Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

~AGRICULTURA. AGRICULT URA. 49
have been the practice when Columella wrote, or which the work was performed, depended upon the
by making over to the landlord a fixed proportion nature of the soil and the crop for which it was
of the produce (zon numnmo sed partibus locare), ac- prepared. The object of ploughing being to keep
cording to the system described by Cato, and al- down weeds, to pulverise the earth as finely as
luded to by the younger Pliny. These coloni some- possible (Virg. Georg. ii. 204), and to expose every
times tilled the same farm from father to son for portion of it in turn to the action of the atmosphere,
generations (coloni indigenae), and such were con- the operation was repeated again and again (Virg.
sidered the most desirable occupants, since they Georg. i. 47), until these objects were fully athad a sort of hereditary interest in the soil, while tained. When stiff low-lying soil (campus uligion the other hand frequent changes could scarcely nosus) was broken up for wheat, it was usual to
fail to prove injurious. The worst tenants were plough it four times, first (proscindere) as early in
those who did not cultivate in person, but, living spring as the weather would permit (Virg. Geoyg.
in towns (urblanus colonus), employed gangs of i. 63), after which the land was ternled vervactum,
slaves. Upon the whole Columella recommends and hence the god Fervactor; for the second tine
the owner of an estate to keep it in his own hands, (opingere, iterare, vervacta subigere), about the
except when it is very barren, the climate un- summer solstice, under the patronage of the god
healthy, or the distance from his usual place of Reparator, and on this occasion the field was crossabode so great that he can seldom be upon the ploughed (Virg. Geoyg. i. 97); for the third time
spot. Cato gives a table of the proportion which (tertiare), about the beginning of September; and
the partiarius ought to pay, according to the nature for the fourth time, shortly before the equinox,
of the crop, and the fertility of the region; but as he when it was ribbed (lirare) for the reception of the
says nothing with regard to the manner in which seed, the ribbing being executed under favour of
the cost of cultivation was divided between the the god Imnporcitor, by adding two mouldboards
parties, his statement gives us no practical insight to the plough (aratruni auritu7n), one on each side
into the nature of these leases (Cat. 136, 137; of the share. (Varr. i. 29; Pallad. i. 43.) Rich
Colum. i. 7, Plin. Epp. ix. 37, comp. iii. 19.) soil on sloping ground was ploughed three times
II. D6. A cDMINiCJLA EI~OMINTUM. only, the ploughing in spring or at the beginning
of September being omitted; light (exilis) moist
The domestic animals employed in labour, and soil also three times, at the end of August, early
their treatment will be considered under the se- in September, and about the equinox; whilst the
cond great division of our subject, Pastio, or the poorest hill soil was ploughed twice in rapid sucmanagement of stock. cession, early in September, so that the moisture
The tools (instrzczents) chieflyused by the farmer might not be dried up by the summer heat. (Virg.
were the plough (aratrum), the grubber (irpex), Georg. i. 70.)
harrows (crates,crates dentatae), the rake (sastrmin), The greatest care was taken not to plough
the spade (ligo, pala), the hoe (sarculunz, bideous, ground that had been rendered miry by rain, nor
nzarra [?]), the spud or weeding-hook (rznco), the that which after a long drought had been wetted
scythe and sickle (falx), the thrashing-machine by showers which had not penetrated beyond the
(plostellum Poeznicumn, tribZlur), the cart (plo. surface (Col. ii. 4; Pallad. ii. 3); but whether
stramn), the axe (secumis, dolabra). These will be this last is really the tear cariosa of Cato, as
described as we go along in so far as may be Coluamela seems to think, is by no means clear.
necessary to render our observations intelligible, (Cat. v. 34; comp. Plhn. t-H. N. xvii. 5.)
but for full information the reader must consult With regard to the depth to which the share
the separate articles devoted to each of the above was to be driven, we have no very precise direcwords. tions; but Columella recommends generally deep
ploughing (ii. 2. ~ 23; comp. Plin. H. Nr. xviii.
WII. TsHs OPERATIONS OF AGRICtULTURE. 16) in preference to mere scratching (scarZficatio)
The most important operations performed by the with light shares (exiguis vomeribns et dentalibus).
husbandman were: —. Ploughing (aratio). 2. Ma- The plough was almost invariably drawn by
nuring (stercoratio). 3. Sowing (satio). 4. Harrow- oxen, although Homer (Il. x. 351; Od. viii. 124)
ing (occatio). 5. Hoeing (sarritio). 6. Weeding prefers mules, yoked close together in such a
(rsncatio). 7. Reaping (messio). 8. Thrashing manner as to pull by their necks and not by the
(tritura). 9. Winnowing (ventilatio). 10. Storing horns, guided and stimulated chiefly by.the voice.
up (conditio). The lash was used very sparingly, and the young
The Flamen who offered sacrifice on the Cerealia steer was never pricked by the goad (stimzulus),
to Ceres and Tellus, invoked twelve celestial patrons since it was apt to render him restive and- unof these labours by the names Vervator'; Repa- manageable. The animals were allowed to rest
rector; Ilrsporcitor; Insitor; Obarator; Occator; at the end of each furrow, but not to stop in the
Sclalitor; Subruzncator; lfessor; Convector; Con- middle of it: when unharnessed, they were careditor; Promritor; significant appellations which filly rubbed down, allowed to cool, and watered,
will be clearly understood from what follows. The before they were tied up in the stall, their mouths
functions of the last deity alone do not fall within having been previously washed with wine. (Col.
our limits; but we shall add another to the list in ii. 2.)
the person of Stercutius. (Serv. ad Virg. Geoas. i. The ploughman (bubulcus) was required to make
21; Plin. H. N. xvii. 9; Lactant. i. 20; Macrob. perfectly straight and uniform furrows (sulco vario
Sat. i. 7; Prudent. Peristeph. iii. 449; Augustin. ne ares), so close to each other as altogether to obde C. Dei. xviii. 15.) literate the mark of the share, and was particularly
cautioned against missing over any portion of the
1. Plouzg~ing (aratio). ground, and thus leaving scammna, that is, masses
The number of times that land was ploughed, of hard unstirred earth (necubi crudons solue et
varying from two to nine, as well as the season at izenotzmc relinquat, qued acgricolac scamnuzam Lo