A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

624 PYTHAGORAS. PYTHAGORAS.
cially Arist. Phys. Ausc. iv. 6; Brandis, 1. c. p. vented the deity from conducting every thing to
476). the best end (Theophr. Mlet. 9. p. 322, 14). With
The intervals between the heavenly bodies were the popular superstition they do not seem to have
supposed to be determined according to the laws interfered, except in so far as they may have reand relations of musical harmony (Nicom. Harm. duced the objects of it, as well as all other existing
i. p. 6, ii. 33; Plin. H. N. ii. 20; Simpl. in Arist. beings, to numerical elements. (Plut. de Is. et Os.
de Caelo Schol. p. 496, b. 9, 497. 1 1). Hence arose 10; Arist. Met. xiii. 5.) It is not clear whether
the celebrated doctrine of the harmony of the the all-pervading soul of the unifverse, which they
spheres; for the heavenly bodies in their motion spoke of, was regarded as identical with the Deity
could not but occasion a certain sound or note, de- or not (Cic. de Nat. Deor. i. 11). It was perhaps
pending on their distances and velocities; and as nothing more than the ever-working energy of the
these were determined by the laws of harmonical Deity (Stob. p. 422; Brandis, p. 487, note n). It
intervals, the notes altogether formed a regular was from it that human souls were derived (Cic.
musical scale or harmony. This harmony, how- de Nat. Deor. i. 11, de Sen. 21). The soul was
ever, we do not hear, either because we have been also frequently described as a number or harmony
accustomed to it from the first, and have never had (Plut. de Plac. iv. 2; Stob. Eel. Phys. p. 862;
an opportunity of contrasting it with stillness, or Arist. de An. i. 2, 4); hardly, however, in the
because the sound is so powerful as to exceed our same sense as that unfolded by Simmias, who had
capacities for hearing (Arist. de Caelo, ii. 9; Porph. heard Philolaus, in the Phaedo of Plato (p. 85,
in Ilarma. Ptol. 4. p. 257). With all this fanciful &c.), with which the doctrine of metempsychosis
hypothesis, however, they do not seem to have would have been totally inconsistent. Some held
neglected the observation of astronomical phaeno- the curious idea, that the particles floating as motes
mena (Brandis, 1. c. p. 481). in the sunbeams were souls (Arist. de An. i. 2).
Perfection they seemed to have considered to In so far as the soul was a principle of life, it was
exist in direct ratio to the distance from the cen- supposed to partake of the nature of the central
tral fire. Thus the moon was supposed to be inha- fire (Diog. Lahrt. viii. 27, &c.). There is, however,
bited by more perfect and beautiful beings than the some want of uniformity in separating or identifyearth (Plut. de Plac. Phil. ii. 30; Stob. 1. c. i. p. ing the soul and the principle of life, as also in the
562; Bhckh, 1. c. p. 131). Similarly imperfect division of the faculties of the soul itself. Philovirtue belongs to the region of the earth, perfect laus distinguished soul (wvXd) friom spirit or reason
wisdom to the IcoSyos; the bond or symbol of (vogs, Theol. Arith. p. 22; Bickh, p. 149; Diog.
connection again being certain numerical relations Laert. viii. 30, where 4ppves is the term applied to
(comp. Arist. Met. i. 8; Alex. Aphrod. in Arist. that which distinguishes men from animals, vods and
Met. i. 7, fol. 14, a.). The light and heat of the avpo's residing in the latter likewise). The division
central fire are received by us mediately through of the soul into two elements, a rational and an
the sun (which, according to Philolaus, is of a irrational one (Cic. Tasc. iv. 5), comes to much the
glassy nature, acting as a kind of lens, or sieve, as same point. Even animals, however, have a germ
he terms it, Bickh, I. c. p. 124; Stob. 1. c. i. 26; of reason, only the defective organisation of their
Euseb. Praep. Evang. xv. 23), and the other body, and their want of language, prevents its deheavenly bodies. All things partake of life, of velopment (Plut. de Plac. v. 20). The Pythagowhich Philoiaus distinguishes four grades, united reans connected the five senses with their five elein man and connected with successive parts of the ments (Theol. Arith. p. 27; Stob. I. c. p. 1104).
body, - the life of mere seminal production, which In the senses the soul found the necessary instruis common to all things; vegetable life; animal ments for its activity; though the certainty of
life; and intellect or reason (Theol. Arinhm. 4, p. knowledge was derived exclusively from number
22; Bhckh, p. 159.) It was only in reference to and its relations. (Stob. p. 8; Sext. Emp. adv.
the principia, and not absolutely in point of time, Math. vii. 92.)
that the universe is a production; the development The ethics of the Pythagoreans consisted more
of its existence, which was perhaps regarded as an in ascetic practice, and maxims for the restraint of
unintermitting process, commencing from the centre the passions, especially of anger, and the cultiva(Phil. ap. Stob. 1.c. p. 360; Biickh, p. 90, &c.; tion of the power of endurance, than in scientific
Brandis, p. 483); for the universe is "imperish- theory. What of the latter they had was, as
able and unwearied; it subsists for ever; from might be expected, intimately connected with their
eternitydid it exist and to eternity does it last, one, number-theory (Arist. Eth. Mlayn. i. 1, Eth. Nic.
controlled by one akin to it, the mightiest and the i. 4, ii. 5). The contemplation of what belonged
highest." (Phil. ap. Stob. Eel. Phys. p. 418, &c.; to the pure and elevated region termed KcrJeoe,
Bickh, p. 164, &c.) This Deity Philolaus else- was wisdom, which was superior to virtue, the
where also speaks of as one, eternal, abiding, un- latter having to do only with the inferior, sublunary
moved, like himself (Bickh, p. 151). He is de- region (Philol. ap. Stob. Eecl. Phys. pp. 490, 488).
scribed as having established both limit and the Happiness consisted in the science of the perfection
infinite, and was'often spoken of as the absolute of the virtues of the soul, or in the perfect science
unity; always represented as pervading, though of numbers (Clem. Alex. Strom. ii. p. 417; Theodistinct from, and presiding over the universe: not doret. Serm. xi. p. 165). Likeness to the Deity
therefore a mere germ of vital development, or a was to be the object of all our endeavours (Stob.
principium of which the universe was itself a mani- Ecl. Eth. p. 64), man becoming better as he apfestation or development; sometimes termed the proaches the gods, who are the guardians and
absolute good (Arist. A'Iet. xiii. 4, p. 1091, b. 13, guides of men (Plut. de De/: Or. p. 413; Plat.
Bekker), while, according to others, good could be- Phaed. p. 62, with Heindorf's note), exercising a
long only to concrete existences (Mlet. xi. 7, p. direct influence upon, them, guiding the mind or
1072, b. 31). The origin of evil was to be looked reason, as well as influencing external circumstances
for not in the deity, but in matter, which pre- (yeveOai -yap 7r;irrodTcv rax rapa rog 8aq.uAiov.,