A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology. By various writers. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

CAESAR.
arrival in Gaul found, that Massilla refused to
submit to him. He forthwith laid siege to the
place, but unable to take it immediately, he left
C. Trebonius and D. Brutus with part of his troops
to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to
Spain. In this country Pompey had seven
legions, three under the command of L. Afranius
in the nearer province, two under M. Petreius in
the further, and two under M. Terentius Varro
also in the latter province west of the Anas
(Guadiana). Varro remained in the west; but
Afranins and Petreius on the approach of Caesar
united their forces, and took up a strong position
near the town of Ilerda (Lerida in Catalonia) on
the right bank of the Sicoris (Segre). Into the
details of this campaign we cannot enter. It is
sufficient to state, that, after experiencing great
difficulties at first and some reverses, Caesar at
length reduced Afranius and Petreius to such
difficulties that they were obliged to surrender.
They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of
their troops disbanded, and the remainder incorporated among Caesar's troops. Caesar then proceeded to march against Varro; but after the
victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no
army in Spain capable of resisting the conqueror,
and Varro accordingly surrendered to Caesar when
the latter arrived at Corduba (Cordova). Having
thus subdued all Spain, which had engaged him
only forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia had
not yet yielded, but the siege had been prosecuted
with so much vigour, that the inhabitants were
compelled to surrender the town soon after his
arrival before the walls.
While Caesar was before Massilia, he received
intelligence that he had been appointed dictator
by the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been empowered to do so by a law passed for the purpose.
This appointment, which was of course made in
accordance with Caesar's wishes, was contrary to
all precedent; for a praetor had not the power of
nominating a dictator, and the senate was entirely
passed over: but it is idle to talk of established
forms under such circumstances; it was necessary
that there should be a higher magistrate than
praetor to hold the comitia for the election of
the consuls; and Caesar wished to enter Rome
invested with some high official power, which
he could not do so long as he was merely proconsul. Accordingly, as soon as Massilia surrendered, Caesar hastened to Rome and entered
upon his dictatorship, but laid it down again at
the end of eleven days after holding the consular
comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia
Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year.
But during these eleven days he caused some very
important laws to be passed. The first, which was
intended to relieve debtors, but at the same time
protect to a great extent the rights of creditors,
was in the present state of affairs.a most salutary
measure. (For the provisions of this lex, see
Diet. of Ant. s. v. Julia Lex de Foenore.) He next
obtained the reversal of the sentences which had
been pronounced against various persons in accordance with the laws passed in Pompey's last
consulship; he also obtained the recall of several
other exiles; he further restored the descendants
of those whohad been proscribed by Sulla to the
enjoyment of their rights, and rewarded the Transpadani by the citizenship for their faithful support
of his cause.

CAESAR..551

After laying down the dictatorship, Caesar went
in December to Brundisium, where he had previously ordered his troops to assemble. He had
lost many men in the long march from Spain, and
also from sickness arising from their passing the
autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey had not
been idle during the summer, and had employed his
time in raising a large army in Greece, Egypt, and
the East, the scene of his former glory. He thus
collected an army consisting of nine legions of Roman citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
infantry; and, though it is impossible to estimate its
exact strength, as we do not know the number of
men which each legion contained, it was decidedly
greater than the army which Caesar had assembled
at Brundisium. His fleet entirely commanded the
sea, and so small was the number of Caesar's ships,
that it seemed impossible that he should venture
to cross the sea in face of Pompey's superior fleet.
This circumstance, and also the time of the year
caused M.Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's fleet,
to relax in his guard; and thus when Caesar set sail
from Brundisium, on the 4th of January, he arrived
the next day in safety on the coast of Epeirus. In
consequence, however, of the small number of his
ships, Caesar was able to carry over only seven legions, which, for the causes previously mentioned,
had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot
and 500 horse. After landing this force, he sent back
his ships to bring over the remainder; but part of
the fleet was intercepted in its return by M. Bibulus,
who cruelly put all the crews to death; and the
Pompeian fleet kept up such a strict watch along
the coast, that the remainder of Caesar's army was
obliged for the present to remain at Brundisium.
Caesar was thus in a critical position, in the midst
of the enemy's country, cut off from the rest of his
army; but he knew that he could thoroughly rely
on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
acting on the offensive. After gaining possession
of Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards,
in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium, where all
Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by
rapid marches, reached this town before him, and
both armies then encamped opposite to each other,
Pompey on the right and Caesar on the left bank
of the river Apsus. Caesar was at length joined
by the remainder of his troops, which were brought
over from Brundisium with great difficulty by M.
Antonius and Q. Fufius Calenus. Pompey meantime had retired to some high ground near Dyrrhachium, and as he would not venture a battle
with Caesar's veterans, Caesar began to blockade
him in his position, and to erect lines of circumvallation of an extraordinary extent; but when
these were nearly completed, Pompey forced a
passage through Caesar's lines, and drove back
his legions with considerable loss. Caesar thus
found himself compelled to retreat from his
present position; and accordingly commenced his
march for Tlihessaly, pursued by Pompey's army,
which was not however able to come up with him.
Pompey's plan of avoiding a general engagement
with Caesar's veterans till he could place more
reliance upon his own troops, was undoubtedly a
wise one, and had been hitherto crowned with
success; but his victory at Dyrrhachiumn and the
retreat of the enemy inspired him with more confidence, and induced him to give heed to those of
his officers who recommended him to bring the
contest to an issue by an immediate battle. Ac