A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

552 PROTAGORAS. PROTAGORAS.
position of Heracleitus, that every thing is motion. maintained that we are not able to know whether
and nothing besides or beyond it, and that out of and how they exist (Timon, in &Sext Enmp. adve.
it every thing comes into existence; that nothing Mllath. ix. 56, comp. 58; Cic. de Vat. Deor. i. 1,
at any time exists, but that everything is perpetually 12, 23, 42; Diog. Laiirt. ix. 51, &c. To regard
becoming (Plat. Tleaet. pp. 156, 152: Sextus Em- the expression, 07roo0i'Ives e11l, quales sint, as
piricus inaccurately attributes to him matter in a Frei does, 1. c. p. 98, as a foreign addition, seems
perpetual state of flux, I' X oevor'', Pyrrhlon. Hyp. to me to involve difficulties), he probably could only
i. 217, 218). He then distinguished two principal have in mind the mutually opposed statements on
kinds of the infinitely manifold motions, an active the point, and must himself have been disposed to
and a passive; but premised that the motion a denial as he could scarcely have been conscious
which in one concurrence manifested itself actively, of a corresponding sensation or perception.
will in another appear as passive, so that the dif- It is not every pleasure, but only pleasure in the
ference is as it were a fluctuating, not a permanent beautiful, to which Protagoras, in the dialogue
one (Theaet. pp. 156, 157). From the concurrence which bears his name (p. 351, b.), allows moral
of two such motions arise sensation or perception, worth; and he refers virtue to a certain sense
and that which is felt or perceived, according to of shame (ai3s) implanted in man by nature, and
the different velocity of the motion; and that in a certain conscious feeling of justice (aiKv), which
such a way that where there is homogeneity in what are to serve the purpose of securing the bonds of
thus meets, as between seeing and colour, hearing connection in private and political life (ibid. p.
and sound (ib. p. 156), the definiteness of the colour 322, c. &c.); and, accordingly, explains how they
and the seeing, of the perception and that which is are developed by means of education, instruction,
perceived, is produced by the concurrence of cor- and laws (p. 325, c. &c., comp. 340, c.). Ile is
responding motions (p. 156, d., comp. 159, c.). not able, however, to define more exactly the difConsequently, we can never speak of Being and ference between the beautiful and the pleasant, and
Becoming in themselves, but only for something at last again contents himself with affirming that
(T'Lv), or of something (rvOds), or to something pleasure or enjoyment is the proper aim of /thegood
(srpos r1, p. 160, b., 156, c., 152, d.; Arist. 1Metaph. (p. 354, &c.). In just as confused a manner does
ix. 3; Sext. Emp. l'yp. i. 216, 218). Conse- he express himself with respect to the virtues, of
quently there is or exists for each only that of which he admits five (holiness, daolrrTS,-and four
which he has a sensation, and only that which he others), and with regard to which he maintains
perceives is true for him (Theaet. p. 152, a., comp. that they are distinguished from each other in the
Cratyl. p. 386; Aristocles, in Euseb. Praep. Evang. same way as the parts of the countenance (ib. p.
xiv. 20; Cic. Acad. ii. 46; Sext. Emnp. I.c. and 349, b., 329, c., &c.). As in these ethical opinions
adv. Math. vii. 63, 369, 388, &c.); so that as sen- of Protagoras we see a want of scientific perception,
sation, like its objects, is engaged in a perpetual so do we perceive in his conception of the Herachange of motion (Thleaet. p. 152, b.; Sext. Emp. cleitean doctrine of the eternal flow of all things,
tIygp. i. p. 217, f.), opposite assertions might exist, and the way in which lie carries it out, a sophistical
according to the difference of the perception re- endeavour to establish, freed from the fetters of
specting each several object (Arist. Miettph. iv. 5; science, his subjective notions, setting aside the
Diog. Laiirt. ix. 5; Clem. Alex. Strom. v. p. 674, Heracleitean assumption of a higher cognition, and
a.; Senec. Epist. 88). The conclusions hitherto a community of rational activity (Il'3S AI0Yos), by
discussed, which he drew from the Heracleitean means of rhetorical art. That he was master of
doctrine of eternal Becoming, Protagoras summed this in a high degree, the testimonies of the ancients
up in the well-known proposition: The man is the leave indubitable. His endeavours, moreover, were
measure of all things; of the existent that they mainly directed to the communication of this art
exist; of the non-existent, that they do not exist by means of instruction (Plat. Prot. p. 312, c.),
(Tl/eaet. p. 152, a., 160, d., Cratyl. p. 385, e.; to render men capable of acting and speaking with
Arist. llIetaph. x. 1, xi. 6; Sext. Emp. adv. readiness in domestic and political affairs (ib. p.
VlMath. vii. 60, Pyrrhon. Hyp. i. p. 216; Aristocles, 318, e.). He would teach how to make the weaier
in Euseb. Praep. Erang. xiv. 20; Diog. Lak'rt. ix. cause the stronger (o'v -77'rw AhoyoV KpeITTrW 7roleiV,
51), and understood by the man, the perceiving or Arist. Rhet. ii. 24; A. Gellius, N. A. v. 3; Eusensation-receiving subject. Ile was compelled, doxus, in &teph. Byz. s. v. "AgSlpa; comp. Aristherefore, likewise to admit, that confutation was toph. Nub. 113, &c. 245, &c. 873, 874, 879, &c.).
impossible, since every affirmation, if resting upon By way of practice in the art he was accustomed
sensation or perception, is equally justifiable (Plat. to make his pupils discuss Theses (communes loci)
Euthyd. p. 185, d. &c.; Isocr. Helenae Enc. p. on opposite sides (antinomically) (Diog. Labrt. ix.
231, Bekk.; Diog. Labrt. ix. 53); but, notwith- 52, &c.; comp. Suid. s. v.; Dionys. Halic. Isocr.
standing the equal truth and justifiableness of Timon in Diog. Lanrt. ix. 52; Sext. Emp. adv.
opposite affirmations, he endeavoured to establish a Math. ix. 57; Cic. Brut. 12); an exercise which
distinction of better and worse, referring them to is also recommended by Cicero (ad Att. ix. 4), and
the better or worse condition of the percipient sub- Quintilian (x. 5. ~ 10). The method of doing so was
ject, and promised to give directions for improving probably unfolded in his Art of Dispute ('EXVIm EpLrthis condition, i. e. for attaining to higher activity -LKacv, see above). But he also directed his attention
(Theaet. p. 1.67; comp. Sext. Emp. Hyp. i. p. 218). to language, endeavoured to explain difficult pasAlready, before Plato and Aristotle (Metaph. iv. 4, sages in the poets, though not always with the
comp. the previously quoted passages), Democritus best success (Plat. Prot. p. 388, c. &c.; comp. rehad applied himself to the confutation of this sen- specting his and the opposed Platonic exposition of
sualism of Protagoras, which annihilated existence, the well-known lines of Simonides, Frei, p. 122,
knowledge, and all understanding (Plut. adv. Colot. &c.); entered at some length into the threefold
p. 1109, a.; Sext. Emp. adv. Math. vii. 389). gender of names (daPPeva, ahea, and sKEvi7, Arist.
When Pmntagoras, in his book on the Gods, Ret. iii. 5, El. Soph. c. 14; comp. Aristoph. Nub.