that the distance between the characters will be adjusted when they are linked together. In most cases it will be narrowed.

2.4.2 The keyboard manager WinKeySwap

The keyboard manager controls the input of the Manchu characters. Its task is to reroute key codes, which are provided for by the keyboard driver, with the aid of a keyboard-setting-table, to other characters (=ANSI Code). This by no means replaces a keyboard driver, but serves as a supplement. The keyboard setting table is aligned with the respective font. Each of the three fonts (ManjuStandard, Manju2, and Manju3) have got their own setting table in which the keys are set in such a way as to enable the author to write as intuitively as possible, i.e., to look up character lists as little as possible.

The sequence k+a for Manchu, for instance, is typed with these keys. The isolated characters and those at the end of a word required special key combinations. In the case of endings the ALT key is first pressed down and then the actual ending letter is typed. The isolated characters are in the font Manju2, which has to be activated by a Function (F) key. Macros were written in order to combine the fonts via the DDE (dynamic data exchange) and the keyboard setting table, with the help of which any font including the key setting can be referred to.

3. Using the Manchu writing system

3.1 Writing texts and passages of text in Manchu

While using the computerized Manchu writing system, both forms, i.e. the European adapted and the traditional Manchu form, may be selected. In either case, the keyboard manager WinKeySwap, which can be utilized in all programs presented here, must be started beforehand. In order to create texts of any form the following steps are required. Points 1 - 3 must be carried out for the alignment of text with the traditional Manchu format to be available.

  1. Selection of appropriate word processing systems.
  2. Starting of WinKeySwap with a Manchu character setting table.
  3. Typing a text in the European adapted form.
  4. Rotating the text by 90 degrees to the traditional Manchu form.
  5. Insertion into a Western text.

3.1.1 Selection of a word processing system

The selection of an appropriate word processing system to write Manchu texts is closely connected to paragraph 3.1.4. If the word processing system is able to present rotated texts (such as WordPerfect), it is possible to create both text forms in one system. Writing systems such as Microsoft Word, on the other hand, require additional graphic design programs. In place of other programs, the utilization of WordPerfect, MS-Word and PageMaker will now be introduced for writing Manchu texts. The system most favored is WordPerfect, because both the traditional Manchu and the Western adapted text forms can be created.

WordPerfect. This system is given preference, because texts can be written in both forms mentioned above. Unlike Word, one may place text in textboxes in order to rotate these boxes, including the text, by 90 degrees and position it anywhere on a page. Macros are likewise available, contrary to DTP programs via which the various scripts and key setting tables can be obtained. In doing so, the following settings apply: Function key F9 = Western standard (English, French, German, etc.), F10 = ManjuStandard, F11 = Manju2, and F12 = Manju3 (see 2.4.1 Fonts). The macros assigned to these function keys are to be found in the WP template MANJUWP that has to be set up when opening a new WP file. Graphics may also be inserted in Manchu texts of WordPerfect created with design programs.

MS-Word. It is not possible in Word to write texts in a textual frame (textbox) and rotate this afterwards. Therefore only the European adapted form can be used, that is the horizontal style. Even the tool WordArt does not meet our requirements. In order to write texts in the traditional Manchu style, a graphic program such as CorelDraw has to be used first. The text thus written can be rotated the necessary 90 degrees and then imported into Word. Macros can be done in Word in order to chose between the different Manchu fonts and character settings. These macros are to be found in the Word template MANJUWD and refer to the function keys as described under WordPerfect.

PageMaker. PageMaker is a desktop publishing (DTP) program with which texts may be written in both the traditional Manchu and the European adapted style. However, unlike Word, it is not possible to switch easily between the fonts by means of the function keys. The flow of writing will often be impeded when creating any of the two styles due to manual switching. The rotation of texts, on the other hand, is extremely easy in DTP programs. A part or the whole of the text must only be marked and with the tool ROTATE it may be put in its desired position.

3.1.2 Applying the WinkeySwap

First, the WinKeySwap must be started and set up with the Standard Keyboard Setting Table Manjustd. This program must constantly run in the background and may not be closed during the creation of texts. If Word or WordPerfect is used, the WinKeySwap is controlled by the above mentioned macros and the respective functional keys. Thus, the keyboard setting tables Manju2 for the font Manju2 and the setting table Manju3 for the font Manju3 need not be set up manually. The WinKeyswap also allows one to write from right to left in addition to rerouting keys to other ANSI Codes. It is sufficient to switch on the option 'write backwards'.

3.1.3 Problems of layout when applying the European adapted form

If a Manchu text is to be inserted in a mixed-language text, the corresponding font must be selected first. Attention must be paid when writing Manchu characters that the following character will always be inserted left of the character already typed (RTL-mode), as in Arabic and Hebrew Windows. One difficulty arises while typing Manchu texts at the end of aline. The automatic return to the next line does not lead to the customary results, and once again the return has to be done manually. First the cursor must be placed on the right side at the end of the line and then the return key be pressed.

3.1.4 Graphic creation and insertion of Manchu texts

If a Manchu text is written vertically with a word processing system such as Word, it must be created beforehand in a graphic program, such as CorelDraw, then rotated by 90 degrees and imported into Word as a graphic. CorelDraw offers the additional option to convert texts to curves, export these as graphics and insert them at the desired position. It enables a text to be passed on without the respective fonts. Figures 3 and 4 in this article are example of text inserted using this method.

3.2 Prospects and further developments

In the academic field, Manchu is not only written together with Western languages but East Asian languages as well. As these use the 2-Byte-Code (Unicode) on computers, the procedure introduced above to write Manchu must be enlarged by this component. Furthermore, due to the fast spread of Windows NT, a keyboard manager must be developed that works under this system. So far the WinkeySwap works only under Windows 3.1 and Windows 95. Since Manchu is similar to the Mongolian script, it is planned to develop a writing system Mongolian from the same Manchu fonts, in a way turning history around. After all the Manchu script was derived from the Mongol alphabet, commissioned by Nurhaci in 1599 and developed by Erdeni Baksi and Gagai!

Figure 1: Imperial Print ca. 1700

Figure 2: Handwriting

Figure 3: Mixed language text Manch-French

Figure 4: Manchu Computer Script