A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

SOCRATES. SOCRATES. b4.9
were, that Socrates was guilty of corrupting the style of examining into morals and laws, and to
youth, and of despising the tutelary deities of the restore the old hereditary faith in their unrestricted
state, putting in their place another new divinity validity; especially at a time, when, after the ex(Plat. Apol pp. 23,'24; Xen. MIlem. i. 1. ~ 1; Diog. pulsion of the Thirty, the need may have been
Ladrt. ii. 40, ib. Menag.). At the same time it felt of returning to the old faith and the old manhad been made a matter of accusation against him, ners. But the assertion with regard to a well-known
that Critias, the most ruthless of the Tyrants, had depreciatory opinion of Cato, that that opinion is
come forth from his school (Xen. Meen. i. 2. ~ 12; the most just that was ever uttered (Forchhammer,
comp. Aeschin. adv. Tim. ~ 173, Bekker). Some die At/lener und Sokrates, die Gesetzlic/len und der
expressions of his, in which he had found fault with Revolutionair, 1838), cannot be maintained without
the democratical mode of electing by lot, had also rejecting the best authenticated accounts that we
been brought up against him (Xen. Meie. i. 2. ~ 9, have of Socrates, and entirely misconceiving the
comp. 58); and there can be little doubt that use was circumstances of the time. The demand that the
made of his friendly relations with Theramenes, one individual, abjuring all private judgment, should
of the most influential of the Thirty, with Plato's let himself be guided simply by the laws and
uncle Charmides, who fell by the side of Critias in maxims of the state, could no longer be made at
the struggle with the popular party, and with other the time of the prosecution, when poets, with
aristocrats, in order to irritate against him the Aristophanes at their head,-ardently desirous as
party which at that time was dominant; though he was for the old constitution and policy, —ridisome friends of Socrates, as Chaerephon for example culed, often with unbridled freedom, the gods of
(Plat. Apol. pp. 20, 21), were to be found in its the state and old maxims; and when it never
ranks. But, greatly as his dislike to unbridled occurred to any orator to uphold the demand that
democracy may have nourished the hatred long each should unconditionally submit himself to the
cherished against him, that political opposition was existing constitution. If it was brought to bear
not, strictly speaking, the ground of the hatred; against Socrates, it could only be through a pasand the impeachment sought to represent him as a sionate misconception of his views and intentions.
man who in every point of view was dangerous to In the case of somne few this mlisconception might
the state. rest upon the mistake, that, by doing away with
In the fullest consciousness of his innocence, free, thoughtful inquiry, the good old times might
Socrates repels the charge raised against him. be brought back again. With most it probably
His constant admonition in reference to the wor- proceeded from democratical hatred of the political
ship of the gods had been, not to deviate from maxims of Socrates, and from personal dislike of
the maxims of the state (Xen. MeAt. iv. 3. ~ 15, his troublesome exhortation to moral self-examinacomp. i. 1. ~ 22); he had defended faith in oracles tion. (Comp. P. van Limburg Brower, Apologia
and portents (ib. iv. 3. ~ 12, i, 1. ~ 6, &c., iv. 7. ~ 16; contra Meliti redivivi Calumniamn, Groningae, 1838;
Plat. Apol. pp. 23, &c., 28, 20, 26, 35, comp. Phaied. Preller, in the Haller Allyemeine Literatur Zeilung,
pp. 60, 118, Crito, p. 44); and with this faith that 1838, No. 87, &c., ed. Zeller, die Philosophlie der
which he placed in his Daemoniuim stood in the Griechen, ii. 73-104. Respecting the form of the
closest connection. That he intended to introduce trial, see Meier and Schiman, Attischl. Process, p.
new divinities, or was attached to the atheistical ime- 182.)
teorosophia of Anaxagoras (Plat. Apol. p. 26, comp. While Socrates, in his defence, describes the
18), his accusers could hardly be in earnest in be- wisdom which he aimed after as that which, after
lieving; any more than that he had taught that it conscientious self-examination, gets rid of all illuwas allowable to do anything, even what was dis- sion and obscurity, and only obeys the better, God
graceful, for the sake of gain (Xen. Alene. i. 2. ~ or man, and God more than man, and esteems
56), or that he had exhorted his disciples to despise virtue above everything else (Plat. Apol. p. 28, &c.,
their parents and relations (Alern. i. 2. ~ 19, &c.), comp. 35, 36, 38, 39), he repudiates ally acquittal
and to disobey the laws (ib. iv. 4. ~ 12, 6. ~ 6), that should involve the condition that he was not
or had sanctioned the maltreatment of the poor by to inquire and teach any more (ib. p. 29). Conthe rich (Xen. Menm. i. 2. ~ 58, &c.). Did then demned by a majority of only six votes, and called
all these accusations take their rise merely in per- upon to speak in mitigation of the sentence, while
sonal hatred and envy? Socrates himself seems he defends himself against the accusation of stiffto have assumed that such was the case (Plat. necked self-conceit, he expresses the conviction that
Apol. pp. 23, 28, comp. Meno, p. 94; Plut. Alcib. c. he deserved to be maintained' at the public cost in
4; Athen. xii. p. 534). Yet the existence of deeper the Prytaneium, and refuses to acquiesce in the
and more general grounds is shown by the wide- adjudication of imprisonment, or a large fine, or
spread dislike towards Socrates, which, five years banishment. He will assent to nothing more than
after his death, Xenophon thought it necessary to a fine of thirty minae, on the security of Plato,
oppose by his apologetic writings (comp. Plat. Crito, and other friends. Condemned to death by
Apol. pp. 18, 19, 23). This is also indicated by the judges, who were incensed by this speech, by a
the antagonism in which we find Aristophanes majority of eighty votes, he departs from thesl
against the philosopher, an antagonism which, as with the protestation, that he would rather die after
we have seen, cannot be deduced from personal such a defence than live after one in which he
dislike. Just as the poet was influenced by the should have betaken himself to an endeavour to
conviction that every kind of philosophy, equally move their pity; and to those who had voted for
with that of the sophists, could tend only to a him he justifies the openness with which he had
further relaxation of the ancient morals and the exhibited his contempt of death (p. 38, &c,). The
ancient faith, so probably were also a considerable sentence of death could not be carried into execut.
part of the judges of Socrates. They might imagine tion until after the return of the vessel which had
that it was their duty to endeavour to check, by been sent to Delos on the periodical Theoric mission,
the condemnation of the philosopher, the too subtle The thirty days which intervened between its rX
VtOL. 11. 3