Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

222 CALENDARI UM. CALENDARIUM.
The form and colour of the calceus were also necting them with the rising or setting of certain
among the insignia of rank and office. Those who stars. Thus Ilesiod (Op. et Dies, 381) describes
were elevated to the senate wore high shoes like the time of the rising of the Pleiades as the time
buskins, fastened in front with four black thongs for harvesting (6p71-os), and that of their setting
(nigris pellibus, Her. Sat. i. 6, 27) and adorned as the time for ploughing (&poTos); the time at
with a small crescent. (Mart. ii. 29; Juv. vii. which Arcturus rose in the morning twilight as the.1192.) Hence Cicero (Phil. xiii. 13), speaking of proper season for the vintage (1. c. 607), and other
the assumption of the senatorial dignity by Asinius, phenomena in nature, such as the arrival of birds
says nmztavit calceos. Among the calcei worn by of passage, the blossoming of certain plants, and the
senators, those called znullei, from their resemblance like, indicated the proper seasons for other agrito the scales of the red mullet (Isid. Or. xix. 14), cultural occupations; but although they may have
were particularly admired; as well as others called continued to be observed for centuries by simple
alztae, because the leather was softened by the rustics, they never acquired any importance in the
use of alum. (Mart. Juv. 11. cc.; Lydus, de Iacg. scientific division of the year. [AsTRONOsMIA.]
a. 32; Ovid, De Art. Ain. iii. 271.) [J. Y.] The moon being that heavenly body whose
- CALCULA/TOR (XoyTLo's) signifies a keeper phases are most easily observed, formed the basis
of accounts in general, but was also used in the of the Greek calendar, and all the religious festisignification of a teacher'of arithmetic; whence vals were dependent on it. The Greek year was
Martial (x. 62) classes him with the notarius or a lunar year of twelve months, but at the same
-writing-master. The name was derived from cal- time the course of the sun also was taken into
culi, which were commonly used in teaching arith- consideration, and the combination of the two
Inetic, and also in reckoning in general. [ABAcus.] (Gemin. Isag. 6; comp. Censorin. De Die Nat. 18;
Among the Greeks the AoyOLTIS and 7pa/yAariLaTas Cic. in Verr. ii. 52) involved the Greeks in great
appear to have been usually the same person. difficulties which rendered it almost impossible for
In Roman families of importance there was a them to place their chronology on a sure foundacalculator or account-keeper (Dig. 38. tit. 1. s. 7), tion. It seems that in the early times it was bewho is, however, more frequently called by the lieved that 12 revolutions of the moon toolk place
name of dispensator or procurator, who was a kind within one of the sun; a calculation which was
of steward (Cic. ad Att. xi. 1; Plin. Ep. iii. 19; tolerably correct, and with which people were satisSuet. Galb. 12, Vesp. 22; Becker, Gallus, vol. i. fied. The time during which the moon revolved
p. 109.) around her axis, was calculated at an average or
CA'LCULI were little stones or pebbles, used round number of 30 days, which period was called
for various purposes; such, for example, as the a month (Gemin. 1. c.); but even as early as the
Athenians used in voting, or such as Demosthenes time of Solon, it was well known that a lunar
put in his mouth when declaiming, in order to month did not contain 30 days, but only 291. The
mend his pronunciation. (Cic. De Orat. i. 61.) error contained in this calculation could not longl
Calculi were used in playing a sort of draughts. remain unobserved, and attempts were made to
[LATRUNCULI.] Subsequently, instead of pebbles, correct it. The principal one was that of creating
ivory, or silver, or gold, or other men (as we call a cycle of two years, called TpieTrlp'is, or canzes
them) were used; but still called calculi. The magnus, and containing 25 months, one of the two
calculi were bicolores. (Sidon. Epist. viii. 12; years, consisting of 12 and the other of 13 months.
Ovid. Trist. ii. 477; Mart. Epig. xiv. 17. 2, xiv. The months themselves, which in the time of
20.) Calculi were also used in reckoning, and Hesiod (Op. et Dies, 770) had been reckoned at
hence the phrases calculeme ponzere (Colum. iii. 3), 30 days, afterwards alternately contained 30 days
calcszlm subducere. (Cic. De Fin. ii. 19, &c.) (full months, Irrxpels) and 29 days (hollow months,
[ABACUS.] [A. A.] tco'Ao.) According to this arrangement, one year
CALDA. [CALIDA.] of the cycle contained 354, and the other 384 days,.
CALDA'RIUM. [BALNEAE.] and the two together were about 7. days more
CALENDA'RIUM, or rather KALENDA'- than two tropical or solar years. (Gemin. 6;
RIUM, is the account-book, in which creditors Censorin. 18). When this mode of reckoning was
entered the names of their debtors and the sums introdmuced, is unknown; but as Herodotus (i. 32)
which they owed. As the interest on borrowed mentions it, it is clear that it must have been before
money was due on the Caledclae of each month, his time. The 7', days, in the course of 4 years,
the name of.Calendariumn was given to such a book. made up a month of 30 days, and such a month
(Senec. De Benef. i. 2, vii. 10.) The word was was accordingly inserted in every fourth year, and
subsequently used'to indicate a register of the the cycle of four years was called a 7re'raesrpis.
days, weeks, and months, thus corresponding to a (Censorin. 1. c.) But a far more important cycle
modern almanac or calendar. was the E'YveaeEr7Jps, or the cycle of 8 years, for
1. GriEEc CALENDAR. - In the earliest times it was practically applied by the Greeks to the
the division of the year into its various seasons affairs of ordinary life. The calculation was this:
appears to have been very simple and rude, and as the solar year is reckoned at 365k days, 8
it would seem that there was no other divi- such years contain 2922 days, and eight lunar
sion except that of summer (hipos) and winter years 2832 days; that is, 90 days less than 8
(Xemiucv). To these strongly marked periods there solar years. Now these 90 days were constituted
were afterwards added the periods of transi- as three months, and inserted as three intercalary
tion, viz. spring (eap) and autumn (5drcipa), with months into three different years of the E'vveasrTpis,
certain subdivisions according to the different agri- that is, into the third, fifth, and eighth. (Censorin.;
cultural pursuits peculiar to each of them. As, Gemin. 11. cc.) It should, however, be observed:
however, the seasons of the year were of great that Macrobius (Sat. i. 13) and Solinus (Polyhist.
importance in regard to agriculture, it became iii.) state that the three intercalary months were,
necessary to fix their beginning and end by con- all added to the last year of the emnneaeteris, which