A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

PYTHAGORAS. PYTHAGORAS. 619
a knowledge of these (if indeed they were members nections, that they might devote themselves excluof the club) is far more intelligible than their ini- sively to religious and philosophical contemplations.
tiation into political secrets. And the aviTos e'pa of Rather he aimed at the production of a calm bearthe master connects itself most easily with the ing and elevated tone of character, through which
priestly character of Pythagoras, and the belief those trained in the discipline of the Pythagorean
which his disciples, and probably he himself also, life should exhibit in their personal and social caentertained, that he enjoyed a closer and more pacities a reflection of the order and harmony of
direct intercourse with the gods than other men. the universe. But the question whether he had
It is possible enough, however, that some of the any distinct political designs in the foundation of
more recondite speculations of the philosopher were his brotherhood, has been variously answered. It
connected with these religious views, while the was perfectly natural, even without any express
ordinary scientific studies -mathematics, music, design on his part, that a club such as the Three
astronomy, &c.-were open to all the disciples. Hundred of Crotona should gradually come to
That there were some outward peculiarities of an mingle political with other objects, and by the faciascetic kind (many of which had, perhaps, a sym- lities afforded by their secret and compact organibolical meaning) in the mode of life to which the sation should speedily gain extensive political
members of the brotherhood were subjected, seems influence, which, moreover, the political condition
pretty certain (comp. Porph. 32; Iambl. 96, &c.). of Crotona, where the aristocracy was with diffiSome represent him as forbidding all animal food culty holding its ground, rendered more than usu(as Empedocles did afterwards, Arist. Rhet. i. 14. ally easy. That this influence should be decisively
~ 2; Sext. tEmp. ix. 127. This was also one of on the side of aristocracy or oligarchy, resulted
the Orphic precepts, Aristoph. Ran. 1032). This, naturally both from the nature of the Pythagorean
if to any extent the case, may have had reference institutions, and from the rank and social position
to the doctrine of metempsychosis (comp. Plut. de of the members of the brotherhood. Through them,
Esu Carn. pp. 993, 996, 997). It is, however, of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large
pointed out by Grote (vol. iv. p. 533), that all the amount of indirect influence over the affairs both of
members cannot have been subjected to this prohibi- Crotona and of other Italian cities. It does not
tion; Milo, for instance, could not possibly have appear however that he ever held any official rank,
dispensed with animal food. The best authorities though we are told that the senate urged him to
contradict the statement. According to Ariston accept the office of Prytanis. But we have no evi(ap. Diog. Laert. viii. 20) he allowed the use of all dence that the objects of Pythagoras were (as
kinds of animal food except the flesh of oxen used Krische, Miiller, and others believe) from the first
for ploughing, and rams (comp. Porph. 7; Iambl. predominantly political, or even that he had any
85, 108). There is a similar discrepancy as to the definite political designs at all in the formation of
prohibition of fish and beans (Diog. Laert. viii. 19, his club. That he intended to exhibit in Crotona
34; Gell. iv. 11; Porph. 34, de Abst. i. 26; the model of a pure Dorian aristocracy (MUller,
Iambl. 98). But temperance of all kinds seems to Dorians, iii. 9. ~ 16), is a mere fancy (comp. Grote,
have been strictly enjoined. It is also stated that vol. iv. p. 545, note). It is true that the club
they had common meals, resembling the Spartan was in practice at once "a philosophical school, a
syssitia, at which they met in companies of ten religious brotherhood, and a political association"
(Iambl. 98; Strabo, vi. p. 263). Considerable im- (Thirlwall, Hlist. of Greece, vol. ii. p. 148), but
portance seems to have been attached to music and there is nothing to show that " all these characters
gymnastics in the daily exercises of the disciples. appear to have been inseparably united in the
Their whole discipline is represented as tending to founder's mind." Mr. Grote, more in accordance
produce a lofty serenity and self-possession, regard- with the earliest and best authority on the subject
ing the exhibition of which various anecdotes were (Plato, de Rep. x. p. 600, comp. de Leg. vi. p.
current in antiquity (Athen. xiv. p. 623; Aelian, 782, who contrasts Pythagoras, as the institutor
V.H. xiv. 18; Iambl. 197; comp. Krische, 1. c. of a peculiar mode of private life, with those who
p. 42). lamblichus (96-101, apparently on the exercised a direct influence upon public life), reauthority of Aristoxenus) gives a long description marks, " We cannot construe the scheme of Pythaof the daily routine of the members, which suggests goras as going farther than the formation of a
many points of comparison with the ordinary life private, select order of brethren, embracing his
of Spartan citizens. It is not unlikely that religious fancies, ethical tone, and germs of scienmany of the regulations of Pythagoras were sug- tific idea, and manifesting adhesion by those obgested by what he saw in Crete and Sparta. Among servances which Herodotus and Plato call the
the best ascertained features of the brotherhood are Pythagorean orgies and mode of life. And his
the devoted attachment of the members to each private order became politically powerful because
other, and their sovereign contempt for those who he was skilful or fortunate enough to enlist a suffidid not belong to their ranks (Ariston. op. Iamzbl. cient number of wealthy Crotoniates, possessing
94, 101, &c., 229, &c.; comp. the story of Damon individual influence, which they strengthened imand Phintias; Porph. 60; Iambl. 233, &c.). It mensely by thus regimenting themselves in intimate
appears that they had some secret conventional union" (tlist. of Greece, vol. iv. p. 544). The
symbols, by which members of the fraternity could notion of Miiller and Niebuhr, that the 300 Pyrecognise each other, even if they had never met thagoreans constituted a kind of smaller senate at
before (Schol. ad Arist. Nub. 611; Iambl. 237, Crotona, is totally without foundation. On the
238; Krische, pp. 43, 44). Clubs similar to that other hand, it seems quite as unfounded to infer
at Crotona were established at Sybaris, Metapon- from the account that Pythagoras was the first to
tum, Tarentum, and other cities of Magna Graecia. apply to himself the epithet ipLAho'opos (Cic. Tusc.
The institutions of Pythagoras were certainly v. 3; Diog. La13rt. i. 12), that philosophical connot intended to withdraw those who adopted them templation was the sole end that he had in view.
from active exertion and social and political con- Respecting the Pythagorean tifb, and its analogy