The works of the Honourable Robert Boyle, Esq., epitomiz'd by Richard Boulton ... ; illustrated with copper plates.

CHAP. VIII. An account of Freezing made in December and January, 1662. By Dr. Merret.

* 1.1THE following Experiments were made in Weather which was very frosty, con∣tinuing six weeks, yet not without some alter∣nate Relaxations, in Stone-Windows exposed to the North and North-East-Winds. The Vessels in which they were tryed were Glass-Canes of several Bores, Earthen and Pewter Vessels &c.

Cold Water exposed to the Air in open Pans was froze in an hour, boiling Water in two; boiling and Cold Water mix'd in ½; the Cold Water beginning to freeze at the top and and sides, but the other at the bottom; and when the Water was Cold at the top. The same succeeded, with Water thrown upon a Table, the Cold Water being first froze. A four ounce Vial with a Stem a Foot long and half filled, being exhausted of Air in Vacuo Boyliano, was almost froze as soon as Water exposed in an open Pan, and appear'd white seem∣ing to consist purely of bubbles. Water in which Arsnick was eight Months infused, congealed into a white Ice sooner than Water, and so did So∣lutions of all sorts of Vitriols; and sooner than Solutions of other Salts; except Allum, which froze into an Ice whiter than Milk, and stuck so fast to the Pan that I could scarce separate it.

Sandever presently freezeth, but Eris sooner, and Kelp in less time than that; all of them form∣ing white lumps of Ice. Sal-Armoniack frequently froze before the rest of them, but once after them. Two drams of common Salt dissolved in four ounces of Water was in hard frost congealed into a white Ice in about thirty hours. Stinking Sea-Water full of Salt being exposed in a Beer-Glass, was covered with a film of Ice as thick as ½ a Crown in twenty six hours; when froze it tasted Salt and smelled stinking; but when thawed it had lost the fetor: In four days more the whole was froze, but that in the bottom tasted sharper than the rest. The same Water in broad Pans was quite froze through in thir∣ty six hours, and sooner in a Mixture of Snow and Salt; neither a strong Solution of Salt-Petre, no•• Bay-Salt, nor Sal-Armoniack were froze in six days. But a Solution of Salt of Tartar froze in a little more time than Water; and being exposed in a Tube it began to freeze at the bottom, top and sides all once; whereas other Liquors freeze uniformly either at the top or bottom first.

Salt-Petre in a Cold season was in twenty eight hours froze into a white Ice, which was mistaken for Sal-Prunel, and sparkled in the fire as that Salt usually does. A lixivium of it made with Copperas or Allum singly or mixed, set in Snow and Salt or Snow alone, was frozen in one Night. Sal-Gem, tho' Snow and Salt were mixed with it, and tho' it were set in Snow and Salt, would not be brought to freeze. But Phlegm of Vitriol froze sooner than the So∣lutions before mention'd

Oyl of Vitriol is coagulated sooner than a∣ny of the afore mention'd Liquors, except Wa∣ter; a large Tube being filled ¼ with it, and being froze, tasted of a strong Vitriolate taste; the coagulated Part, was of a paler colour than the other, and both being poured toge∣ther in a Bottle, it became too hot to hold in one's hands, this coagulated Part remain'd un∣thaw'd a week after the rest of the Liquors; and another Tube of the same Oyl being whol∣ly froze, it subsided ½ an Inch below its station to which it rose again upon a thaw, but the other Liquors rose upon congelation.

A flask of small Beer froze in thirty eight hours, but three Parts of Ale continued unfroze after six days hard Frost; but at four a Clock in the morning, the unfroze Liquor tasted much stronger and brisker than before it was froze; the Ice was less firm and fuller of bub∣bles than common Ice, and being thawed was very pale and of a quick Aleish taste. A Beer-Glass of Hull-Ale being exposed to the Cold in a Glass, in twenty four hours was crusted over with Ice, as thick as half a Crown, and that being taken off, it yielded another; and so succes∣sively, till the whole was froze; these Laminae were all of the same colour and taste, but the lowest was the most tender: This Ale would not freeze so soon as that which I exposed be∣fore. Hull-Ale hath a brackish taste.

Claret exposed in a spoon, in thirty five hours was turned into a soft Ice, which had the Genuine colour and taste of Wine. In thirty eight hours Canary exposed in a spoon was covered with a thin film, which grew no thicker in

four days. But neither Claret or Canary would freeze in Tubes or Bottles.

Two ounces of Spirit of Wine exposed in a spoon all evaporated in twelve hours; but the same quantity of Brandy left about a spoon∣ful of Ice void both of taste and it's Inflammable Quality; but being held betwixt my Eye and a candle it discover'd several bubbles.

An Ox and a Sheep's Eye were both frozen through in one Night, the three Humours be∣ing Opacous, hard and inseparable. The Chrystalline humour was white like Whitings boil'd, the waterish and glassy humour seemed to be made of flakes of Ice.

Sheeps Blood exposed to freeze, the Serum was turned to Ice, which, being separated from the Blood and thawed at the fire, congealed a second time into a Membranous substance; but the Blood was not in the least froze. The Heart and Blood in the Vena Cava of a Dog and Cat exposed dead to the Air were both froze: Milk froze into white flakes, being soft and with few bubbles in it, and retaining the pro∣per taste of Milk. The yolks and Whites of Eggs were froze in one Night, they thaw best by lying on New-Castle Coals or in a deep Cel∣lar: I am told that Eggs, tho' they have been froze, will produce Chickens-Eggs held near the Surface of the Water when froze will ac∣quire a crust of Ice on the outside, the inward Parts of it still remaining froze; and if those Eggs whilst froze, be poched, they will be ve∣ry tough. An Egg and an Apple being sus∣pended two Foot deep in a Cistern and taken up after twenty four hours, tho' both of them

were full of Ice within, yet neither of them had contracted Ice on the outside.

Horse-Radishes and Onions froze, yet Beer in which Horse-Radish and Scurvey-Grass are infused will not freeze so soon as strong Beer without them. Oranges and Limons froze, have a hard and tough rind, and lose their ge∣nuine taste; and when thawed they soon become rotten: Apples Cut in the middle, will have a thin Ice on both plains, which may be dis∣cerned by a knife or the touch. The skins of these Apples soon turn brown, and they be∣gin to corrupt there. Oyl exposed look'd like Butter melted and coagulated again; but in Caves and Cellars, it would never appear more than Candied. White Wine-Vinegar froze in a Tube without apparent bubbles. What∣ever hath a watry humour in it will coagu∣late. But what will not, the next Paragraph contains.

Spirit of Wine, Aq. Mariae, Coelestis &c, and Canary in large Vessels, Soap-Boilers Lees, Spirit of Salt, Vitriol, Salt-Petre, Aqua fortis, Spi∣rit of Sulphur, and Spirit of Soot will not freeze, but the two last afford a Precipitate; the first of the colour and taste of Brimstone, but not inflam∣mable; the latter a yellowish powder more bitter than the Spirit and inflammable. But tho' these Spirits would not freeze, yet being mixed with twelve Parts of Water, all of them froze ex∣cept Spirit of Salt, Nitre and Aqua fortis: I am told that one having dissolv'd Ice in the North Seas found it Salt.

As for the figures of Liquors froze, Allum appear'd in lumps, Salt-Petre, Tartar, Milk, Ale, Wine and Sal-Armoniack in plates. And

other Liquors which composed a soft Ice, seen∣ed to be composed of Globuli adhering to each others. Water, Kelp and Frits resembled the fibres of an Oaken leaf, the interstices being filled up with smoother Ice, and the middle Fibres, as in Plants, appeared larger than the others, and made acute Angles at the lesser end of the leaf. But as for the figures of frozen Urine, those having been accurately describ'd by the curious Mr. Hook, I shall pass that part of my task by.

I took the Salts of Rosemary, Rue, Scurvey-Grass, Mint and Plantan, and putting ½ or ¾ of an ounce of each into ½ of a pint of their di∣stilled Waters; the Rue and Plantan being seal∣ed up, none of them froze resembled the Plants they belong'd to; but the Aromatick Waters were much enriched in their scents, e∣specially the Rosemary; Kelp froze represents the leaves of Alga Marina.

A Recipient full of Water being froze and the top of the Ice broke, there appeared a Ca∣vity within, which was thick set with Plates of Ice from which Stiriae appeared on each side like the Teeth of Combs, some of which stood at such a distance that I could put my finger betwixt them.

A flask full of Water being froze it appear'd full of bubbles like tailed hail-shot, the sharp points of all of them pointing upwards. They had Cavities which would admit a Pin into them and might be discerned in the Ice, appearing like black spots: And in the middle of the Ice was contained a Cavity filled with Water in

which were several of these bubbles imperfect∣ly formed.

All the Liquors I made Experiments with, did sensibly rise above the mark, before they froze, and more after congelation. Vinegar and Urine rose ½ an Inch, and Lees made of Salts of Rosemary, Kelp and Frits, about ½ of an Inch. Solutions of Allum and Copperas less, and Saline Liquors in general less than Water, which rose a full Inch, and small Beer in a narrow Tube four Inches. Oyl of Vitriol alone subsides below the mark, hot Water subsides till it is cool and then rises again.

Water being froze in Beer-Glasses, rises up and forms solid Triangles, but the rising of it is more visible in narrow Glasses: Ice in a flask rose four Inches above the Water-mark, and hung two Inches out of it, but in a Bolt-head it rose five Inches above the Water-mark. If Glasses be filled about ⅔ full they seldom break. Round Spherical Glasses usually break uniformly. A Bolt-head being filled up to the neck with Wa∣ter, the top which was twelve Inches above it, was sealed up; upon which the Water being froze, was raised three Inches into the neck; and the Glass breaking in the thinnest Part, from that point, several Lines ran as from a Pole to the Meridian, but none of them went round the Glass, nor were they all of the same length: In a flask cracked in many places the cracks were irregular: Glass Bottles and stone-Jugs, kept little order in breaking, and Metals none at all, but Woods cleave with the Grain.

Two oval Boxes, one of Box and another of Maple, containing each two ounces, were fill'd full, and by the Frost in one Night were cracked from the bottom to the top. A Pepper-Box of Latin, had its neck broke off and the joints at the bottom loosned. Lead-Pipes above ground were broke in many places, and some that lay a foot under ground: Brass-Locks and Barrels of Pumps usually break with the Frost. A Copper-Box of the shape of a Pear was cracked the fourth time it was froze. The Cylinder of a silver Ink-horn bore the Frost, but a silver∣ball was considerably extended by the Frost. Tobacco-Pipes and Earthen Ware were burst with the Frost, and Tiles of Houses and stone-Buildings scale upon a thaw; for which Reason the North side of Buildings first decay. Ala∣baster and Marble that have chinks in them u∣sually break with the Frost, but solid Marble does not, nor does Frost affect those stones or Bitumens which will bear a Polish.

Ice laid on a Table, and having Salt strow∣ed upon it, it stuck so fast that it could not be separated without being broke in pieces; and the Salt made its way through the Ice down to the board; but if Salt be strowed betwixt the Ice and the board, it will not be froze to it but thawed. The following Salts cause not so firm an adhesion as common Salt, viz. Kelp, Sande∣ver, Sal Indus, Gem, Prunel, Armon. and Pot∣ashes. A nail held betwixt my lips could not be remov'd without difficulty and Pain.

A Tincture of Cochineel with Spirit of Wine, and another with a little Sea-Salt Water, being froze throughout, retained an equal colour in all

Parts, and so did a Tincture of Mades-weed, and Indico. A Decoction of Soot was froze without any Concentration; yet Mr. Hook, a worthy Fellow of the Royal Society, hath ob∣served the contrary effect.

Eggs and Apples-froze differed not in weight, nor do Bodies weighed in sealed Glasses. Frost renders Wood, Iron, Steel and the Bones of Animals, more friable in frosty Weather; espe∣cially in those that are tainted with the Lues Venerea. Frost preserves Bodies from Putrefa∣ction, and confirms the Tone of Animals, and fattens some; it clears the Air, so that musty Stone-Bottles being fill'd with Water and froze, after a Thaw were very sweet; it likewise de∣stroys Animals and Vegetables, so that in Green∣land nothing but Glass grows, as also in Nova Zembla.

* 1.2As for the qualities of Ice, it is slippery, smooth, hard, firm and strong, diaphanous, in∣terposed betwixt the Eye and a Candle, ap∣pears in many round Circles, from whence proceed Rays, in the form of a Star, a quarter of an Inch in diameter. I have seen the Ice in the Thames eight Inches thick, and in Garden∣walks the Earth froze near two Foot thick, but in rich Soils it did not penetrate above a Foot and a quarter Ice generally swims, but I have seen Snow-balls, compressed and moistned with Water, sink Congealed Oyl of Vitriol sinks. Ice is colder than Water, and that qua∣lity is increased by adding Salt or Snow. It hath no smell, but checks that quality in other Bodies. It yields both Reflection and Refra∣ction.

North and North-east Winds, the absence of the Sun, the highest Parts of Mountains, a mixture of Snow and Salt, promote freezing. Water falling upon Ice or Snow freezes, and a mixture of beaten Ice with Sea-Salt, Kelp, Al∣lum, Vitriol, or Nitre, and Oyl of Vitriol, will promote freezing; and if Water be set up∣on such Mixtures, it begins to freeze at the Bottom; Salt Petre dissolv'd in Water, and a∣gitated in a cold Season, turned not the Water into Ice. A Bolt-head being placed in Snow in a Pan, tho' the Pan was set on the Fire, and thawed gradually, yet the Water in the Bolt∣head froze not.

Water frozen in Pans, being set on New-castle Coals in a Cellar, and likewise on Sand, and on the Earthen Floor, they thawed in the same or∣der; and so did Eggs and Apples. A Syphon may be made of Ice, through which Water will run very fast. Another use which may be made of Ice is for Refraction, of which Mr. Hook hath given a learned Demonstration.

Having formed Ice into various Figures, the 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 were the same as those mentioned by Dioptrick Writers. We may likewise make a Speculum of it, by holding a piece of Paper be∣hind it;

The Learned Bartholinus delivers the follow∣ing Propositions of it.

• 1. That the more subtil distilled Spirits gain a clear splendour and elegancy from Snow placed about them.
• 2. The Rayes of Snow newly fallen, glitter and dazzle the Eyes: by reason of the multitude of Globuli, by which they are reflected.

• 3. A Cabbage putrified in that part which was above the Snow. And I have observed great Housleek, or American Aloes destroy'd by Cold in an upper Room; and Sea-Onions as well as common Onions will be putrified by the Cold.
• 4. Snow yields Vapours plentifully, when melted by the Sun-beams.
• 5. It melts and falls off from Ivy.
• 6. It contains a little Earth in it; which I have found true by Evaporation.
• 7. Viscosity with Softness is greater in new than old Snow,
• 8. Water-Cresses and Scurvy-grass will grow under Snow in Gardens; but I am apt to believe they are at a perfect stand, the nutritious Juice being congealed.
• 9. Air is included in Snow. Whites of Eggs being beaten into a frothy Consistence, and this being laid on a Trencher, soon appeared to be Snow. A Pail being filled with warm Water, and Hair, Moss and a piece of Rosemary hung over it, the rising Vapors sticking to them formed a Hoar-frost, and the like is observed on the Beards of Men, and the Hairs of other Animals.
• 10. Snow abounds with Fat.
• 11. Snow with Ice swims on Water.
• 12. Snow-water boils Meat sooner, and makes Flesh whiter. I could not find that this bolds in Fish or Flesh.
• 13. Snow newly fallen hath no taste, but when it hath lain on the Ground, it bites the Tongue. This I could not discern.
• 14. Worms are sometimes found in Snow. I could never observe this,

• 15. A strong Salt may be drawn from Snow by a peculiar Art.
• 16. After much Snow plenty of Nuts. It sometimes fails.

The Duke of Tuscany distill'd a Spirit from Wine, only by putting Snow upon the Alem∣bick; and the Duke of Mantua had a Powder, which would freeze Water in the middle of Summer.

Weather-Glasses being framed after the Italian mode, and in part filled with tinged Spirit of Wine; I placed one of them in a North-west Window, and the other in Mr. Pullyn's Ware∣house under St. Paul's Church, in the warmest place; the Spirit of both, when they were settled on the fifteenth of Octob. 62. having the Altitude of three Inches; and when that in my Study-Window was depressed an Inch, that in the Cellar receiv'd no manifest alteration: But when the other was depressed two Inches, it subsided ¼ of an Inch, which was the lowest Station it subsided to all Winter; and in April following it rose not above the three Inches it first stood at, above ¼ of an Inch, tho' that in my Study was raised four Inches ¼. In this Cellar, Liquors that were froze above Ground, would be thawed in the Morning, The Spirit in the Glass above ground subsided into the Ball after two days hard Frost. Whence it appears, that Cellars are not hotter in Winter than Summer. One thing observable was, that the tinged Spirit had lost its Colour in the Cellar.

In January, a Pint-Bottle of Claret, a Glass-Cane filled with Canary, a Solution of Sal Gem. Train-Oyl, and the Oyl of fructus Musae, in a Night's time were all froze, except the Sal Gem, in the bottom of which chrystallized Salts appeared. The Oyl of the Fruit became very friable, and of a milky-white Colour, but the Train Oyl only lost its fluidity, and became of the consistence of soft Grease. And the same Night, a Bottle of Rhenish Wine, and another of strong White-wine, were for the most part froze, the Ice tasting weaker than the Wine; but the Wine being several times froze and thawed again, neither lost any thing of its Co∣lour, Taste, or Strength.

Mr. Hook shewed me an oval Glass, which had at one end a narrow Cane an Inch long, in which Water tinged with Cochineel being froze, the Ice on the out-side was colourless, but in the middle of a deep Tincture; and I have observed the like in Flasks containing the same Tincture froze.

Flesh, Fish, Eggs, and Apples, being held near the surface of Water, and immersed in it, are crusted over with Ice; and I have observ'd that Mortar and Plaister of Paris will freeze.

I have seen Ice three Yards thick on the Banks of Thames, the Water which flowed suc∣cessively over the Ice being froze, and gradu∣ally thickening it; and I have froze a whole flask full of Water, by gradually pouring it into a Pan; which confirms what Olearius says of making huge heaps of Ice to preserve Bodies.

Tho' my Lord Verulam tells us, that Eggs and Apples cover'd with a wet Cloth will not

freeze; yet I have not observ'd any difference betwixt them and others.

Oyls of Animals, and vegetable Oyls by Ex∣pression, subside. Syrups freeze not. Cold affects not Loadstones sensibly in their Opera∣tions. Having exposed distill'd Waters of Plantan, Poppies, black Cherries, Night-shade, Scurvy-grass, and Horse-radish to the Cold, in order to make a Standard for Weather-Glasses, I observ'd that the Black-cherry-water was froze first, and the Horse-radish and Scurvy∣grass Waters last. The best way to discover when Liquors begin to freeze first is, by draw∣ing a Pin through the surface of those Liquors.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Several Ex∣periments about freez∣ing.
• * 1.2

  The quali∣ties of Ice.