A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

836 CONSTANTINUS.
The following were the most important of the
laws and regulations of Constantine. He developed and brought to perfection the hierarchical
system of state dignities established by Diocletian
on the model of the Eastern courts, and of which
the details are contained in the Notitia Dignitatum. The principal officers were divided into
three classes: the Illustres, the Spectabiles, and the
Clarissimi; for officers of a lower rank other titles
were invented, the pompous sounds of which contrasted strangely with the pettiness of the functions of the bearers. The consulship was a mere
title, and so was the dignity of patricius; both of
these titles were in later years often conferred
upon barbarians. The number of public officers
was immense, and they all derived their authority
from the supreme chief of the empire, who could
thus depend upon a host of men raised by their
education above the lower classes, and who, having generally nothing but their appointments, were
obliged to do all in their power to prevent revolutions, by which they would have been deprived
of their livelihood. A similar artificial system,
strengthening the government, is established, in
our days, in Prussia, Austria, France, and most of
the states of Europe. The dignity and dangerous
military power of the praefecti praetorio were abolished. Under Diocletian and Maximian there
were four praefecti, but they were only lieutenants
of the two Augusti and their two Caesars. Constantine continued the number, and limited their
power by making them civil officers: under him
there was the Praefectus Orienti over the Asiatic
provinces and Thrace; the Praefectus Italiae, over
Italy, Rhaetia, Noricum, and Africa between
Egypt and Tingitania; the Praefectus Illyrico,
who had Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and
Greece; and the Praefectus Galliae, over Gaul,
Britain, Spain, and Tingitania or the westernmost
part of Africa. Rome and Constantinople had
each their separate praefect. Under the praefecti
there were thirteen high functionaries, who were
civil governors of the thirteen dioceses into which
the empire was divided, and-who had either the
title of comes or count, or of vicarius or vice-praefeet. Between these officers and the praefecti
there were three proconsuls, of Asia, Achaia, and
Africa, who however were but governors of provincos, the whole number of which was one hundred and sixteen, and which were governed, besides the proconsuls, by thlirty-seven consulares,
five correctores, and seventy-one presidentes.
The military administration was entirely separated from the civil, and as the Praefecti Praetorio
were changed into civil officers, as has been mentioned above, the supreme military command was
conferred at first upon two, then four, and finally
eight Magistri Militum, under whom were the
military Comites and Duces. The number of
legions was diminished, but the army was nevertheless much increased, especially by barbarian
auxiliaries, a dangerous practice, which hastened
the overthrow of the Western and shook the
Eastern empire to its foundations. The increase
of the army rendered various oppressive taxes
necessary, which were unequally assessed, and
caused many revolts. There were seven high
functionaries, who may be compared with some of
the great officers of state in our country, viz. the
Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi, or Lord Chamberlain;
the Magister Officiorum, who acted in many con

CONSTANTINUS.
Scerns as a secretary for home affairs; the Quaestor,
or Lord Chancellor and Seal-Keeper; the Comes
Sacrarum Largitionum, or Chancellor of the Exchequer for the public revenue; the Comes Rerum
Privatarum Divinae Domus for the private property of the emperor; and, finally, two Comites
Domesticorum, or simply Domestici, the commanders of the imperial life-guard. For further
details we refer to the authorities enumerated at
the end of this article, and to Gutherius, " De
Officiis Domus Augustae."
Constantine deserves the name of Great: he rose
to the highest pinnacle of power, and owed his fortune to nobody but himself. His birth was a source
of dangers to him; his exalted qualities caused
jealousy among his enemies, and during the greater
part of his reign his life was one continued struggle.
He overcame all obstacles through his own exertions; his skill vanquished his enemies; his
energy kept the hydra of anarchy headless; his
prudence conducted him in safety through conspiracies, rebellions, battles, and murder, to the
throne of Rome; his wisdom created a new organization for an empire, which consisted of huge fragments, and which no human hand seemed powerful
enough to raise to a solid edifice. Christianity
was made by him the religion of the state, but
Paganism was not persecuted though discouraged.
The Christianity of the emperor himself has been
a subject of warm controversy both in ancient and
modern times, but the graphic account which
Niebuhr gives of Constantine's belief seems to be
perfectly just. Speaking of the murder of Licinius
and his own son Crispus, Niebuhr remarks (Hist. of
Rome, vol. v. p. 359), " Many judge of him by
too severe a standard, because they look upon him
as a Christian; but I cannot regard him in that
light. The religion which he had in his head
must have been a strange compound indeed. The
man who had on his coins the inscription Sol
invictus, who worshipped pagan divinities, consulted the haruspices, indulged in a number of pagan
superstitions, and, on the other hand, built
churches, shut up pagan temples, and interfered
with the council of Nicaea, must have been a repulsive phaenomenon, and was certainly not a
Christian. He did not allow himself to be baptized till the last moments of his life, and those
who praise him for this do not know what they
are doing. He was a superstitious man, and
mixed up his Christian religion with all kinds of
absurd superstitions and opinions. When, therefore, certain Oriental writers call him laoa7ro'oeroAos
they do not know what they are saying, and to
speak of him as a saint is a profanation of the word."'
The blame which falls upon Constantine for the
death of Maximian, Licinius, and Crispus, will fall
upon many kings, and we have only fabulous accounts of the mental sufferings which his bloody
deeds might have caused him. Constantine was
not so great during the latter part of his reign.
In proportion as he advanced in years he lost that
serene generosity which had distinguished him
while he was younger; his temper grew acrimonious,
and he gave way to passionate bursts of resentment which he would have suppressed while he was
in the bloom of manhood. He felt that the grandeur of Rome could be maintained only in the
East, and he founded Constantinople; but the
spirit of the East overwhelmed him, and he sacrificed the heroic majesty of a Roman emperor to