Reeb, Katsuyama, Sammon, and Yoder
lower self-efficacy, particularly if the mishaps occur
early in the course of events...Once established,
enhanced self-efficacy tends to generalize to other
situations..." (1977, p. 195).
Based on this theoretical background, a student's
self-efficacy for community service could increase,
decrease, or remain stable during a semester of service-learning, depending upon the degree of success
and failure experienced by the student during service provision. Further, a student's self-efficacy
level at the beginning of the semester would be
expected to mediate his or her perception of success
and failure experiences. For example, for a student
who begins a service-learning program with a high
level of self-efficacy, an early failure experience
may have little effect on his or her personal efficacy;
in contrast, for a student starting the program with a
lower self-efficacy level, the effect of an early failure experience on personal efficacy may be devastating. Thus, the CSSES may have utility for identifying students who are at risk for a negative service
experience; in such cases, interventions (e.g., additional orientation or training) may improve self-efficacy and thereby enhance the student's servicelearning experience.
Second, it would be important to determine the
effects of different reflection methods on pre- to
post-semester changes in CSSES scores. For
instance, in one approach to reflection, servicelearning students are granted access to program
evaluation results, with the plan of increasing their
awareness of the project's contributions to the service agency. Given the fact that enactive mastery
experiences have the greatest impact on self-efficacy judgments (Bandura, 1997), such an approach to
reflection might be beneficial.
Third, research will determine the extent to which
CSSES scores predict students' effectiveness (e.g.,
supervisor's ratings) in service-learning endeavors.
In addressing this issue, it is important to consider
Bandura's explanation of discrepancies between selfefficacy judgments and future performance. As
reviewed by Bandura (1997, p. 64), research indicates that such discrepancies are likely when
"...either the tasks or the circumstances under which
they are performed are ambiguous..." (p. 64), leading people to over- or under-estimate the situational
demands as they formulate self-efficacy judgments.
As emphasized since Bandura's (1977) first theoretical formulation, participants in self-efficacy studies
must "...understand what kind of behavior will be
required and the circumstances in which they will be
asked to perform..." (p. 204). Thus, in order to test
the hypothesis that students' CSSES scores predict
service-learning performance, adequate orientation
at the service agency is essential. As Bandura empha
sizes, "...to judge what one is capable of attaining
requires adequate knowledge of how the social system works and an appraisal of one's ability to manage the institutional requirements..." (p. 64).
Fourth, research is needed to determine the extent
to which students' post-semester CSSES scores predict continuation of service upon completion of a
service-learning course. Given that (a) self-efficacy
determines initiation and persistence of behavior
(Bandura, 1997) and (b) CSSES scores correlate
with service involvement and service satisfaction
(see study 1), the CSSES is expected to have predictive utility, but systematic research is needed to confirm this hypothesis.
Finally, in designing research and interpreting
results in this area, the researcher should keep in
mind Bandura's principle of reciprocal determination. Thus, depending upon the purpose and scope of
any given study, the researcher may be interested in
(a) the utility of self-efficacy in predicting involvement in community service or quality of service provision, (b) changes in self-efficacy as an outcome
measure in a service-learning program, or (c) the
ways in which self-efficacy mediates the relationship between environmental influences and behavior
(e.g., the role of self-efficacy in mediating perceptions of success and failure experiences during service provision). To clarify the role of self-efficacy in
service-learning, a prospective longitudinal design
would be ideal for examining the re-ciprocal transactions that occur among self-efficacy, behavior, and
environmental influences.
Note
This research was supported in part by an Ohio Campus
Compact Scholarship of Engagement Mini-Grant,
(97LHEIN015). Opinions or points of view expressed in
this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the official position of the Corporation for National
Service or the Learn & Serve America: Higher Education
program.
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84,
191-215.
Bandura, A. (1978). The self system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 33, 344-458.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human
agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122-147.
Bandura, A. (1995a). Self-efficacy in changing societies.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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