Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

244 CASTRA. CASTRA.
CASSIS. [GALEA; RETE.] sam1e for the stme epoch. Ill hiberna, huts of
CASTELLUM AQUAE. [AQUAEnUCTUS.] turf or stone would be substituted for the open
CASTRA. It is well known that Roman tents of the aestiva (hence aedificare liberna), and
armies never halted for a single night without in stativa held for long periods the defences would
forming a regular entrenchment, termed castra, present a more substantial and finished aspect, but
capable of receiving within its limits the whole the general outline and disposition of the parts
body of fighting men, their beasts of burden, and were invariable: a camp was laid down, arranged
the baggage. So essential was this operation con- and fortified according to a fixed and well-known
sidered, that even when preparing for an immediate plan, modified only by the numbers for whom it
engagement, or when actually assailed by a hostile was required to provide accommodation, but altoforce, it was never omitted, but a portion of the gether independent of the nature of the ground or
soldiers were employed in' constructing the neces- of the fancy of the general, so that each battalion,
sary works, while the remainder were standing to each company, and each individual, had a place
their arms or resisting the enemy: and so com- assigned to which they could at once repair -without
pletely was it recogniised as a part of the ordinary order, question, delay, or confusion.
duties of each march, that pervenire ad lobtn tei- At what period the practice of throwing up
tiis... quartis... septuagesisis castris are the elaborate field-works for the protection of an army
established phrases for expressing the number of engaged in active service was first commenced by
days occupied in passing from one point to another. the Romans, it is impossible to determine; but we
TWhenever circumstances rendered it expedient for may safely conclude that, like all other parts ofa force to occupy the same ground for any length their military tactics, it was matured by a slow ancd
of time, then the encampment was distinguished gradual process. Livy and Dionysius, indeed,
as castra stativa. (Liv. xxvii. 12 Caes. B. G. would lead us to suppose that regular camps existed
viii. 15, B. C. i. 42; Hirt. B. Af. 51, B. Al. 74.) from the most remote epoch to which their annals
When the protracted and distant wars in which extend; but the language of these historians is in
the republic became engaged, as its sway was general so loose upon all matters of antiquarian regradually extended first over the whole of Italy, search, and they are so much in the habit of transand subsequently over Greece,' Asia, and Africa, ferring to the earliest ages the usages of their own
rendered it impossible for the legions to return contemporaries, that no safe inference regarding
home in winter, they usually retired during the points of this nature can be drawn from their words.
months when active military operations' were sus- Frontinus, on the other hand, declares that the
pended, into some city where they could be pro- idea of a fortified enclosure, calculated to contain a
tected from the inclemency of the season, and whole army, was first suggested to the Romans by
where the comforts of the men could be readily the camp of Pyrrhus, which they captured near
secured; or they were dispersed up and down in Beneventum; but the statements of this author
detachments among friendly villages (in lsiberna have never been deemed to possess much weight,
concedere; exercitun in 7Liberna dimittere; exer- and in this particular instance many considerations
citem per civitates in lziberna dividere). It is true preclude us from admitting his testimony as credible.
that extraordinary emergencies, such as a protracted It is evident, however, from the facts detailed in
blockade, or the necessity of maintaining a constant the article EXERCITUS that a canip, such as the
watch upon the movements of a neighbouring and earliest of those of which we possess any detailed
vigorous foe, might compel a commander to keep account, could not have assuined that shape until
the field for a whole year or even longer, but to the tactics of the phalanx were superseded by the
order an army, except in case of necessity, to winter manipular divisions; and it may be held as certain
under canvass (hiemare sub pellibus; lsienzenz sub that each of the great wars in which the Commontentoriis exigere) was long regarded as a severe wealth was successively engaged for more than a
punishment, inflicted only in consequence of grievous century-with the Samnites, with Pyrrhus, with the
misconduct. (Frontin. Strat. iv. 1. ~ 24.) As Cisalpine Gauls, and with the Carthaginians, must
the boundaries of the empire were gradually pushed have led to a series of improvements. The syster
forward into wild and barbarian lands, where there was probably brought to perfection in the camwere no large towns and no tribes on whose faith paigns against Hannibal, and underwent no mrn
reliance could be placed, such arrangements became terial alteration until the organic changes in the
impracticable, and armies, whether of invasion or constitution of the army, which took place not long
occupation, were forced to remain constantly in before the downfal of the constitution, during the
camps. They usually, however, occupied different civil broils, and under the earlier emperors, rendered
ground in summer and in winter, whence arose the a corresponding change in the internal economy of
distinction between castra aestiva and castra hi- the camp unavoidable. Hence, although it would
berna, both alike being stativa.' Such posts were be at once vain and unprofitable to attempt an infrequently, if situated advantageously, garrisoned vestigation of the various changes through which a
permanently; and the peaceful natives who sought Roman camp passed before it assumed what may
to enrich themselves by trading with their con- be called its normal shape, it is evidently absolutely
querors, settled for security in the immediate vi- necessary for all who desire to obtain even a slight
cinity. (Caes. B. C. vi. 37.) Thus in the distant knowledge of the Roman art of war, to make themprovinces, these forts formed a centre round which selves acquainted with this important feature in
a numerous population gradually clustered; and their system during the best days of the republic
many important towns, still existing in our own and the empire. And fortunately the records of
country, indicate their origin by the termination antiquity enable us to supply such information with
ctester.. considerable minuteness. Polybius, the friend and
But whether a camp was temporary or perma- companion of the younger Scipio, has transmitted
nent, whether tenanted in summer or in winter, to us a description of a Roman camp, such as he
the main featluebs of the workl were always the must have often seen with his own eycs, and a cer