Dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. Ed. by William Smith. Illustrated by numerous engravings on wood.

118 ARATRUM. ARATRUM.
(Excursion in Asia Minor, 1838, p. 71) observes the buris was fastened to the left share-beam, and
that each portion of this instrument is still called the stiva to the right, so that, instead of the simple
by its ancient Greek name, and adds, that it seems plough of the Greeks, that described by Virgil, and
suited only to the light soil prevailing where he used, no doubt, in his country (see the following
observed it, that it is held by one hand only, that woodcut), was more like the modern Lancashire
the form of the share (bvvts) varies, and that the plough, which is commonly held behind with both
plough is frequently used without any share. " It hands. Sometimes, however, the stiva (EX&EV7,
is drawn by two oxen, yoked from the pole, and Hes. Op. et Dies, 467) was used alone and instead
guided by a long reed or thin stick (Kcivp-vos), of the tail, as in the Mysian plough above reprewhich has a spud or scraper at the end for cleaning sented. To a plough so constructed the language
the share." See the lowest figure in the woodcut. of Columella was especially applicable, " Arator
Another recent traveller in Greece gives the stivae paene rectus innititur" (i. 9); andcl the exfollowing account of the plough which he saw in pressions of Ovid, " Stivaeque innixus arator"
that country-a description approaching still nearer (M14el. viii. 218), and " Inde premens stivam deto the Ir7T1cTbv EporOpo of Homer and Hesiod. "It signat moenia sulco." (Fast. iv. 825.) In place of
is composed," says he, "Cof two curved pieces of "stiva," Ovid also uses the less appropriate term
wood, one longer than the other. The long piece " capulus" (Ep. de Ponto, i. 8. 61); " Ipse mannu
forms the pole, and one end of it being joined to capulalm prensi moderatus aratri." When the ploughl
the other piece about a foot from the bottom, was held either by the stiva alone, or by the buris
divides it into a share, which is cased with iron, alone, a piece of wood (msanicula) was fixed across
and a handle. The share is, besides, attached to the summit, and on this the labourer pressed with
the pole by a short'cross-bar of wood. Two oxen, both hands. Besides guiding the plough in a
with no other harness than yokes, are joined to the straight line, his duty was to force the share to a
pole, and driven by the ploughman? who holds the sufficient depth into the soil. Virgil alludes to this
handle in his left hand, and the goad in his right." in the phrase " Depresso aratro" (Georg. i. 45).
(Hobhouse, Journey tlhrouzgl Albasnia, &c., vol. i. The cross-bar, which is seen in Mr. Fellows's
p. 140.) A view of the plain of Elis, representing drawing, and mentioned in Sir J. C. Hobhouse's
this plough in use, is given by Mr. S. Stunhope in. description, and which passes from the pole to the
his Olymzpia (p. 42). share for the purpose of giving additional strength,
The yoke and pole used anciently in ploughing was called ord0q, in Latin fulcerum. The coulter
did not differ from those employed for draught in (culter, Plin. II. N. xviii. 48) was used by the
general. Consequently they do not here recuire Romans as it is with us. It was inserted into the
any further description. [JUGUAs.] To the bottom pole so as to depend vertically before the share,
of the pole, in the compacted plough, was attached cutting through the roots which came in its way,
the plough-tail, which, according to Hesiod, might and thus preparing for the more complete loosening
be made of any piece of a tree (especially the and overturning of the soil by the share.
7rpi'vos, i. e. the ilex, or holm-oak), the natural About the time of Pliny two small wheels (rotae,
curvature of which fitted it to this use. But in rotulae) were added to the plough in Rhaetia; and
the time and country of Virgil pains were taken Servius (I. c.) mentions the use of them in the
to force a tree into that form which was most ex- country of Virgil. The annexed woodcut shows
actly adapted to the purpose. (Georg. i. 169, 170.) the form of a wheel-plough, as represented on a
The upper end of the buris being held by the piece of engraved jasper, of Roman workmanship.
ploughman, the lower part, below its junction with It also shows distinctly the tesno or pole, the
the pole, was used to hold the share-beam, which coulter or culter, the dentale or share-beam, the
was either sheathed with metal, or driven bare into buris or plough-tail, and the handle or stiva.
the ground, according to circumstances.
To these three continuous and most essential
parts, the two following are added in the description of the plough by Virgil: -
1. The earthl-boards, or znould-boards (aunes),
rising on each side, bending outwardly, in such a
manner as to throw on either hand the soil which
had been previously loosened and raised by the
share, and adjusted to the share-beam which was
made double for the purpose of receiving them: -'" Binae aures, duplici aptantur dentalia dorso."
According to Palladius (i. 43), it was desirable to
have ploughs both with earth-boards (aurita) and
without them (simzplicia).
2. The lmandle (stiva), which is seen in Fel- (Caylus, Rec. d'Ant. v. pl. 83. No. 6.) It corlows's woodcut, and likewise- in the following re- responds, in all essential particulars, with the
presentation of an ancient Italian plough. Virgil
considers this part as used to turn the plough at 1
the end of the furrow. " Stivaque, quae currus a 2
tergo torqueat imos." Servius, however, in his
note on this line explains stiva to mean " the
handle by which the plough is directed." It is pro- 6
bable that, as the dentalia, i. e. the two share-beams, 6:
which Virgil supposes were in the.form of the
Greek letter A, which he describes by duplici dorso,