The works of the Honourable Robert Boyle, Esq., epitomiz'd by Richard Boulton ... ; illustrated with copper plates.

CHAP. V. The Experimental History of Cold begun.

TITLE I. Experiments concerning Bodies capable of Freezing others.

BEfore we proceed to the natural History of Cold, it perhaps may be necessary to consi∣der what Bodies are capable of retaining such Qualities, and what are not; but that being a con∣sideration not so necessary to our present pur∣pose, which is only to set down what Obser∣vations we have made in Bodies subject to be froze; I shall only in short take notice, That most Bodies, except fire, are susceptible of actual Cold, and it is a Question whether even that be not rather a state of Matter in such a peculiar motion, than a distinct and particular species of Natural Bodies; since even Gun-pow∣der, and Spirit of Wine before they are set on fire by some other Body are actually Cold. But to proceed to what Observations relate to our Title.

* 1.11. Bodies cold enough to freeze others are very few here in England; Snow and Salt mix∣ed being most remarkable; which cool the Liquor contained in those Vessels, which are closed up in such mixtures.

2. Snow alone would not freeze Water, as a Mixture of it and Salt does; and tho' Water poured betwixt the Interstices of Snow or Ice freezes; yet there is a great disparity, betwixt exposing it to the Air, and keeping it up in Ves∣sels; and tho' it is froze, when covered with Snow in a Bottle all night, yet that may proceed from the Coldness of the Air, as well as the in∣fluence of the Snow.

3. If Nitre, Allum, Vitriol, Sal-Armoniack, or Sugar be mixed in due Proportion with Snow; they will enable it to freeze, tho' not so intense∣ly as common Salt.

4. Spirit of Salt being shaken together with Snow in the Vials, they caused a Dew which was gathered on the outside the Glass to be froze; tho' the Mixture within was not, and Oyl of Vitriol mixed with Snow in a thin Vial, had the same Effect only more intensely.

5. But not only these Acid Spirits had these Effects on the moisture of the Air condensed on the outside the Glasses; but likewise Spirit of Nitre, Spirit of Vinegar, and Spirit of Sugar, the former of these three being very powerfull, tho' the latter were not so strongly frigorifick.

6. Spirit of Urine mixed with Snow in a Vi∣al froze the External moisture weakly; but Spirit of Sal-Armoniack drawn from Quick∣lime did it powerfully.

7. Spirit of Urine and Oyl of Vitriol poured upon Snow, froze moderately.

8. Sal Gem▪ with a sublimate made with common sublimate and Sal-Armoniack; nay, and with both loaf and Kitchin-Sugar; as like∣wise a strong solution of Pot-ashes mixed with

Snow did freeze, tho' very faintly. And both a Solution of Salt of Tartar and Pot-ashes Agi∣tated with Snow in a small Vial, produced Fil∣mes of Ice on the outside the Glass, tho' very thin ones.

9. A sweet Solution of Minium in Spirit of Vinegar mixed with Snow, excited the frigori∣fick Quality of it; yet some of that Solution being enclosed in Snow and Salt, would not be froze by them. Snow shut up alone, thawed much more slowly, than that which was mixed with Salts or Spirits. No Salts will promote the frigorifick Quality of Snow, so far as to enable it to freeze, which quicken not it's Dis∣solution. Neither Chrystals of Tartar, nor Borax, both beaten to powder, nor Sublimate would enable Snow to freeze, as well as the Powder of each lying undissolved in it.

10. Water of Quick-lime being twice tryed would not freeze, but only gather a dew on the outside; yet the Liquor being kept up 12 Months the Spirits with which those Waters abound flew away.

11. Oyl of Turpentine in which Ice dissolves slower than in several other Liquors enables not Snow to freeze. Tho' Spirit of Wine shut up with Snow in a Bottle, enabled it to freeze powerfully, and to Chrystalize even Urine it self, which might be taken off in Scales.

12. Spirit of Nitre and Snow being mixed together in a just Proportion froze very pow∣erfully and speedily, not only Water but Spi∣rit of Vinegar, and weak Spirit of Salt; the first of which retained it's taste, when froze, and the latter shot into Chrystals which lay across

each other. A Solution of Sal-Armoniack part∣ly evaporated would shoot into Chrystals like combs and feathers, and Sal-Armoniack distill'd from Quick-lime would shoot into Branches al∣most like those, so nimbly, that one's Eye might discern them to spread and increase. The like Experiments being tryed with Wine and strong Ale succeeded, but very faintly.

13. Since Bodies generally help Snow to freeze, which hasten it's dissolution; we threw into a Vial, which contained Snow, heated Sand, which enabled it to cause a Dew, but not to freeze. And warm Water poured into another, when it had been shaken, produced a considerable degree of Cold, and gathered Dew, but froze it not.

14. Tho' it is generally believed, That the Hoar-froast on Glass-windows, is only exsu∣dations through the Pores of the Glass, and froze by the External Cold; yet it will easily appear, That it is rather on the inside the Glass; the Steams which rove up and down the Room being condensed by the External Cold, and froze.

15. To shew, That the Ice which appears on the outside of the Vial in the fore-going Experi∣ments, proceeds not from any subtil Parts of the Mixture penetrating the Pores of the Glass and settling on the outside; we found that four Ounces and ¼ of the Mixture of Ice and Salt, being shut up in a Vial, by the access of Dew on the outside, the weight of it was increased 12 Grains. Another Vial which contained two Ounces six Drams and a half increased in weight 4 Grains; the Vial being unsealed under Water,

it sucked in a good quantity of it. Six ounces Snow and Salt being sealed up in a Glass, the Hoar-Frost was wiped off but returned again; and the Vial being counterpoised in a pair of Scales, the Vapours condensed by the coldness of it, in the time that the Snow was melting, weighed 10 Grains. A like quantity of Snow and Spirit of Wine being shut up in a single Vi∣al, the outside was presently cover'd with Ice, and in all it became 7 Grains heavier than be∣fore. Another time a mixture of Snow and Salt, which weighed 3 ¾ ounces, afforded 18 grains of condensed Vapours. And a mixture of Snow and Sal-Gem. which counterpoised 3 ounces and 70 grains, upon an additional weight of condensed Vapours, weighed 20 grains more than before.

TITLE II. Experiments and Observations concerning Bo∣dies disposed to be Frozen.

* 1.2WIthout any more than barely intima∣ting, that there are several Bodies dis∣posed to be froze by one degree of Cold, that are not with another; I shall observe,

• 1. That in very cold snowy Weather, Wa∣ter, Urine, Beer, Ale, Milk, Vinegar, French and Rhenish Wine, were either totally or part∣ly turned into Ice. But besides these more ob∣vious Instances, we froze a Solution of Sugar, and another of Gum Arabick, in Water; a So∣lution

• of Allum, Nitre, and Vinegar, froze without affording any considerable Phaenome∣na. A Solution of Vitriol was in part froze, and in part unfroze, that which was froze be∣ing not much different in colour from Water; but the unfroze part was of a very high Vitriol-colour.
• 2. Spirit of Urine and Spirit of Vinegar expo∣sed to an intense Fire, both of them froze.
• 3. A drachm of Salt of Pot-ashes being dis∣solv'd in two ounces of Water, presently froze in an intense Cold; and Oyl of Tartar per de∣liquium, or at least, a Solution of the fixed Salt of Tartar was congeal'd in a mixture of Snow and Salt.

Appendix to the II. Title.

Oyl becomes much more hard in Muscovy than here in England in the most excessive Cold, but will in neither be turn'd into perfect Ice. And Captain James, speaking of an Island where he and his Men were forced to Winter, Pag. 58, says, All our Sack, Vinegar, Oyl, and every Thing else that was liquid, was now frozen as hard as a piece of Wood, and we must cut it with a Hatchet. And Olaus Magnus, Gent. Sept. Hist. l. 11. c. 24, says, speaking of the Fights wont to be made on the Ice in the Northern Regions, Gla∣cialis congressus fit in Laneis calcibus, non pel∣libus, aut coriis unctis. Vis enim frigoris, quod∣cunque fit unctuosum, convertit in Lubricitatem gla∣cialem.

There being a great similitude betwixt Spirit of Wine and Oyl, in respect of their inflamma∣bility,

and being dispos'd to mix with oily Bo∣dies, and as great an aptitude in the Spirit of Wine to mix with other Liquors: I enquir'd of the Russian Emperor's Physician, what alte∣rations he had observ'd to be produc'd by Cold in Muscovy? To which he answer'd, That Ani∣seed and other weak Spirits would be turned into an imperfect kind of Ice, and that strong ones would turn Ice into a kind of Substance like Oyl.

Particulars referrable to the II. Title.

• 1, In a very hard Frost in December, a Solu∣tion of Minium near the Fire seem'd to be froze; tho' it was made with Spirit of Vinegar, and so strong, that part of it was shot into Saccharum Saturni. Some at the top, which was yellow, did not freeze, tho' poured out.
• 2. A Solution of Gold made with Salts was likewise froze. As also a Pint-vial full of the Tincture of Lignum Nephriticum, which being froze, the Ice had no such colour as the Tin∣cture.
• 3. It is reported, That in Russia, Brandy will freeze, but the Ice of it is not so hard as com∣mon Ice. And I am inform'd, that in Moscow the Spirit of Wine would freeze; leaving some dissolv'd in the middle which was much stronger than ordinary Brandy. And I am told, that in Russia it is usual to have Wine froze.

French Brandy being exposed to the Air in Russia froze; and Sallet-oyl become as hard as Tallow, but Water, at the same time did not freeze.

TITLE III. Experiments touching Bodies indisposed to be frozen.

* 1.31. THE subtil parts of several Bodies be∣ing brought over by distillation, would not freeze by such an application of Snow and Salt as froze other Bodies. Of this sort were Aqua-fortis, Spirit of Nitre, of Salt, Oyl of Turpentine, and almost all the Chymical Oyls we had then in possession; Spirit of Wine, and of other fermented Liquors; and Sack, if good, would scarce freeze; but the inflammable Part being spent by burning, it would easily freeze.

2. Two drachms of Salt of Pot-ashes, being dissolv'd in an ounce of Water, the mixture would not freeze; tho' the outside of the Ves∣sel was cover'd with Ice. At another time a strong Solution of Salt of Tartar would not freeze, tho' at the same time Salt of Pot-ashes being dissolv'd did.

3. That common expressed Oyls of Vegeta∣bles will freeze after their manner, and curdle in cold Weather, is commonly observed; yet Train-oyl, which is usually made of the Fat of Whales by the help of Fire, continued fluid in Weather that was very sharp, but in an exces∣sive cold night it lost its fluidity; which seems to disfavour what Olaus Magnus writes, who says, That in the Northern Regions it is usu∣al to cast Train-oyl upon the Water in their

Ditches, to keep the Water from freezing, and thereby unpassable, the Oyl, as he says, not be∣ing subject to congele with Cold; but it may be worth while to enquire, Whether the Train-Oyl he speaks of be the same as is used by the Swedes, Laplanders, and Muscovites, and whether they have a different way in keeping of it or not?

4. Tho' a Solution of Sugar would freeze, yet a strong Solution of Sugar of Lead would not in a mixture of Snow and Salt; which is re∣markable, since the Spirit of Vinegar it self would freeze: Besides there must needs be some Water in the Solution, and the Sugar be∣ing but a Vitriol of Lead, it is not a little strange, that it should not freeze as well as com∣mon Vitriol; tho' in this latter concrete, Metal be corroded by a Spirit; which, if we may judge by the Liquor afforded in Distillation, is very much sharper and stronger than Spirit of Vine∣gar.

5. Quick-silver would not freeze in the sharp∣est Air, tho' expos'd to it in very thin Glasses, and in such a manner, that a little quantity of it made a large Surface.

6. A very sharp Frost was not able to freeze a strong Brine, tho' at the same time other sa∣line Solutions were congeal'd. But a Solution consisting of twenty Parts of Water and one of Salt, was froze in a very sharp Night; the Ice swimming at the top, in Figures almost like Broom, spreading from the surface of the Wa∣ter downwards: The Salt dissolv'd in this Wa∣ter, is double the proportion of that which is usually in Sea-water. I thawed Ice of Salt-wa∣ter,

to try whether the dissolved Ice would be fresh or not, but it retain'd a little brackishness, which, I suppose, it receiv'd from the contigu∣ous Brine; tho' I am inform'd, That in Amster∣dam they make use of thaw'd Ice, instead of common fresh Water, in Brewing. And Bar∣tholinus de usu Nivis, Cap. 6. p. 42. says, De Glacie ex marina aqua certum est, si resolvatur, salsum saporem deposuisse, quod etiam non ità pri∣dem expertus est Cl. Jacobus Fincbius Academiae Nostrae Senior, & Physices Professor, benemeritus, in Glaciei frustis è portu nostro allatis.

Particulars referrable to the III Title.

• 1. Spirit of Sal-Armoniack made with Quick∣lime, volatile Oyl of Amber, a small quantity of Oyl of Vitriol, being exposed two Nights and a Day, froze not. A Solution of Silver in Aqua fortis was; and Spr. Sanguinis Humani, being froze, swelled so much as to force out the Cork.
• 2. Unrectify'd Oyl of Turpentine exposed to the Cold in a Bottle would not freeze; but ano∣ther Portion being contain'd in an earthen Por∣ringer did.
• 3. I am inform'd, That there is a Lake of Water in Scotland, out of which a small River runs, the Water of both which is never froze; but dissolves Snow or Ice if cast into it.
• 4. Sallet-oyl being made use of to keep the Locks of Guns from freezing, hinder'd them from being discharg'd; but Oyl of Hemp, or Train-oyl kept them from freezing.

TITLE IV. Experiments and Observations concerning the degrees of Cold in several Bodies.

* 1.4TO discover the different degrees of Cold we have proposed several Thermometers in the preceeding Chapters, concerning which we shall add this Advertisement viz. That tho' those which are to be immersed in Liquors, have the Ball end round; yet, when we are to try the degrees of Cold of consistent Pow∣ders, it is better to make use of such as have flat Bottoms, that they may be able to stand on their own Basis: For so it will be pleasant to see the suspended Bubble in one of our Thermo∣meters rise and fall, as it is removed from one Body to another.

2. Freezing hath been so generally esteemed, the utmost Effect of Cold, That most have been content, without examining strictly the several degrees of it. Nor indeed is it very easily done, since if we do it with common Weather-glasses it will be a hard thing to distinguish whe∣ther the Cold of one Day, exceeds that of a∣nother; since there intervening so much time betwixt the Observations, the Alterations may be caused by an increase in the weight of the Atmosphere. And should we make an estimate by the Testimony of our Senses, we should easi∣ly be mistaken; since it is believed, That the different sensations of Cold which we perceive, depend on the various Dispositions of our Bo∣dies.

But allowing, that vulgar Thermometers might give us a true Information of the degrees of Cold, which Nature affords, yet they ac∣quaint us not whether Art may not produce greater; much less will they help us to make an estimate of this Disparity. And though we may make some guess by the Operation of Cold on Liquors exposed to it, yet some as A∣queous Liquors freeze too soon, and vinous Li∣quors here in England will not freeze at all, ex∣cept French Wine; which happens seldom and leaves too great an Interval betwixt the degrees necessary to congeal Wine, and sufficient to freeze Water, besides the uncertainty proceed∣ing from the several strengths of Wines.

Wherefore to discover the Intensity of Cold, produced by Art above the highest degree that Nature affords,* 1.5 we furnished a sealed Weather-glass (Such as Plate 1. Fig. 1. Delineates) with Spirit of Wine, and immersed the Ball and part of the Stem in a Vessel of Water, which was half buried in Snow and Salt, and when the Water began to freeze at the bottom and a∣bout the sides, the Liquor was Subsided to 5 2/•• Di∣visions, each Division being half an Inch; and then the Weather-glass being taken out of the Water and applied to the Snow and Salt, it Subsided to 1 ½ Division.

To this we shall add another which shews, That the Water tho' froze was warmer than the Spirit of Wine, when the Mixture of Snow and Salt was applied to it. Jan. 15 the Wea∣ther-glass being kept in the Water till it began to freeze descended to 5 ½ but being removed into the Snow and Salt it Subsided first briskly

and then more gradually till it sunk to the Bottom of the Stem; but being removed into the Water again, it ascended to the same height, the Water had before depressed it to.

For a further Tryal, how much Liquors may be condensed by Cold, we took Oyl of Tur∣pentine rectified in a gentle Heat, and having weighed a Glass-ball with a long Stem, it being one Ounce, one Dram, five Grains and a half; we poured on it so much of the Turpentine as in∣creased the weight to, two Ounces seven Drams and thirty four Grains and a half; which reach∣ing a little way into the Stem, we marked the Superficies with a Diamond; after which we poured a Dram more in, and successively more; still marking how high each Parcel, which was weighed exactly, rought in the Stem, till the Additional weight increased the former to three Ounces, one Dram, four Grains, and a half; and then taking a wide-mouth'd Glass with Water in it, we immerged the Weather-glass in the Water as before; the Vessel in which it was contain'd being first encompass'd with Snow and Salt: When the Water began to freeze, we mark'd the Stem of the Glass which contain'd the Oyl at the place to which it subsided; and then conveying it into a Mixture of Snow and Salt, when it had subsided as low as it could, we mark'd the Superficies, and then remov'd it into the Air, till it rose to it's first station; and then we pour'd so much of the Oyl out into a∣nother Glass carefully poised in a pair of Scales, that the Superficies of the Oyl remain'd at the Mark which it subsided to in the Water; and we found that the Oyl poured off weigh'd a∣bout

10 Grains: And so much more being pour'd off as made it stand at the Mark to which the Snow and Salt depress'd it, it weigh'd about as much as the former; so that the Oyl was Ar∣tificially condensed, so far, That it subsided as much after it had been condensed by Cold strong enough to freeze Water, as it was caus∣ed to fall by the force of that. And by divid∣ing the whole Proportion of Oyl, by the num∣ber of Grains whose Bulk it seem'd to lose by subsiding in Water, we found that it was con∣densed by the first degree of Cold to a 94th Part of it's Bulk and by dividing it by the Ad∣ditional number of the Grains more, we found that the Snow and Salt had condensed it a 47th Part of it's Bulk.

Having circumscrib'd Water moderately Cold with a Mixture of Snow and Salt, what it shrunk was, if not insensible, inconsidera∣ble.

To measure the differing weight and Density of the same Proportion of Water, in the Heat of Summer and when extremely Cold; we weighed a Glass-Bubble in it, which was Hea∣vier than Water moderately cool, and by the Diminution of it's weight in that Medium; we found, according to the Rules of Hydrostaticks, the weight of a Portion of Water of equal Bulk: And then weighing it in Water cool'd, by a Mixture of Snow and Salt, we were inform'd by a new Decrement of it's weight, of the weight of an equal Bulk of that Cold Water; by which we were enabl'd to make an Estimate of the Gravity and Density acquired by the Action of Gold, and by weighing the same Bubble in the

same Water in hot Weather, we Learnt further how much more dense and heavy Water mode∣rately Cold and extremely Cold, is than warm Water. It would be of use to try such Experi∣ments as these in Italy, where they have the Conveniency of keeping Snow, and of freezing warm Water speedily. A Glass-Bubble which in the Air, weighed 150 Grains being weighed in Water; on a Day not frosty, it weighed 29 ••/8 and being weighed in Water which was a little froze in a Mixture of Snow and Ice, it was not above ⅛ Part of a Grain lighter than before; so that the Water by Condensation lost not above a 230th Part of it's former Bulk. How far it may be of use at Sea to make such Experiments as these, and whether they may thereby learn to know, by finding the Density of the Water in several Places; what Loads to carry in their ships and what the Water will be able to bear, I shall leave others to Judge: But if such Experiments be try'd in several Parts; our Seal'd Weather-glasses, or that which contains the Pendulous drop of Water, may be of use; since they not being subject to be varied by the Alterations in the Atmosphere's Gravi∣ty, and since they may be conveniently carried from one Country to another, the different de∣grees of Cold in various Regions may be better Estimated; a Register being kept of the de∣grees the Liquor or Pendulous drop stood at such times as the Tryals were made and where, and when exposed to such a degree as was a∣ble to freeze. To conclude this Title I shall add, that in making these Experiments, with the Ther∣mometer

in which the Pendulous Water is con∣tain'd; the Stem may, for conveniency, be held either Horizontal, upwards or Perpendi∣cular.

TITLE V. Experiments concerning the Tendency of Cold upwards or downwards.

* 1.6THAT Heat generally acts most power∣erfully on Bodies above it, and that it's Tendency is upwards, is self-evident: But to discover in what Line Cold acts most vigorous∣ly and furthest, we made the following Experi∣ments.

A Glass-Bubble with Water in it, having a flat Bottom, was suspended within less than half an Inch over a Mixture of Ice and Salt, but froze not. A Bottle which contain'd a Mixture of Snow and Salt being held under Water, it was cased with Ice, especially about the Bot∣tom; so that the Action of Cold seems chiefly to tend downwards.

But I rely less upon this Experiment, because it is observ'd, That when a frigorifick Mixture is exposed in a Vial, the Ice on the outside is always opposite to the Mixture, not reaching higher or lower than that Mixture, above half the Breadth of a Barly-corn; and as the Mix∣ture dissolves, and that which swims upon the dissolv'd Part grows less and less, so Proportion∣ably the circle of Ice grows narrower on the out∣side, till the Mixture is wholly dissolv'd, and then the Ice vanishes.

And from an experiment shortly to be men∣tion'd, viz. Eggs suspended under Water, it appears, That Cold acts on every side, the Shells being wholly incrustated with Ice.

To put an end to this Title, I shall, in order to facilitate some Experiments hereafter to be made, advertise, That whereas in common Ex∣periments Water naturally beginning to freeze at the top, and that Ice confining the subjacent Water, so that when froze it hath not room to expand; I say, whereas in such cases the Glasses are subject to break, to prevent such ill Conse∣quences; I lay the frigorifick Mixture first about the bottom of the Glasses, by which means the Water beginning to freeze at the bottom, the Water is raised up above it; and as the Salt and Ice is raised higher about the Glass, so the Ice gradually rises, without danger of breaking the Bottles. To this Advertisement I shall add, That tho' I only at the first lay the mixture about the bottom of the Glass, yet to keep the Water a∣bove, cool, I usually put Ice it self or Snow (ei∣ther of which will succeed in these Experiments) above that Mixture.

TITLE VI. Experiments and Observations concerning the preservation and destruction of (Eggs, Ap∣ples, and other) Bodies by Cold.

* 1.7IT is a common Tradition, That if Eggs or Apples be thawed near the Fire, it spoils them; but if they be immersed in cold Water, they thaw slowly without dammage. To try the truth of this Tradition, I made the following Experiments.

An Egg which weighed 12 drachms and a grain, being wrapt in a wax'd Paper to defend it from the thawing Snow, was froze in a mix∣ture of Snow and Salt; and then wanting 4 grains of its former weight, it was put into a Basin of Water: It acquir'd such a Crust of Ice about it, as increased the weight to 15 drachms and 9 grains; and the Ice being taken off, and the Egg dryed, it weighed 12 drachms and 12 grains; being broke we found it almost thawed: When froze it swam in the Water, but when thawed it sunk.

We took two Eggs well froze, and placing them both at an equal distance from the Fire, the one was put into Water and the other laid on a Table: When that in the Water was crust∣ed over with Ice, we took it out, and breaking it, found that the Yolk and some part of the White were thawed; but the other Egg being cut asunder, the White was wholly frozen, and the Yolk hard as if it had been over-boyl'd: There likewise appear'd in it certain concentri∣cal

Circles of different Colours, and a very white Speck in the middle of it.

The same Experiment being tryed a second time, we were confirmed in our Perswasion, That frozen Eggs will thaw sooner in cold Wa∣ter, than in the open Air.

An Egg being suspended in Water, was co∣ver'd with a Crust of Ice equally thick on all sides.

Frozen Pippins being put into a Basin of Wa∣ter, were covered over with a Crust of Ice of a considerable thickness; where it was observa∣ble,

• 1. That that Part of the Pippin which was immersed, was covered with a much thicker Crust than that which was above it.
• 2. The extant Part seem'd harder than the immersed.
• 3. Those in the Water were thawed, but one that lay out of it was much harder and more froze.
• 4. Neither the frozen Eggs or Apples condensed and froze the Air, tho' they incrusta∣ted the Water.

Eggs being froze in Snow and Salt till they crack'd, we put one into Milk, two into a Glass of Beer, and two more into a large Glass of Sack, but produced no Ice. Eggs being put into Vinegar produced no Ice; but the Vinegar cor∣roded the Egg-shells.

A Cheese immersed in Water in a cold Coun∣try, was crusted over with Ice; but lumps of Iron, pieces of Glass, and Stones, being kept longer in Snow and Salt than was sufficient to freeze Eggs, produced no Ice in Water.

Water being poured into a Bottle which stood on the North-East side of our Elaborotory, Part of it was presently turned into Ice.

Ice and Juice of Pippins shaken together in a Vial produced a great deal of Dew, and so did Ice beaten into a Liquor with the White of an Egg. Pippins were much better when thaw'd in cold Water than hastily.

It hath been observed in the cold Northern Climates, That when they have come out of extreme Cold too hastily to the Fire, it hath raised Blisters; wherefore it is a custom amongst the more careful sort, to wash their Hands, or other frozen Parts, in cold Water or Snow be∣fore they approach the Fire. I am told by one, That Cheeses being froze in Muscovy, those thaw'd in Water were crusted over with Ice; but were much better than others thaw'd in a Stove. And Guilielmus Fabritius Hildanus, Cap. 10. de Gangraena & sphacelo, gives an Account of a Man who was successfully thaw'd and crusted over with Ice as our Apples and Eggs were.

Tho' a moderate degree of Cold preserves Bodies from putrifaction; yet Glaciation leaves them more subject to it upon a thaw, tho' whilst they are in that state they putrifie not.

To prove that the highest degree of Cold un∣der Glaciation hinders Bodies from Corruption, I shall alledge the following Instances, Bartholinus de usu nivis, says, p. 80. Regii Mutinenses ni∣vem hoc fine arcte compactam servant, in Cellis Nivariis, in quibus fervente aestate vidi carnes mactatorum Animalium a Putredine diu se conser∣vasse. And Capt. James in his Journal, p. 74. hath these words, By the ninth of May we were come to and got up our five Barrels of Beef and Pork, and had four Buts of Beer and one of Cider— It had lain under Water all the Winter; yet we

could not perceive that it was any thing the worse. P. 79. he farther says, That a Cable having lain under Ice all Winter, was not in June found a jot the worse.

And from Simlerus his Account of the Alps, it appears, That entire Bodies may be preserv∣ed by Snow without Glaciation. Refert (says Bartholinus, speaking of him, p. 79. de figurati∣vis) in Rhetis apud Rinwaldios; nivium è monte ruentium moles Sylvam & proceras Abietes dejecisse, accidisse etiam Helvetio Milite per Alpes iter fa∣ciente, ut 60 homines & plures eadem Nivis con∣globatione opprimerentur. Hoc igitur Nivium tu∣mulo sepulti ad Tempus aestatis delitescunt, quo so∣luto nonnihil Nive deciduâ Corpora Mortua invio∣lata patent; si ab amicis, vel transeuntibus quaeran∣tur. Vidimus ipsi triste hoc Spectaculum, &c.

To prove that inanimate Bodies whilst froze are not subject to Putrifaction, I shall bring se∣veral Instances. Nor indeed is it much wonder, since, whether Glaciation proceeds from intru∣ding Swarms of frigorifick Atoms, wedged in betwixt the Parts of a Body, or whether we sup∣pose it to arise from an avolition of those restless Particles which before kept the Body fluid or soft; we must suppose an unusual rest, and con∣sequently the concomitant cause of Corruption to be wanting.

But to proceed to Instances, I am told, That on the Coast of Sweeden and Denmark, the Cold will preserve Bodies a long time from putrifacti∣on. And Bartholinus relates a Story of several dead Bodies (p. 83. de usu Nivis) which being kill'd in a Battel in the Winter, were froze in several Postures, and continued so without be∣ing

corrupted as long as the Winter lasted. To which I shall add, that Capt. James tells us, p. 76. of a Man whom they found froze in the Ice six Weeks after he had been committed to Sea, and all the alteration the Frost had wrought on his Body, was, that his Flesh would move up and down upon his Bones like a Glove upon a Man's Hand. And Bartholinus de usu Nivis, Cap. 12. further tells us, That 'tis observed in Greenland, that the Frost preserves Bodies from Putrifaction 30 Years.

But tho' freezing preserves Bodies from Pu∣trifaction for the time, yet when they thaw they presently discover, that the Textures of them were impaired and vitiated all that while by the action of the Cold; for having froze an Ox-Eye, I observ'd, that the Chrystalline humour, which was so transparent before, being froze, lost its dia∣phaneity and became white. And it hath been ob∣served by others, That tho' Cheeses which were thaw'd in Water, were better than those that were otherwise freed from the Ice; yet they were all, in some measure, impaired by the Frost.

To these Instances I shall add, that Purchas, Lib. 3. Cap. 5. Sect. 2 p. 493. tells us, That in Nova Zembla, their strong Beer being froze, was wholly vitiated, and without strength or taste. And Capt. James tells us, That strong Alicant Wine, by being froze, had lost much of its Spirits. And it hath been observed in the Northern Country, less cold than Muscovy, That Beef having been froze, was almost insipid, and yielded Broth little better than Water. Besides which Instances I am inform'd, That

Bodies much harder than any yet mention'd may be work'd upon by Cold; not to mention, that it is observ'd, That Bones, and even Steel it self, are much more subject to break in frosty Weather than at other times. And it is to our present Purpose, further observable, That Capt. James relates, that in Charlton-Island the Wood must be thaw'd before the Carpenters are able to work it.

And I am further inform'd, That the Timber of the Houses in Moscow will not only crack in frosty Weather; but 'tis observ'd, That Brick-Houses in the West-Indies decay much sooner than here in England. And it hath been further observed, That Marbles themselves have not on∣ly flown in pieces in frosty Weather, but that Brass-Instruments, and even Iron-Hoops have been crack'd by extreme Cold; as Olaus Wormius, and the Dutch-men in their Voyage to Nova Zembla witness. But I am apt to believe, that the break∣ing of the Iron-Hoops rather depended on the operation of the Cold on the Liquor contain'd in those Barrels; than immediately on the Iron-Bars themselves, and that they were broke by the ex∣pansion of that Liquor.

An Appendix to the VI. Title.

In confirmation of what hath been deliver'd before, the Russian Emperor's Physitian told me, That if those that have their Noses or Cheeks froze, don't rub them with Snow before they go into the Stoves, they sometimes drop off; and he likewise told me, That moderately weak Wine by being froze, would lose both its co∣lour

and taste. He further told me, That Bo∣dies there, will keep all the frosty Weather un∣corrupt; and that Venison and Beef, and other Flesh, will be preserved a long time by Frost; but if it is not thawed leasurely before it comes to be roasted, it will be much impaired. And I am told, That a young Man having been froze all over, was recovered by being first rubb'd with Snow before any other means was used.

Particulars referrable to the VI Title.

Fishes taken from under the Ice, in Lakes and Ponds which were frozen over, and packed up, would be preserv'd a Month without being salt∣ed or dryed; and it was observ'd, That when they were taken out of the Water in the cold Air, they would be froze immediately. It was like∣wise observ'd by the same Person who told me these things, That tho' Flesh-meat froze was better when thaw'd leasurely in cold Water than hastily by the Fire, yet it acquir'd not a Crust of Ice about it.

In Lapland when any Part is froze, they toast Cheese made of Deer's Milk, and anoint the af∣fected Part with the Cows-body.

I had some Cheshire-Cheeses froze my self, one of which being thrown into Water gather'd a Crust of Ice about it.

There are white Bears in Green-Land which have so excellent a scent, that when the Car∣cass of a Whale was left at some distance from the shore; they would raise themselves, on their Legs, and with their two Paws, would fan themselves with the Air, and snuff it in at their

Snouts, and then throwing themselves into the Sea would Swim towards the dead Carcasses; the fat of some of them would yield a Hogshead of Oyl. In Moscow a Hogshead of Malaga-Sack being froze, a Spirituous Liquor distill'd out of it stronger than the Sack it self; but the Li∣quor left behind it, was a strengthless Phlegm. A Barrel of Beer being froze on the Coast of Green-Land, the Spirituous Part was contain'd in the middle.

The Spanish and French Wines, that are brought to Moscow betwixt Russia and Poland, are sometimes so frozen by the time they come there; that they are forced to break the Casks, and to transport it in Jars from one place to a∣nother, and when they have a mind to thaw it, they put it into another Hogshead, and that being placed in a hole made in Ice or Snow, it thaws leasurely there without being so much impaired as if thawed in a Stove or by the Fire.

TITLE VII. Experiments concerning the Expansion of Wa∣ter, and Aqueous Liquors by freezing.

* 1.8THO' it hath been generally allowed, that Water and other Liquors are condensed by Cold; yet from what I shall offer, it will appear, That Ice is not Water condensed but Rarified.

For I have not only observ'd, That Water exposed to be froze in a Bolt-head, would if the frigorifick Mixture inclin'd it to begin to

freeze at the Bottom first, be expanded, so as to rise considerably higher in the Stem, but when that Ice was thawed again will subside. And to this I shall add, That having included Water in a Cylinder, both ends of which were stopped up with Wax, the Cylinder being hung up in the Air, and the Water froze; it was so far expanded, That it forced the Wax out of each end of the Pipe, and form'd a Rod of Ice much longer than the Cylinder; from whence it appears, That the breaking of Bottles by Cold rather depends on the Expansion of the Included Li∣quor, than that the weight of the Air caused that Effect, as some Moderns teach; or that the Internal Liquor being condensed by Cold, the Air breaks in to prevent a Vacuum: For that Water is expanded by Cold, appears from what I have said; besides nothing is more commonly observ'd, than that Water being froze in a Vessel whose sides are strong enough to keep it from bursting them, the Superficies of the Ice is gene∣rally protuberant and convex. And that the breaking of Bottles depends not on Nature's abhorrency of a Vacuum, appears; since should we suppose, That the Fluid contain'd in a Bottle would be so far condensed as to possess less space than before; it is possible there might be a Vacuum there, and the Bottle not burst; since Glass-Bubbles much thinner than ordinary Bottles will endure the frost, tho' stopped close with Air in them.

But not only Water expands it self upon freezing but other Aqueous Bodies; so Eggs being froze, burst their shells asunder. And Milk, Urine, Rhenish Wine, and good Spirit

of Wine, being set to freeze in distinct Glass-Eggs; the Wine being froze swell'd an Inch above the first Surface, the Milk two Inches, and the Urine six or seven. And a Solution of Dantzick-Vitriol, did not only become Opace, but rose considerably higher in a Cylindrical Pipe, upon Congelation.

Whether more stable and consistent Bodies are capable of being expanded by Cold; would be worth enquiring; since it hath been observ'd, That in Nova Zembla the very Clocks have been froze so that they would not goe; and the like hath been observ'd by Capt. James in his Voyage at Charlton-Island; his Watch being froze as well as his Clocks. Whether these Effects depended on any Swelling of the Ropes, or whether the Spring of his Watch might be weakned by Cold, or whether some Iceicles stuck to the Internal Parts of it; I shall leave as bare Conjectures, to be further examined in∣to by Experience.

The Phaenomena of an Experiment about Freez∣ing referrable to the VII Title, read before the Royal Society.

Having filled a Bolt-head which was as big as two Turkey Eggs with Water, till it rought, a pretty height into the slender Stem, being put into a Mixture of Snow and Salt, it subsi∣ded a little; but when it began to freeze it would sensibly swell.

The Experiment being repeated with a Glass whose Stem was as thin as a Raven's Quill; when first the Ball of it was immersed in the frigori∣fick

Mixture, the Water presently ascended the height of a Barly-corn, and presently subsided again, which the Florentine Virtuosi would attri∣bute to a Constriction of the Glass upon the Application of the frigorifick Mixture.

Secondly, And tho' the Florentine Virtuosi, re∣late, That they have observ'd, the Water after it had subsided, a little to rest, and then subsided again; yet in all the Tryals I made I did not observe it.

Thirdly, When the Water had subsided a little, it would be at a stand, till the Liquor began to freeze.

Fourthly, The Experiment being try'd with Glas∣ses whose Stems were unequally big, upon Glaci∣ation, the Ascent of the Water in the large ones would be indiscernible; but in a slender one it would ascend several Inches in a Minute, till it rose up to the top of the Stem.

Fifthly, Tho' the Forentine Academians, say, they have observ'd the Water to rise again, be∣fore Glaciation; yet I could never see such a Phaenomenon.

Sixthly, If the Glass was taken out of the Mixture when first it began to freeze, as soon as the small Iceicles were melted, it would sub∣side again; yet if reapply'd to the Mixture a second time, it would freeze in half a Min∣ute.

TITLE VIII. Experiments concerning the Contraction of Liquors by Cold.

* 1.91 THO' the Liquors we have mention'd ex∣pand themselves upon an Intense degree of Cold, yet we are not thence to couclude, that all will; since we have found it by experi∣ence not only in Spirit of Wine, Aqua fortis, Oyl of Turpentine and several other Liquors which would not be brought to freeze; but al∣so in Oyl congeal'd by the vehemence of the Cold.

2. Amongst the several Experiments made of the Efficacy of Cold to condensed Liquors, I shall lay down the following.

3. Spirit of Wine being put into a small Glass-Egg with a slender Stem, in a Mixture of Snow and Salt subsided ¾ of an Inch.

4. Mercury being freed from Air, and placed in a Bold-head in a Mixture of Snow and Salt, subsided 2 Inches. Common Oyl placed in the same Mixture subsided till it froze; but if it were immediately thaw'd near the fire, it would expand it self so much as to rise about the Mark. The Experiment succeeded a second time, and being try'd a third time, the Lumps of the congeal'd Oly would sink in the fluid Oyl. Oyl of Aniseeds artificially froze subsi∣ded considerably in a small Pipe. Empyreu∣matical Oyl of Gaujacum being exposed to the

utmost degree of Cold, would not freeze; but evidently subsided.

Particulars referrable to the VIII Title.

1. Two seal'd Weather-Glasses, the one made of a Tincture of Cochineele in Spirit of Wine; and the other of a blew Tincture of Spi∣rit of Man's Blood and Copper in Spirit of Wine; were immersed in Water till it began to freeze, and then being remov'd into Oyl of Turpentine set in a Mixture of Snow and Salt; we observ'd, That the Liquor in both Thermometers subsided. Oyl of Aniseeds be∣ing put into a small Glass with a large Stem, and placed in a frigorifick Mixture made by a Solution of Sal-Armoniack subsided 3 Inches; the substance of the Oyl being turn'd into a white Concrete, which when it was leasurely dissolv'd, the fluid Part emitted several Bub∣bles; and it was further observ'd in this Con∣crete, That tho' when thaw'd it swims upon Water, yet when congeal'd it will not.

TITLE IX. Experiments concerning the Bubble from which the Levity of Ice is supposed to proceed.

* 1.101. IT is usually accounted an Argument of the levity of Ice above Water, that it swims up∣on it: For tho' the superficies of small Portions of it are not sensibly emergent above the Surface of the Water; yet in Greenland, where huge Rocks of Ice float in the Sea, they are observ'd to be as high above the Water as the Masts of Ships, which could we suppose to float in an e∣rect Posture, and to be of a prismatical Form, that Part immersed would be nine times as much as that above the Water. As for the Reason why Ice is born up above the surface of the Water so much in Greenland more than in our Climate; besides that the size of those pieces of Ice contributes to the rendring the Observation more remarkable, the Water's expansion in that cold Climate may cause it to be further ex∣panded there than here, and consequently light∣er.

2. Pieces of Ice free from Bubbles floated in Spirit of Wine drawn from Brandy, and like∣wise from Quick-lime; and tho' if that Spirit were warmed, it would presently subside, yet as it cooled, the Ice would ascend; neverthe∣less some part of it being thaw'd, the Water would subside in a stream through the Spirit. In warm Water the Ice would swim; but in Oyl of Turpentine and the rectify'd Spirit of Wine it would sink like a Stone.

3. A piece of Ice which was clear from Bub∣bles, for as much as we could discern, and very transparent, would not sink in Water; but a∣nother piece, which in a Microscope appear'd to be full of Bubbles, was nevertheless transpa∣rent, and would float on Water.

4. That the levity and expansion of Ice de∣pends on the number of Bubbles dispersed through it, is unquestionable; but how it comes by those Bubbles is a matter that deserves our Inquiry: And tho' Mr Hobbes attributes it to the Intrusion of some external airy Parts, yet we observ'd, That Water defended from the Intru∣sion of external Air, was not without Bubbles, when froze in a Glass hermetically sealed; but being expanded, the numerous Bubbles disper∣sed through it, gave it a whitish Opacity; and the same Phaenomena were afforded by Ice froze in Metalline Vessels.

5. And that the Ice froze in the hermetically sealed Glass, received not its Bubbles from the Air shut up with it; is reasonable to believe:

• First, Since the Water must be expanded before it could divide that Air into Bubbles.
• Second∣ly, That the Air in the sealed Glass cannot be dispersed through the Ice, and thereby cause it to expand, appears; since oftentimes it is so far compress'd by the swelling Ice, that it breaks the Glass, which it would not do, could it be mixed with the Ice and dispersed through the freezing Water. But,
• Thirdly, Were the expansion of Ice to be attributed to the insinua∣tion of airy Parts, it may be question'd, How, when Liquors begin to freeze at the bottom first, the Air, which is so many times lighter

• than Water, can dive into the bottom of it, and that too without being seen? Fourthly, If the Bubbles contained in Ice were deriv'd from the external Air depress'd through freezing Water, Ice thaw'd would yield Air enough to fill as much space as the frozen Water possess'd more than the thaw'd Water.

6. That the Bubbles contain'd in frozen Wa∣ter are not adequately fill'd with Air, tho' some∣times the Air that they contain be afforded by those airy Parts dispers'd through the Pores of Water; and that they are often generated nu∣merously, notwithstanding a recess of the great∣est part of that Air, will appear from the fol∣lowing Experiments.

• I. Water freed from Bubbles in Vacuo Boylia∣no, and afterwards convey'd into a frigorifick Mixture expanded not so much as common Wa∣ter, nor was the Ice near so full of Bubbles.
• II. Water which had been freed from Bub∣bles in our Prismatical Engine, being froze, con∣tain'd few Bubbles, but being thaw'd and then pour'd into a Glass-Cylinder, it was powerfully expanded so far as to burst the Glass.
• III. A Glass-egg with a narrow Stem being filled so far with Water, that the surface of it rose an Inch within the Stem; it was convey'd into a Receiver, and whilst the Air was ex∣hausting, Bubbles rose so plentifully, that the Liquor seem'd to boyl: Which when it was in a great measure cleared of, we placed it in a mixture of Snow and Salt; and observ'd, that the expanded Liquor being froze, had risen a great way above its first height. When it was placed in the open Air, of such a temper as

• made it thaw leisurely, we observ'd, That the exterior part of the Ice was full of Bubbles: But when that was dissolv'd, the Ice in the middle was of an unusual Texture; being void of Bub∣bles and not unlike a frosted piece of Glass, whose aspereties were very thick set: When the Ice was almost thaw'd, we convey'd the Bub∣ble into the Receiver; but tho' the Air was ex∣hausted, we perceiv'd not that the Ice was soon∣er melted; but the Water afforded a few Bub∣bles, and in a little time some few appear'd in the Ice. When the Ice was wholly thaw'd, we took the Glass-Bubble out of the Receiver, and found, That the Water had subsided to its first Mark, if not a little below it; so that the Wa∣ter when expanded rising three Inches in the Stem, and the weight of the whole Water be∣ing but two ounces and a half; the Ice seem'd to take up about a twelfth Part more than the un∣froze Water.

7. A Cylinder of Water being immers'd in a Mixture of Ice and Salt, and that convey'd into a Receiver; we found, That when the Air was exhausted, and the Water in a great measure freed from Bubbles, the surface of it was consi∣derably rais'd; the Water in the bottom being turn'd into Ice as far as the Mixture wrought, in which we perceiv'd, besides a few large Bub∣bles, small ones enough to render it opacous.

8. To shew, that the Bubbles perceivable in Ice are not filled with true and springy Air, I shall subjoyn the following Experiment. We plac'd a Glass-egg, which was about as large a∣gain as an ordinary Egg, in a mixture of Ice and Salt; the Cavity of it being fiill'd with Water,

which rising up into the Neck, stood about an Inch above the superficies of the frigorifick Mix∣ture which circumscribed it; the Diameter of the Stem being large enough to receive the end of my Finger. The Particulars afforded by this Experiment were,

• I. The Water did not sensibly subside before it began to freeze.
• II. Some part of it began to swell in a quarter of an Hour.
• III. In an Hour the Liquor rose 4 2/9 Inches, and continu'd to rise till it was above five Inch∣es ½ when we took it out.
• IV. The frigorifick Mixture being below the surface of the Water, it froze at the bottom first, leaving the top of the Water uncongeal'd.
• V. No Bubbles appear'd in the Water tho' the Ice was full of them, some being as large as small Pease.
• VI. We pour'd as much Sallet-oyl upon the Water, as wrought two Inches in the Stem, and then hermetically sealing the end of it up; the Water subsided a little, but was presently rais'd again to its former height in the Mixture; about an Inch and a half of the Stem remaining above the Oyl filled with Air.
• VII. The Glass-egg being weighed first in Air, was left in the Water poised with its opposite weight.
• VIII. Upon the thawing of the Ice, several Bubbles rose which vanish'd at the top.
• IX. The Water being thaw'd, the Aequili∣brium continu'd the same, and subsided to its first Mark and no lower, tho' it had parted with so many Bubbles.

• X. The Glass being inverted, the seal'd end was broke off under Water; upon which some of it being forced up into the Pipe, press'd the contain'd Air into less room than before.
• XI. The Water and the Oyl possess'd the same Places that they did before.
• XII. The Oyl being thrown out, and so much Water put into the Stem as rais'd the surface as high as it was rais'd by Glaciation; the Glass weighed 4374 Grains: When fill'd to the low∣est Mark it weighed 4152, and when empty 1032; so that the Water contain'd betwixt the two Marks, was about the 15th Part of the whole.

10. A large Glass-egg with a proportionable Stem, being so far fill'd with Water, that it wrought up an Inch into the Stem; the next Day the Water was rais'd 15 Inches: The whole contain'd in the Cavity of the Egg being froze; the frozen Water continuing to swell, was rais'd 4 Inches higher, a few drops running o∣ver the top of it; but when the Ice was wholly thaw'd it subsided again.

11. Another Egg about the same height, be∣ing plac'd in beaten Ice and Salt, the Water rose an Inch in an Hours time, and several Laminae of Ice appear'd at the Jointure of the Ball and the Neck; but after an Hour and a quarcer, those disappear'd, and the Ball seem'd to be fill'd with white Ice; the Water in the Neck being rais'd 4 ½ Inches above the first Mark. Several small Bubbles ascended through the Neck till it was wholly thaw'd, and the white Ice was full of Bubbles. The Experi∣ment being further prosecuted, the Water

swell'd till some of it ran out at the top of the Tube: Upon which, the top of it being seal'd up, we plac'd it in a warm Room till the Water was quite thaw'd; so much Air on∣ly-remaining above the Water when froze, as in dimensions equall'd a small Pea. When the Ice was wholly thaw'd, the Water subsided to its first Mark, and then the top of the Stem being broke off under Water; so much of it was impell'd by the external Air, as, when the Pipe was re-invert∣ed again rose 7 Inches, above the first Mark, and left about an Inch ¼ above it; so that the Air which caus'd the Water when froze to swell, and which was generated there, took up one Inch and ¼: Which being expanded through the Cavity of the Cylinder, above the surface of the Water when thaw'd; so far appear'd not to be Air, that it wanted a Spring to resist the ingress of the Water.

12. Another time the tip of a seal'd Stem be∣ing broke under Water, it receiv'd 10 Inches and above ½

13. In the same Bolt-head wherein the great∣est condensation of Air was try'd, the Water be∣ing froze, was rais'd a Foot above its former sta∣tion; and then being seal'd up, and leasurely thaw'd; it subsided again to its former Mark: And then the Seal being broke off under Water, so much of that contain'd in the Basin was forc'd into the Tube, as sill'd 11 Inches of it; near ⅛ of an Inch of Air being generated in the former part of the Operation.

14. Another time the Water swelling 10 In∣ches in the same Glass, we broke off the Neb under Water, and it receiv'd as much of the

external Water; so that in this no Air was ge∣nerated.

15. The like Experiments being try'd with aqueous Liquors; the Neb of one that contain'd Milk being broke off under Water, it was ma∣nifestly impell'd by the outward Air. And a∣nother being likewise open'd under Water which contain'd Urine, it receiv'd about five or six In∣ches of Water.

16. Another Glass which contain'd Claret-Wine, being open'd under Water, the Water was impell'd near an Inch above the Mark; which would not have happen'd, had the Bub∣bles been fill'd with true and permament Air.

TITLE X. Experiments about the Measure of the Expan∣sion and the Contraction of Liquors.

* 1.11TO measure the expansion of the Air, we took a Bolt-head, and pour'd in so much Water, that it rose a little way into the Stem; which being done, and the number of Ounces it contain'd set down, to those we successfully ad∣ded one Ounce after another; marking how high each of them wrought: Which being done, we pour'd out a convenient quantity, and froze the remaining Water from the bottom upwards, and the Ice that consisted of 82 parts of Water, filled the space of 91 and ½; so that the congeal'd Water possess'd a 9th part of space more than it

did before. In another Experiment 55 Parts of Water being froze, were extended to 60 ½; 6 of those remaining unfroze.

2. Another way we took to measure the ex∣pansion of Water, was, by marking a Cylindri∣cal Pipe at the superficies of the Water contain'd in it; which, when it was froze, was rais'd a tenth part higher than before. Another more exact Cylinder being made use of, we found, that Water froze expanded to about a ninth Part of the space it possess'd before.

3. But perhaps this Method of measuring the expansion of freezing Water may suggest a diffi∣culty to those that are acquainted with Hydrosta∣ticks: since Archimedes hath made it appear, as well as Stevinus, That floating Bodies will so far, and but so far, sink in the Liquor that supports them, till the immersed Part of the Body be equal to a bulk of Water, weighing as much as the whole Body.

4. For Capt. James hath observ'd Ice to float a great deal above the Water; and the Hollan∣ders in their Voyage to Nova Zembla, take no∣tice of a Hill of Ice which was 16 Fathom above the Water, tho' but 36 below it: And Janus Munkius in his Account of G•…•…enland, observ'd, That one that was but 4•• Fathom under Wa∣ter, was 20 above it; whereas according to our Computation of the expansion of Water, the Part under Water ought to be 8 or 9 times as deep as that above it.

5. But to clear this difficulty I have these things to represent; First, That the Ice which we take notice of, floats in fresh Water, but that observ'd by Navigators, being fresh floats in salt Water; yet this is to be likewise consider'd, That near the Poles the Seas are not so salt as ours, or

those under the Line, and consequently will not be able to bear up the floating Ice so high; except the coldness of that Region recompenses the want of Salt.

6. But besides these Considerations, that which I would chiefly insist upon for the removal of this difficulty, is, That these huge Piles of Ice are made up of vast Lumps, betwixt which are large Vacuities which are only fill'd up with Air; so that we are not to judge of their weight by the bulk they appear to be of to the Eye; but by the specifick weight incumbent on that part immers'd in the Water: For we see in Barges, that sometimes they carry Loads, which consist∣ing of light Matter, may be piled a great height above the Water, without depressing the Vessel so much as heavier Bodies of less bulk, which are more ponderous in Specie; for the greatest part of these floating pieces of Ice, as Bartholinus takes notice, are compiled of store of Snow fro∣zen together. Besides, it is observ'd, That most of those stupendious Mountains which lay so much above Water below rested on the Ground, so that probably they might have sunk much lower, had the Water been deep enough for them; for Mr. Hudson in his Voyage takes no∣tice, in a Bay that bears his Name, of a piece of Ice sevenscore Fathom deep.

7. Having said thus much of the expansion of Water, it perhaps may be expected, that I should say something of the expansion of aque∣ous Humours; and also of the degrees of the Condensation of Water and watry Humours: But as for the first, I doubt whether there be any expansion, except of the watry Parts of them; but if it may be of any use to

direct us in making an estimate of the diffe∣rent Proportions they contain of Phlegm, or o∣ther more spirituous Ingredients; I would not discourage those whose Curiosity shall prevail with them to prosecute such Experiments. And as for the condensation of Water by Cold, tho' perhaps in hotter Climates it may be considera∣ble, yet I have not found it very sensible in all the Tryals I have made here.

Particulars referrable to the X Title.

• 1. A Bolt-head whose Stem was 17 Inches above the Water being seal'd up, and placed about 9 hours in a frigorifick Mixture, the Water ascended 15 Inches ½ and afterwards ½ of ¼ of an Inch; being neglected for an hour the seal'd end was blown off, and the Bottom of the Glass broke in peices.
• 2. Water freed from Air in. our Receiver, and seal'd up in a round Bolt-head, in which the seal'd Apex was about 5 Inches above the Water, afforded an Ice very free from Bubbles, and having stood in a frigorifick Mixture about 2 hours, it was raised 4 Inches and ⅜: The Co∣nical Apex being broke with a noise and a seeming smoak, we found Water unfroze, un∣der the Pipe, and that the Air was condensed to a 20th Part of the space it possess'd before.
• 3. The Globous part of a Glass-Egg 3 Inches Diameter was filled with Water and froze from the Bottom upwards; after it had been Hermetically seal'd, it rose 8 ½ Inches, the length of the whole Stem being 10 Inches and a half. But being a second time sealed up and

• froze with Ice in it, it wrought not 4 Inches a∣bove its first station.

TITLE XI. Experiments touching the Expansive force of Freezing Water.

* 1.121. TO help us to make an estimate of the Ex∣pansive force of freezing Water, We fil∣led a Pewter-Bottle full of Water; it being large enough to hold half a Pint: In a frosty Night it crack'd the Bottle; and the like success we had with frozen Water in a Pewter-box, such as they keep Salves in. And we found the Ex∣pansive force of Frost so strong, That it burst a Bottle, the thinnest part of which was 1/14 of an Inch, and the thickest ••/86: It also broke an Earthen Bottle of Flanders-Metal, the thinnest part of which was as thick as the strongest of the other.

2. To make a more Determinate Estimate of the Expansive force of Frost; we made use of a Brass-Cylinder, to which we adapted a Plugg, which falling a little way within the Cylinder rested upon the edges of it. The length of the Cylinder was about 5 Inches and the breadth 1 ¾ The Experiment made in this In∣strument was by filling it full of Water and then laying 56 pound weight upon the top of it: And tho' it was a hard matter to cause the Mixture to freeze; yet we were at the last a∣ble to do it, and then we observ'd, That the Ex∣panded

Ice lifted up the one side of the lower so high, that the weight fell down; but at ano∣ther time it succeeded so well, that the lower was uniformly raised, the breadth of a Barly-corn. Upon a gentle thaw the Superficial Parts being taken out, the Ice appear'd full of Bubbles: And in the Morning when it began to melt before the fire, the weight being taken off; several drops of Water, dilated into numerous Bubbles, issu'd out, like a kind of Froth.

3. Another way we took to measure the Ex∣pansive force of Cold, was, by driving a Wooden Plugg so fast into the end of the Brass-Cylinder, That half a hundred weight and a quarter of a hundred, might be suspended at it without pulling it out; yet in two frosty Nights the expanding Water was able to raise it a quarter of an Inch.

4. There is one thing in these Tryals de∣serves to be taken notice of, viz. That the Expansion of Air by Heat being sufficient to make it possess 70 times it's former space; yet the utmost degree, Water by Glaciation will extend it self to, is a ninth: So that the for∣mer by Expansion acquires 60 times the space that Water does; taking Mersennus his account of the Air's Expansion to be true, which comes short of what we have shewn it capable of be∣ing Expanded to.

5. We endeavoured likewise to measure the force of Waters Expansion when congeal'd, by enclosing it in a Iron-Globe whose Diameter was about 3 Inches, and which had a Female Screw continued from it's Cavity to the out side; to which was adapted Male a screw so close,

That we were forc'd to use a Vice to screw it in; but our hopes were frustrated; the Com∣pactness of the metal, as we suppos'd, keeping the Liquor from freezing.

6. It would be worth while to consider the cause of so powerful an Expansion, since nei∣ther the Cartesian nor the Epicurean Doctrine are able to explain this Phaenomenon: For the first only accounting Cold to be a Privation of Heat; and depending upon the recess of those subtil Parts, which he supposes Expansion to depend on; according to him, they should ra∣ther continue an Inactive Mass, than retain such a Springyness. And since according to Epicurus, Expansion depends on an Insinuation of frigo∣rifick Atoms, It may well be question'd, how parts of Matter, which have such a free entrance into such Vessels, should not rather find as easie a Passage out again as in, without breaking them? Besides in several Oyls and other Li∣quors which must receive those frigorifick Atoms we perceive not the least Expansion at all; but they are rather condensed.

7. How great the Expansive Force of con∣geal'd Wine, Milk, Urine and other Liquors is, I shall leave it to others to enquire, and shall only take notice, That undoubtedly it is consi∣derable; since in the Dutch Voyage to Nova Zembla it was observ'd, That even Iron-hoops were burst by the forcible Expansion of inclu∣ded Liquors. And in Russia it hath been ob∣serv'd, that tho' Beer and Wine would not burst Wooden Vessels, yet Glass and Stone-Vessels would be often broken

Particulars referrable to the XI Title.

• 1. We took a Brass-Cylinder 2 Inches Di∣ameter, and having put a Bladder with Wa∣ter ty'd close up in it, so that upon Expansion it could not get out into the Cavity of the Cy∣linder; we put a Plugg into it, upon which were placed several weights; which amounted to 120 Pounds, yet the frigorifick Mixture being apply'd to the Cylinder, the Water expanded rais'd the Plugg, near half an Inch; and the Experiment being repeated again the next Day the freezing Water raised 130 Pound-weight.
• 2. An Iron-Barrel 14 Inches long and ⅜ of an Inch in Diameter, whose sides were at the thickest Part 1/16 and at the least ••/16; was filled with Water, and being buried in a Mix∣ture of Ice and Salt 2 hours, it made an oblique crack in the Barrel Six Inches long; and the Ice being taken out seemed full of Bubbles but ve∣ry small ones; and the like success we had with another Barrel of a Gun, whose Muzzle and Touch-hole were stopped up with Metal; nor had we less success when we buried a Pewter Bottle in a frigorifick Mixture, both the Bar∣rel of the Gun and the Bottle being burst in a quarter of an hour.

TITLE XII. Experiments concerning a new way of Esti∣mating the Expansive force of Congelation, and of highly compressing Air without En∣gines.

* 1.13HOW far we were able to compress the Air by the Incumbent weight of a Cylin∣der of Mercury, we have else where shewn; but to reduce it to a greater degree of Condensati∣on I made the following Experiments.

• 1. Having filled a Glass-Egg with Water till it wrought about an Inch into the Stem, we placed it in a Mixture of Snow and Salt, and in a few hours the Surface of the Liquor was raised about 7 Inches; and the Apex of the Stem being sealed up, by a fresh application of Snow and Salt it was raised 8 Inches higher: So that the Air being compressed into the space of an Inch, possessed about nine Parts of ten of what it did before: Whereupon the Stem being inverted and the seal'd end opened, the Air which when the Stem was inverted, rose up to the Ice, and separated the unfrozen Water in the Stem from it, powerfully expanding it self; forced out about ten Inches of Water, with Violence and Noise, besides a great number of Bubbles ascended from the Bottom of the Glass to the Top. N. B. when the Air was compres∣sed beyond seven Inches, we several times ob∣serv'd, That the Glass just above the Water on

• the inside was full of little drops of Dew, which when the Apex was broke off Disappeared.
• 2. A Vial whose neck was drawn out into a slender Pipe, being filled till it wrought an Inch within the Pipe; in a little time, by the Ex∣pansion of the Water, the Air being too much compressed, the head of the Pipe flew off; and the same happened to a round white Glass whose Stem, filled with Air, was about 3 Inches: Nor was the success otherwise when we re∣peated the Experiment in a large single Vial, whose Stem was four Inches long, and it's Basis an Inch broad.
• 3. An Oval Glass about the size of a Tur∣keys-egg, with a neck almost Cylindrical, was filled with Water within four Inches and a half, and then a piece of Paper being pasted upon the Stem divided into half Inches and quarters, and the Apex being sealed up by a moderate Heat; the Surface of the Water was raised considerably, but the Oval Part of the Glass being covered with a Mixture of Ice and Snow, the Air was compressed into a 17th Part of the space it possessed before; And the Ball of the Glass bursting afterwards with a considerable Noise, the Ice appeared full of Bubbles, which rendred it white and Opacous. In another Glass whose Ball was larger in proportion to the Stem, the Air was compressed into a 19th Part of it's former space before the Glass flew in pieces.
• 3. And this way of trying how far the Air might be compressed and Water expanded by Cold, we thought least Exceptionable; because the Pores of Glass are more impervious to Air

• and Water, than some Metalline Vessels; for having broken open the Apex of the Stem of one of our Glass-Eggs, we found, that tho' the Wa∣ter was but a little expanded; yet not finding a way out at the Pores of the Glass, the Water rose up a quarter of an Inch.

TITLE XIII. Experiments and Observations concerning the Sphere of Activity of Cold.

* 1.14IN estimating the Sphere of Activity of Cold, we are not only to consider the Degree of it in the cold Body; but also the Medium through which it is to pass, and the Consistence and Texture of it; as likewise the Instruments em∣ploy'd to receive or acquaint us with the Action of Cold: Since, from what hath been before laid down, it appears, That Weather-glasses give us a more nice account of the Degrees of it; and that our Sensories may mis-inform us, upon the ac∣count of their various Predispositions. Besides the Sphere of Activity may be vary'd by the Bulk of the cold Body.

1. But to consider the Sphere of Activity of small Pieces of Ice; we have found it very small in comparison of the Atmospheres of odo∣rous Bodies; insomuch that I am perswaded, we can have no sense of Cold, without the im∣mediate Contact of a cold Body; since Ice ap∣proaching our Sensory, or a Weather-glass, af∣fects neither; tho' held as near as possibly they may without touching. And the like hath been

observ'd at Sea, where in foggy Nights the Sea∣men have not been able to discern neighbouring Mountains of Ice: Tho' by a Merchant who made the Observation in Greenland, I am told, That he perceived a manifest access of Cold, upon the approach of a floating piece of Ice.

2. And I am told, that in Ispahan the Capital City of Persia, the Ice being never much more than a Finger thick, they usually pour Water upon it, which as it runs over the Ice, is in part froze, by which means, they thicken the Ice, and preserve it in proper Conservatories. This Experiment having been tryed in England, by pumping of Water upon Flakes of Ice; I found, That the Pump-water, being warmer than the Ice, thawed it, instead of increasing the Thick∣ness of it. And tho' here in England, Water poured upon Snow promotes its Dissolution, yet in Russia and Muscovy I am told, That Water thrown upon Snow freezes it; which they there∣fore make use of to incrustate several Bodies with Ice; yet one thing is to be observ'd, that gene∣rally at the same time, the sharpness of the Air is so violent, as to incrustate several Bodies with Ice, when only Water is made use of; so that in trying such Experiments, we are to consider the Temperature of the Air at the same time, which hath a great Influence in promoting or va∣rying the Effects of such Tryals.

3. How deep Frost penetrates into Water and Earth will be a very hard thing to determine; since Earth especially, may be more or less dispo∣sed to freeze, according to the several Degr••es of Cold, and its Duration; the Tex•••…•••… of the Earth, and the Nature of the Juices d•••…•••…ed

through it, or subterraneal Steams: Whence large Tracts of Land that lye over some Mines, are always free from Snow, good quantities of Lime∣stone being near the Surface of the Earth.

4. But tho' it be so difficult to know to what Depth Frost will reach, yet that we may contri∣bute as much as we can to the general History of Cold, we shall add the following Notes. Af∣ter four Nights hard Frost the Ground in the Orchard was froze about 3 Inches deep, and in the Garden about 2; after ten Nights Frost, the Ground in the Garden was froze about 6 Inches ½, and that in the Orchard was froze 8 ½ or more. Eight Days after, it was froze about a Foot Deep.

5. A Pipe of Glass 18 Inches long being thrust down into a Hole in the Ground, the Surface of the Water contained in it being level with the Earth; the next Morning the whole Capa∣city of the Cylinder was froze 3 Inches, from which Stick of Ice a Part of the Cylinder was froze 6 Inches deep; but the rest of the Water remained unfroze: The Ground in the Garden, that Night was froze ten Inches deep.

6. It hath been observ'd, that in Moscow the Ground in a Garden was not froze above two Foot deep; but Capt. James says in Charlton-I∣sland he observ'd the Ground froze ten Foot deep; and the same Author in his Journal, p. 86. says, That the Water does not freeze naturally above six Feet.

One Particular referrable to the XIII Title:

I am told, That a Lee-ward of great Banks of Ice, they may discover them by the access of Cold, twenty Leagues.

TITLE XIV. Experiments concerning the Different Medi∣ums through which Cold may be diffused.

* 1.15IN trying these Experiments we are to take Notice, that the Mediums are not to be too thick; since, from Experiments already deliver'd it appears, That a compact Medium very thick will not give way to Cold.

1. Having placed a Mixture of Snow and Salt in a Pipkin, and another in a white Basin glazed within and without, they were both incrustated with Ice. And that Cold will penetrate Pewter-Bottles, appears from Experiments already laid down.

2. Having caused two Cups to be made of Lattin, or Plates of Iron covered over with Tin, the Convex Part of one of which, was less than the Concave of the other; and the less having a broad Ledge, by the help of which it rested on the Brim of the other, so as to leave an Interval betwixt its Convex Superficies and the Concave of the other; we filled that Interval with Wa∣ter, and putting a Mixture of Ice and Salt with∣in the less Cup, and on the outside of the other, we had Cups of Ice made of the inclosed Water.

2. The Learned Erasmus Bartholinus in his discourse De figura Nivis mentions an Experi∣ment by which Air is turned into Water in the midst of Heat, viz. Ice or Snow being put into a a funnel; which he supposes refrigerates and condenses the Ambient Air; but I rather think, That the Dew which he supposes to be condensed Air, is made up of moist Vapours swimming in it; which is so small in Quantity, That having suspended a Tunnel in the Air, with a Mixture of Snow and Salt; which is much more refrigerating than either Ice or Snow by themselves, it gathered but a very small Quantity, and that too lasted no longer than whilst the Mixture was dissolving; besides those condensed Vapours were first Froze before they dropped down in the form of Water.

3. That in Hermetically sealed Glasses, a Mixture of Snow and Salt will freeze Vapours on the outside, is evident, from what hath been laid down; but that Cold should not only penetrate Glass, but afterwards act upon Water in Vacuo; was a little more strange: For having suspended a Tube of Water in Vacuo and pi∣led Snow and Ice about it, as high as the In∣cluded Water wrought; it worked upon it, and Froze it from the top to the bottom.

4. But what is yet more strange is, That Cold will act through a evidently hot Medium; for drinking a good quantity of Mineral Waters timely in the Morning, I observ'd a Manifest Coldness through the Muscles of my Abdo∣men, which was in a higher degree remarkable in a Gentleman who drunk much greater quan∣tities.

5. To try whether the fluidity of Water depended on a Congenite motion in the Parts of it, or whether it was conveyed to it by impulse from the Ambient Air; we provided a Glass-Bubble about the size of a Wall-nut and of a Pear like shape, whose Stem was purposely made crooked, and suspending it by a thread in Oyl of Turpentine contain'd in a narrow Glass; and this being placed in a Mixture of Snow and Salt, tho' the Oyl continued fluid; yet the Water in the Bubble was froze. And when we went to take it out, the Bubble being crack'd, the greatest Part subsided to the Bottom of the Mixture; but we per∣ceiv'd, That, that which was pulled out, was divided by a line through the middle from the top downwards. And it was further observa∣ble in this Tryal, That the two separable Piec∣es of Ice, being left in a Mixture of Ice and Salt for 14 hours, were very little wasted. The like success we had with a Bubble of Water suspended in Spirit of Wine; but another sus∣pended in Sea-Salt was not froze at all; nor was another that we hung in a sharp brine: But the same Experiments being tryed another time; the Water was froze both in the Bubble suspended in Spirit of Wine, and in that which was immersed in the strong Brine; the Bottle which contain'd the latter being crack'd, which cracks were not much unlike the lines drawn from the Pole of a Globe to the Meridi∣an; reaching from the top of the Bubble down∣wards.

6. A Bubble suspended with Water in it, in a Glass immersed in Snow and Salt, was froze, without the Intervention of any Li∣quor.

TITLE XV. Experiments and Observations concerning Ice.

* 1.161. THO' in the East-Indies it hath been thought strange, That Water in England should without any Artificial means be turned into a consistent Body; yet it is related by some, That in Russia the Ice on the contrary, is found much harder than Ours.

2. To make an Estimate of the Cohesion of the Parts of Ice, we thought to have tryed what weight Cylindrical pieces of Ice of diffe∣rent Diameters would bear: But being frustra∣ted in such Tryals, we try'd how much weight a Plate of it placed betwixt two Iron-Bars would bear; but having not convenient weights we were forced to be content to know, That it bore a much greater weight than one could suppose it capable of.

3. A peice of Ice 3 Inches long, and as ma∣ny broad; and about 4 of an Inch thick was laid cross a frame; and a peice of Iron of this Figure (7) having a scale hung at the longer Leg, the Horizontal Leg was placed upon the middle of the Ice; and then 117 Ounces Troy-weight being put into the Scale, when the Iron had melted half the Ice through on one side,

and a third Part of the other, the weight was able to break it. The Experiment being repeat∣ed when the piece of Ice was 2 Inches and a half long, it bore 17 pound Averdupois and 48 Ounces Troy-weight, when the Iron on one side had melted ⅔ and on the other ½ Parts of the thickness of it.

4. Plates of Ice being laid upon a stool, and Bay-salt strewed on some Parts of them, they promoted the melting of the Ice so much, That they buried themselves in it; but the Parts thaw'd by this means, were so incorporated with, and froze to the stool, That we could not separate them without knocking them in pieces: At a∣nother time Salt thrown upon Ice made a crack∣ling Noise and by a Candle-light, several Steams were observ'd to rise from them, like from some hot Liquors: A few drops of Aqua∣fortis dropped upon Plates of Ice, and Oyl of Vitriol, the latter sooner penetrated but the former with more Noise as if the Ice were crack'd.

5. Olaus Magnus Gent. Septentr. Hist. Lib. 1. Cap. 14 says, of the strength of Ice, Glacies primae & mediae byemis ad••ò fortis & tenax est ut spissitudine seu densitate duorum digito∣rum sufferat hominem ambulantem, trium verò digitorum Equestrem Armatum; unius palmae & dimidiae, turmas vel exercitus militares; trium vel quatuor palmarum integram Legionem vel myriadem Populorum quemadmodùm inferius de bellis hyemalibus memorandum erit. But this account is the less satisfactory; because he tells us not how far distant from the shore this

weight would be born, for the weight of one Man may be much greater at some distance from the shore than of more, upon or near the side; since the shore hath there a greater strength to support it.

6. Purchas Lib. 4. Cap. 13 sayes, That the Ice in Russia was as hard as a Rock; and it is ob∣serv'd by the same, Lib. 4. Cap. 13. p. 813, That the Ice which floats in the Sea being ta∣ken up and thaw'd yields fresh Water; but whe∣ther it consists of an accumulation of fresh Particles in the Sea, or whether it is a Collection of Ice carried thither from some fresh Water I much Question; since the main Ocean is seldom froze, and especially since Purchas Lib. 3. Cap. 7. says, That the floating Ice near Nova Zembla which closes up the straight of Wei∣gals flows down from the Rivers Oby and Jenesre and several others.

7. As for the bigness of some Pieces of Ice they seem almost Incredible; the Dutch in their Voyage to Nova Zembla take notice of one 96 foot high; and Capt. James hath met with some as deep under Water, besides what float∣ed above, and some much higher: And Purchas Lib. 4. Cap. 18. p. 837. Tells us of a Moun∣tain of Ice which was 140 fathom high. As for the Length of these pieces of Ice, all that I can meet with is an observation of Capt. James's who measured a peice of Ice which was 1000 paces long.

8. As for the bigness of concrete Pieces of Ice, Mr. Hall in his Voyage to Greenland takes notice of one 24 Miles long. And by another, a vast Tract of Ice hath been observ'd, which

was so long that the Bounds of it could not be discover'd from an indifferent high Hill. To which we may add what the French Hydrographer Fournier relates in his Passage to Canada, That he met with some Pieces of Ice as big as Moun∣tains; others, as Ships; and one 80 Leagues long; in some Places plain, and in others une∣qual with high Mountains. And Olaus Magnus, Lib. 3. Cap. 2. pag. 384. says, Neque minori bel∣landi impetu Sueci & Gothi super aperta Glacie, quam in ipsa solidissima Terra confligunt: Imò ut prius dictum est, ubi antea aestivo tempore, acer∣rima commissa sunt Bella navalia, iisdem in locis Glacie concretâ, Aciebus militari modo constructis, Bombardis ordinatis, habentur horrendi conflictus, adeò solida Glacies est in Equestribus Turmis suf∣ferendis, ampliter vel strictè collocatis. And it is known to us all, that not long since, the King of Sweedland and his whole Army marched over the Sea to Zeeland, where Copenhagen the Capital City of Denmark stands. And Bartholinus, de Nivis usu, takes notice, That in the Eastern Re∣gions the Sea hath been froze a considerable Depth. To which I shall subjoyn that Glycas apud Fournier, Lib. 9. Cap. 19. observes, That in the Year 775, the Mediterranean was froze for 50 Leagues, 30 Cubits thick, upon which as much Snow fell as raised it 30 Cubits above the Top of the Water.

9. To what Instances we have already recited, we shall add that of the Dutch-Men in their Voy∣age, viz. that some pieces of Ice which were 18 Fathom below Water and ten above, were very blue; the like to which Capt. James takes notice of; and Virgil, speaking of the Frigid Zone, says,

Caerulea glacie concreta, atque imbribus Atris.

10. In the Spring the Ice is observ'd by Olaus Magnus to be much less compact than in the Win∣ter; and it is attested by the same, and also by Mr. James Hall in his Voyages, that when these Rocks of Ice break they make a vast Noise; and the like hath been observ'd by others: And tho' Olaus Magnus attributes the cleaving of these Rocks of Ice, to the Effect which warm Exhala∣tions have upon them; yet I am told, that some∣times they are observ'd to fly in pieces upon ex∣cessive Cold.

Particulars referrable to the XV Title.

• 1. A Decoction of Sage, Rosemary and Par∣sly being exposed to be froze in distinct Vessels, the Superficies of the former was very rough. Juice of Lemons froze, represented Trees with∣out Leaves.
• 2. Hard Ice beaten, and common Salt being mixed together, afforded white Fumes like Smoke, tho' the Experiment was tryed in a close Room. Snow-Water froze in Ice and Salt, af∣forded an Ice very transparent, and with minute Bubbles.
• 3. Ice partly powder'd, and in part grosly beaten, being mixed with Bay-salt, when the Mixture was stirred, afforded a sensible Smoak, which was greater or less as the Mixture was more or less stirred; and floating over the Brim of the Vessel, rather sunk than rose; just as the

• Fumes do from a Cloth dipped in Aq. fortis and hung up to dry.
• 4. I am told by one who was in the Frigid Zone, that he supplyed himself with fresh Water from the Ice, by digging Pits in it; and the same Person tells me, That he hath observ'd Pieces of Ice 50 Fathom deep, which were not above a tenth Part above Water. He likewise observ'd near the Coast of Greenland, the Variation of the Compass to be 22 Degrees; and a little time after scarce any thing at all. He told me fur∣ther, That sailing in the Main Sea in the Height of 77 Degrees, his Ship was surrounded with Ice 'till the 7th of June; and the Ice opening he fail∣ed through it; Part of it passing along towards Hudson's Streights. And it is observ'd, That these Mountains of Ice much weaken the strength of Winds, insomuch that if they be driven near them by a Storm, the Wind is so much quashed that they immediately find a Calm.

TITLE XVI. Experiments and Observations concerning the Duration of Ice and Snow, and the destroy∣ing of them by the Air and several Liquors.

* 1.17TO discover what Liquors Ice would be soonest dissolved in, we contrived to freeze Water in a long Cylinder; which being loosen'd by applying a warm Hand, we divided some into Pieces ¼ of an Inch long, and others into Inches, and our Experiments being made with these Cylindrical Pieces of Ice:

In the first Tryal.

• 1. In Oyl of Vitriol, a Cylindrical Piece of Ice of an Inch in length lasted 5 Minutes.
• 2. In Spirit of Wine 12 Minutes.
• 3. In Aqua fortis 12 ½.
• 4. In Water 12 Minutes.
• 5. In Oyl of Turpentine about 44 Minutes.
• 6. In Air 64 Minutes.

The second Tryal.

• 1. In Oyl of Vitriol an Inch of Cylindrical Ice lasted undissolv'd 3 Minutes.
• 2. In Spirit of Wine 13 Minutes.
• 3. In Water 26 Minutes.
• 4. In Oyl of Turpentine 47 Minutes.
• 5. In Sallet-Oyl 52 Minutes.
• 6. In Air 152 Minutes.

2. We likewise thought it worth while to try, what difference there would be in the Duration of Pieces of Ice, of the same Bulk and Figure, but of different Liquors; as also whether Attrition would contribute to the Dissolution of Ice, which Iobserv'd it did: Whence it appears, That as the Agents contiguous to Ice are different, they dissolve it's Texture sooner or later, and if Snow or Ice be kept in a Place where neither the Sun nor the Air hath much Influence upon it, it will continue a long time.

An Appendix to the XVI Title.

1. In confirmation of what was said in the Close of this Title, I shall add the following Account of the Italian Conservatories, sent me by my ingenious Friend Mr. J. Evelyn:

The Snow-Pits in Italy, &c. are sunk in the most solitary and cooled Places, commonly at the Foot of some Mountain or elevated Ground, which may best protect them from the Meri∣dional or Occidental Sun; 25 Foot wide at the Orifice, and about 50 deep, is esteemed a competent Proportion. And though this be excavated in a Conical Form, yet it is made flat at the Bottom, or Point. The Sides of the Pit are so joyced, that Boards may be nail∣ed upon them very closely jointed. About a Yard from the Bottom, is fixed a strong Frame or Tresle, upon which lyes a wooden Grate; the Top or Cover is double thatch'd, with Reed or Straw, upon a copped Frame or Roof; in one of the sides whereof is a narrow Door∣case, hipped on like the Top of the Dormer, and thatched—

To Conserve Snow.

They lay clean Straw upon the Grate or Wattle, so as to keep the Snow from running through, whilst they beat it to a hard Cake of an icy Consistence, which is near one Foot thick; upon this they make a layer of Straw, and then Snow, and Straw again; and continue S.S.S. 'till the Pit is full, and then laying Straw

or Reeds upon all, they keep the Door locked. This Grate is so contrived, that the Snow melting by any Accident in laying, or ex∣traordinary Season of Weather, it may drain away from the Mass, and sink without sta∣gnating upon it, which would accelerate the Dissolution; and therefore the Bottom is but very slightly steened, &c.

2. And it hath been observ'd by the Dutch-Men in their Voyage to Nova Zembla, That in June, the Sun was not powerful enough to melt Snow: And even in warmer Climates, where the Reflection of the Sun-beams is not so considera∣ble, Snow continues unthawed all Summer; as upon the Top of the Alps, and other high Moun∣tains. And Capt. James observes, that, in Au∣gust, Ice that was kept in the Sun-beams, conti∣nued unmelted 8 Days or more; and the same Author observes, that the very Ground was fro∣zen in June.

TITLE XVII. Considerations and Experiments concerning the Primum frigidum.

* 1.181. THO several Sects of Philosophers have disputed about a Primum Frigidum, some contending for Earth, others Water, others Air, and another Sect for Nitre; yet I am apt to be∣lieve, That there is no such thing as a Primum Frigidum, or 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, in which that Qua∣lity principally resides, and from whence all o∣ther Bodies derive theirs; no more than that

there is a 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or Principle subject of Residence for any other Quality: For if an in∣tense Degree of Motion amongst the minute Parts of a Body, be sufficient to give it the Qua∣lity of Heat; it may be enough to render a Body cold, that that Motion is diminished upon a remo∣val of its Cause; so that it may be doubted whether Cold be a positive or a privative Quality.

* 1.192. Indeed Plutarch supposes the Earth to be the Summum Frigidum: But we daily see, That it is froze by the contiguous Air communicating Cold to it, and, by the Interposition of another Body, may easily be preserved from that. So the Salt-Works upon the Marshes of the Island Xain∣tonge in France, are preserved from the Dammage the Frost would do them, by letting in Water, by Sluces, to overflow them. Besides, were the Earth the Summum Frigidum, it might justly be wonder'd, why it congeals not the Water conti∣guous to it, sooner than Hail or Snow in the Air? Since Terrene Parts of Matter cannot be brought thither without some Cause able to ele∣vate them, and perhaps to alter the Qualities of them. Not to mention those Vulcano's which argue the Earth to abound with Subterraneal Fires; and that in several Places where there are no such Vulcano's, as in deep Mines, those that work there, find it very hot and troublesome: And in deep Wells, it is observ'd, that the Water is so far from being froze, that it comes up reaking hot; which cannot be supposed to proceed from the Beams of the Sun, since it hath been observ'd by Monsieur de Claves, Livre 11. Chap. 8. That in the Southern Countries the Heat of the Sun penetrates not above six or se∣ven

Foot deep. And the subterraneal Parts are so far from being extremely Cold, That it is observ'd by Miners, That the lower they dig, the more Vapours, exhalations and Heat they find. And Jo. Baptista Morinus, witnesses, That in Mines in Hungary four hundred fa∣thom deep, after the descent of 80 fathom, it is always hot; but whether these may proceed from Subterraneal Fires or a Mixture of other Bodies I shall not determine; since I have seen Bodies actually Cold mix'd together produce Heat. And I am told, That in some Parts of England they dig up a Mineral, which, upon a Addition of Water only, becomes Hot; and for a like reason perhaps those Heats in the Hungarian Mines may be caused: For that Mi∣neral Steams ascend, is evident, since they have been observ'd in a Perpendicular Groave not only to stink••, but by their Corrosive Qualities, to corrode the wooden Ladders. And Morinus himself tells us, That descending into the Gold∣en Mines at Cremnitz, the Heat increased ex∣tremely as he descended; which they attribu∣ted to a Mine of Smaragdine Vitriol, which lay under it; of which kind of Vitriol, there is some, even in the Cold and Superficial Regi∣on of the Earth.

3. But if against what hath been said it should be alledged, That by the Primum Frigidum they only mean some Earth Mixed with the com∣mon Parts of the Terrestrial Globe, I should be glad to know, how we must discover this. But tho' I have brought these Arguments against this common received Notion; I cannot agree with Gassendus, who thinks, that the Earth is

no more Cold than Hot: Since it being natu∣rally a Body whose Parts are inclined to rest; it, without the assistance of some Extrinsick A∣gent to put it's Parts in Motion, must conse∣quently affect our Sensory with a greater degree of Coldness, than Air or Water, whose Parts are more Agitated.

4. And if those that argue for the Earth's being the Primum Frigidum, had only urged that it was the Summum Frigidum,* 1.20 I could have more easily agreed with them: Since, in the Straits of Weigats, the Seas are froze; but not in the Northern Seas, nor that of Tartary; for the main Seas never freeze, but only near the Land, where it is much Colder than in the Ocean.

* 1.215. It is the Opinion of Aristotle, and the Schools, That Water is the Primum Frigidum; but in all Waters that are Froze by Cold we always see, they begin at the top, where the Air is Contiguous; which argues the Air Cold∣er than the Water, since it congeals it: Where∣as if Water was the Coldest Body, it ought al∣ways Naturally to be Froze, or to begin to freeze, rather in the middle than at the top, and rather in the main Ocean than in Gulfs, Straits and small Rivers: For it is observ'd, That those vast heaps of Ice that float in the Sea, and which we have so often mention'd, depend not on the Penetration of Cold to that depth they sometime sink to; but vast pieces of Ice being gathered together from the shore and small Rivers, and cemented together, de∣press each other by their own weight; upon

which, the falling Snow, gradually increases their Bulk.

6. But tho' I am far from taking Water to be the Primum Frigidum; yet I cannot agree with Gassendus, who thinks it indifferent as to Heat and Cold: For except where some adven∣titious cause Concurs, the Parts of Water being less Agitated than the Humors about our Sen∣sory, by it, we must adjudge it Cold. And tho' by the Heat of the Sun the superficial Parts of the Water are a little warmer; yet all Di∣vers Unanimously agree, That it is Colder, at the depth of a few Fathoms. Besides it is ob∣serv'd in warm Regions to be much warmer at Land than Sea, and those Countries that lye near the Sea are generally cooler. But as Cold as it is there, they don't find, That it is able to congeal the Water, tho' at the top it is of∣ten Froze.

* 1.227. By the Stoicks and many of the modern Philosophers, the Air is looked upon to be the Primum Frigidum. Yet considering how great a Part of it lies under the Torrid Zone, and that it is for the most Part very Hot, and like∣wise, that Water enclosed in a Mixture of Snow and Salt will freeze at the bottom and not where it is contiguous to the Air; I say, considering these things, it will appear, That the Air is so far from being the Primum Frigi∣dum, That it is not the Summum Frigidum. Besides Air condensed to the utmost degree it was possible by the Coldness of the Air; and shut up in a convenient Glass, hath been con∣densed further by the Application of other Bodies: Whence it appears, that the Coldness

of the Air depends on the Mixture of some frigorifick Corpuscles with it, and not on the Spe∣cifick Texture of it's own Parts. Besides, Wa∣ter may be Froze when inclosed in Substances not apt to freeze, and when the Air is not Contiguous to it.

* 1.238. The next Opinion I shall consider is, That of the learned Gassendus, who ascribes the frigorifick Virtue of Bodies to the admixture of Nitre: But tho' I allow Nitre to be a sub∣stance dispersed through most Bodies; yet, since Cold is only a Privative Quality and an ab∣sence of Heat; there are other Agents, which, by stopping the motion of the Insensible Parts of a Body, may deprive it of it's power of Heating. Besides, it must be a prodigious Quan∣tity of Nitre, That would be able to render every Part of the Sea so Cold as it is found to be; rot to mention, That Nitre is scarce ever found so deep in the Earth as some Seas extend; besides the Seas afford us very little Salt-Petre, but a great deal of common Salt.

9. And tho' Gassendus asserts, That Bodies receive the Impressions of Cold, from Ni∣trous Exhalations swimming in the Air; yet amongst all the Experiments I have made, to resolve Nitre into Vapours, I have not found, that it was able to effect more in the Production of Cold, than other Saline Bodies. And Spirit of Nitre is so far from having an actual Coldness greater than other Bodies, That it is potentially Hot. And whether the Exhalations of Nitre will congeal Water or not; Spirit of Nitre, I have observ'd, will dis∣solve Ice, as soon almost as Spirit of Wine:

And tho' Nitre mix'd with Snow or Ice may promote Congelation; yet it proves not that the Parts of Nitre are frigorifick; since the Ex∣periment will succeed with Spirit of Wine.

10. Having said, thus much of Gassendus his Opinion, we shall in the next place, propose some Experiments; which will be a further Confirmation of what we have been say∣ing.

11. Rock-Petre and Ice, being put into a Bottle, congeal'd the Vapours on the outside; but pieces of Salt-Petre laid upon Plates of Ice dissolv'd it. Water being satiated with Salt-Petre, and exposed to the Cold in a Bottle, broke it; several Chrystals of Salt-Petre having shot in the Bottom of it. From these Experi∣ments it appears, That there are Colder Bo∣dies than Salt-Petre, and that it dissolves Ice, and it is rather Hot than Cold in respect of Ice.

12. On a windy and a cloudy Day, having suspended a Weather-Glass in Water satiated with Salt-Petre we observ'd, That when it had stood a considerable time, and was raised by the string up into the Air, the Liquor contain∣ed in it was raised about 2 divisions; and being again immersed in the solution of Nitre, it was presently raised; so that the Air was Colder, than the solution of Nitre.

13. But to conclude this Title; tho' I am far from thinking Nitre to be the Summum Fri∣gidum; yet I doubt not, but that Parts of it ri∣sing from the Earth in the form of Vapours, may contribute to the refrigeration of the Air. Not but that there are several other Bodies in

the Bowels of the Earth, whose Effluvia being mix'd with the Air and dispersed through it, may cool the Air according to their Propor∣tions, as much as Nitre: Besides, since common, Salt co-operates with Snow in the Production of Ice as well as Salt-Petre, and according to Democritus, hath Parts of a Cubical figure, which he assigns to Cold Atoms: And since Gassendus observes, That Salt-Petre consists of Parts not altogether so apt for the production of Cold; these Figures being not Pyramidal but Prismati∣cal; I say, since these Circumstances all concur, I see no reason, why common Salt may not be numbred amongst those Bodies, that are apt to produce Cold.

14. Nay, sometimes it may happen, That more violent degrees of Cold may be caused by a like Coalition of several sorts of Salts. So the Coldness of Snow is advanced by a Mixture of Nitre or common Salt, or other appropriated Additaments. But I must con∣fess, That it is a doubt with me, whether Cold depends on any such saline Exhalations, or the Effects of frigorifick Atoms; but to pass by this Scruple at present without any further Notice: I shall add, that what I have said upon this Title is not so much to confute what Opi∣nions I have mention'd, as to shew, that they are Doubtful.

One Particular referrable to the XVII. Title.

I am told by the Russian Emperor's Physitian, That in the Northern Province of Russia; the Earth is thaw'd but the depth of two foot, and yet good Corn grows upon it.

TITLE XVIII. Experiments and Observations touching the Coldness and Temperature of the Air.

* 1.241. THO' Gassendus and several others as∣sert, That the Air is Indifferent as to Cold and Heat; yet since Cold is only a Re∣lative Quality, and since the Parts of the Air, are of themselves in a less degree of Agitation, than the Humors about our Sensory; I see no reason why it should not be esteemed Cold: For notwithstanding it may acquire a conside∣rable degree of Heat by the adventitious Effects of the Sun-Beams, or fire; yet we see, that it naturally tends to coolness it self again. And as for the Coldness of the Air, tho' I deny not but that frigorifick Atoms may be mixed with it; yet I judge them not absolutely or al∣together requisite to the Production of Cold; since a bare Diminution of the motion of it's Parts, is sufficient to produce such a Quality in higher or more remiss degrees.

2. But the Principal intent of this Section being to produce Experiments and Observations;

I shall begin with the former. A sealed Weather-Glass with Spirit of Wine in it, being en∣closed in a Cylindrical Receiver, when the Air in the Receiver was exhausted, it subsided the length of a Barly-corn; but rose again when the Air was let in again; which Effects I attributed to the Expansion of the Included Air, when the External was drawn out. When the Air was drawn out of the Receiver, hot Bodies Exter∣nally applyed, affected not the Weather-Glass; but when the Air was let in again they caused the Spirit to rise sensibly.

3. To measure the Condensation of the Air by Cold, we made the following Experiments. And, First we enclosed Air in Weather-glasses hermetically sealed; which, when it was artifi∣cially or naturally refrigerated, and the Apex of the Weather-glass broke open, we could not discern, by the Water it received, that it was condensed above a 30th Part of it's former di∣mensions. A Glass-egg being inverted into Salt Water, in a Cold Night, the Air was so far condensed in it, That the Water rose five Inches in the Stem. And Jan. 29 the Air ex∣tended into 2057 Spaces was in a frosty Night contracted to 1965 Spaces. So that the great∣est degree of Condensation we could observe was a 22 Part and a little above a third. But a Mixture of Snow and Salt being applied to the Elliptical Part of the Glass, the Water rose 4 Inches higher than in the former Experiment; and the Air was contracted from 1965 Spaces to 1860; so that the Artificial Cold contracted is more in respect of the Contraction, which the natural Cold produced, than That Condensation

was in Proportion to it's natural temper or ra∣ther a moderate degree of Coldness.

4. But to proceed to Observations: Cold may hinder the Operation of the Sun upon the Air in the middle of Summer; and I am told, That it hath been observed to Snow in Green∣land all Mid-summer Night, and in the North∣ern Parts of Muscovy it hath been observed, That severe Frosts happened in the close of Au∣gust. And further, Capt. Weymouth says, That in the midst of Summer, when they sailed not near the Latitude of Nova Zembla, their ve∣ry sails and Tackling were froze: To which we shall add, that the English when they were sailing to Cherry-Island, which lyes betwixt 74 and 75 degrees Latitude; in July it froze so hard, that the Ice hung upon their Cloaths.

5. As for the degrees of Cold in the Air, Dr. Fletcher tells us, that in Russia, if they go out of a warm Room into the Cold, it makes them Breath with difficulty. It is observ'd at Moscow, That Water thrown up into the Air falls down congealed, the Air is so Cold; and at Smolensko in Russia, the Spittle freezes before it can fall from one's Mouth to the Ground.

6. I have observ'd the Air grows sensibly heavier, in frosty Weather; but whether it depends on any frigorifick Atoms dispersed through the Air, or not, I shall leave to be de∣cided by further Tryals. In Northern Countries it is observ'd, That foggy Weather presently vanishes when Frost begins; the moist Vapours being, by that, condensed and precipitated, and the Surface of the Earth so closed up, that other Vapours were repressed, and kept from rising;

and the Air hath been by several observ'd to have been much more clear in the Winter, here in England, and Sweedland, and elsewhere, than at other times.

7. The Refraction of Luminaries in the Nor∣thern Air in Nova Zembla is so great, that the Dutch-Men observ'd the Sun to appear to them 14 Days sooner than it ought to have done. And Capt. James tells us, That he observ'd the Lati∣tude of Charlton-Island to vary 52 Minutes, and the Sun to rise 20 Minutes sooner than it ought to rise: Besides several Instances of Refraction, laid down in the History of the Air.

8. To what we have said, of the Coldness of the Air; we shall subjoyn the Relations and Observations of Navigators, which we shall either propose as promiscuous, or in Con∣firmation of the three following Observati∣ons.

1. That the greater or lesser Coldness of the Air in several Climates and Countries, is nothing near so regularly proportionate to their Respective distances, from the Pole or their Vicinity to the E∣quator as Men are wont to presume. It hath been observ'd, That of Places of an equal distance from the Northern and Southern Poles, those near the latter are Colder. Tho' in Moscow, the Cold is almost intolerable; yet in Edenburgh, which is a degree more Northwards, the Air is temperate enough, and the Snow seldom lies on the Ground. Mr. Pool in his Northern Voyage tells us, That it did not freeze near so hard near the 79th degree as in the 73d. And tho' Nova Zembla, lies near 4, 5 and 6 de∣grees more Southerly from the Pole than Green∣land,

yet the latter hath Grass and Trees and such Beasts as feed upon them; whereas in No∣va Zembla there is no Grass and only such Beasts as feed on Flesh. To which I shall add, That Josephus Acosta tells us, That under the Line, when the Sun was in the Zenith and just entred into Aries, in March, he felt himself ve∣ry Cold; and he likewise tells us, That under the Burning Zone in Quitto and the Plains of Peru the Air is temperate; at Potofi very Cold; and in Aethiopia, Brasile and the Moluccoes ve∣ry Hot. And he observes further, That Snow lyes on the tops of the Hills, and that it is ex∣tremely Cold, when the Sun is for their Zenith under the Line. Mr. Hudson in his Voyage hath observed, That one Day, they were much disturbed with Ice; and that the next Day, it was very Hot: And we are further in∣formed by Acosta, That tho' the Seas of Mo∣zambigus and Ormus in the East, and Panama in the West, are very Hot; yet that of Peru of the same height is very Cold. And Capt. James's Observes, That tho' Charlton-Island is Cold∣er than Nova Zembla, yet is it of the same La∣titude with Cambridge. To which I shall sub∣joyn, That an English Navigator tells us, That tho' Pustozera in Russia is 68 ½ degrees, yet it is well inhabited, and a Town of great Trade. And in Hudson's Voyage it was observed, that beyond 80 degrees they found it moderately warm.

2. The next Observation is, That the degree both of Heat and Cold in the Air may be much greater in the same Climate, and the same Place,

at several seasons of the year, or even at several times of the same Day, than most Men would believe.

In Proof of this Proposition we shall produce the following Testimonies of Travellers and of Navigators. And 1. That there is a great variety Weather in Russia, Dr. Fletcher witnesses, who observes, that tho' all Winter the Ground is covered with Snow and the Fields frozen up; yet the Fields in the Summer are covered with flowers and filled with the delightful noise of Birds; and then the Weather is as much too Hot, as it was before Cold; June, July and August being warmer than the Summer in Eng∣land: And the like is confirmed by the Obser∣vations of others, amongst whom Olearius tells us, that at Moscow he saw Melons of 40 Pound weight better than those in Italy.

And at Pequin, the Royal City of China, tho' it is but 42 degrees Latitude; yet in the Win∣ter, Martinius the Jesuit tells, us it is a hard frost for four Months together, so that all the Rivers are froze up. And Prosper Alpinus tells us, that Grand Cairo, which is only 6 degrees from the Tropick of Cancer, tho' the Summers are insupportably Hot; yet the Winters are considerably Cold: And one thing he there takes notice of is, That in that Place they are seldom or never troubled with Distillations or Rheums. And Purchase tells us, That in Green∣land one Day will be extremely Cold and the next as violent Hot; so that at Mid-night Tobac∣co may be lighted at the Sun-beams, by the help of a Glass: To which Relations I shall add, That Capt. James tells us, That in Charlton-Island,

tho' the Winter was excessive Cold; yet in June it was so Hot, with Thunder and Light∣ning, That the Men were forced to go a shore to cool themselves in the Water.

Alpinus tells us likewise, that in Aegypt the Air is some part of the Day extremely Hot and at other times very temperate and cool. And O∣learius tells us, That travelling over Mount Tau∣rus in Persia; tho' it was too Hot in the Day for them to proceed in their Journey; yet at Night they were so benummed with the Cold, That they were scarce able to light off their Horses; and the same Traveller observ'd at Fallu in Per∣sia both Lightning and Thunder, Winds, Snow, Rain and Ice, in one Night. And in Charlton-Island tho' the Heat of the Sun in June be insup∣portable in the Day; yet at Night, the Cold is strong enough to freeze Water, in Vessels, an Inch thick.

3. The third Observation is, That in many Places the Temperature of the Air, as to Cold and Heat, seems not to depend so much on the Eleva∣tion of the Pole, as upon the Nature and Circum∣stances of the Winds that Blow there.

It is commonly known, That in this Part of the World, Northerly and North-easterly Winds are accompained with Cold, and in Winter with Frost: But I once observ'd here in England a South-Wind when it froze hard; and Capt. James in his Voyage hath observ'd the like: And Prosper Alpinus observes in Ae∣gypt, That the North-Winds are extraordina∣ry cooling; and that upon the Blowing of the Aetesian Winds the Plague ceases, at Grand Cairo.

That this cooling Quality depends on the changes it receives from the Places it passes over, is highly probable, as well as that it ac∣quires other Qualities the like way. Acosta Lib. 3. Cap. 9. Takes notice of Winds, That, in some Parts of the Indies, so corrode Iron-gates, That they will crumble away in one's Fingers. And the same Author tells us, That tho' in Spain an Easterly-wind is Hot and troubles one; yet in Murria, it is Cold and healthful; but in Carthagena not far from the former Place, it is troublesome and unhealth∣ful. The Meridional (which they of the Ocean call South, and those of the Mediterranean Sea, Mezzo Giorno) is commonly Rainy and Boyste∣rous; and in the same City, I speak of, it is wholesome and pleasant. And in Peru, he says, the South and South-west-winds are very plea∣sing.

How the Winds come by these Qualities I shall not now dispute; but to give some light into the matter I shall propose the following Experiment.

Setting a Weather-Glass with a flat Basis up∣on a Board, and Blowing several times upon it with a large pair of Bellows, tho' the Air seem∣ed Cold to my Hand; yet the Pendulous drop ascended a little, the Air being a little heated in the Bellows: But if the Clack of the Bellows was so fastned, That the Air must wholly en∣ter in at the Nose of it; the stream of Air, which was by that means drawn toward the Weather-Glass from the Window, being cooler, would cause the Bubble to subside.

But having provided such a Tile as they lay on the ridges of Houses and filled the hollow side with a Mixture of Snow and Salt, and Part of that Mixture being placed about the Bellows; I found, That the Air blown upon my Hand was, by that means, highly refrigerated: And this Air be∣ing blown upon the Ball of a common Weather-Glass, the Water manifestly ascended; but subsided again, when we left off blowing. But to prosecute the Tryal, we drew back the Nose of the Bellows, and upon that, the Wind blowing along that Cavity upon the Weather-Glass, manifested a higher degree of Cold∣ness.

But tho' it from hence appears, That frigori∣fick Atoms may refrigerate the Air; yet I be∣lieve not, that all Winds must necessarily be cooled so; since the Cold Air near the Poles swimming upon that which fills the lower Part of the Atmosphere, may, for want of a Reflecti∣on of the Sun-Beams, be so Cold, as to cool the Air suddenly, when by the falling of Rain it is beat down upon us: For Acosta hath observ'd, upon Mountains higher than the Alps, That the Air was extremely Cold. And the Hollan∣ders who failed within 17 degrees of the Pole observ'd, That their Cold Winds were chiefly Northerly and North-easterly. But,

To conclude this Title, I shall add an in∣stance or two to shew, That Cold Winds re∣ceive not so much their Qualities from the Quarters from whence they Blow, as from the Regions over which they pass. For Mr. Wood tells us, That tho' in England the most troublesome and unwholesome Winds

came from the Sea; yet in New-England those are the most wholesome: Because the North-east-wind coming from the Sea thaws the Ice and melts the Snow; but the North-west-wind coming over the Land causes Cold. And Capt. James observ'd the like in Charlton-Island, viz. That the South-wind was Coldest which came over a frozen Tract of Land.

Particulars referrable to the XVIII Title.

• 1. The little sealed Weather-Glass being immersed in Water, contained in a Glass-Vial greased in the inside, when the Water was froze, and the Ball of the Weather-Glass was incrustated, being taken out, the Ice was broke off: Upon which the Tinged Liquor immedi∣ately rose in the shank of the Weather-Glass; but presently subsided again below the former Mark; from whence it appears, That the Air may communicate a greater degree of Cold than Ice it self.
• 2. Having placed a Weather-Glass, made by the Standard at Gresham-College, in a Cel∣lar, where Beer continued unfroze in a very sharp Winter; last Night and this Morning the Tinged Liquor stood 2 Divisions and ⅛ above the freezing Mark; but being removed into the Garden, it subsided to the freezing Mark: But tho' the Cellar was warmer than the Air; yet it was not so warm as my Chamber; the Weather-Glass there standing two Inches above the freezing Mark, in the Morning before the fire was made; and in the Summer the Tinged

• Spirit ascended to the 8th 9th and sometimes almost to the tenth Mark.
• 3. The last Night being rendered very Cold by Snow, Frost and Wind; this Morning, the Weather-Glass being removed into the Garden, the Tinged Spirit subsided two Divisions be∣low the freezing Mark: Yet the Cellar did not become so much Hotter, by an 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉; but that Oyl of Aniseeds continued undissolv'd in it till, the next Morning, tho' the mode∣rate warmth of Spring or Autumn is sufficient to keep it fluid.
• 4. A Weather-Glass being held in the Stream of Water as it came reaking Hot out of the Pump, the Liquor subsided considerably; and being carried to my Chamber, the Air there being Colder than the Water, it was depressed lower.
• 5. Having held a Weather-Glass in the reaking stream of Pump-Water, the Spirit rose about 5 Inches higher than it did at a Well in Oxford; and being in some measure immersed in a Spring that usually smoaks in the Winter, it was raised a little higher. And the Weather-Glass being placed on the North side of the House about Noon, I found that the temper of the Air then, was much the same with the temper of the smoaking Spring.
• 6. Feb. 19. The Frost having continued 3 Days, the Spirit was raised as high, by the warmth of the Spring as it used to be. The next Day the Spring beginning to smoak, the warmth of the Water raised the Spirit near a quarter of an Inch higher than it used to rise at the

• Spring-head some Months ago. And the Water was then much warmer than the Air, for the Spirit when brought to my Chamber subsided; the Ground without being covered with a lit∣tle Snow
• 7. A Gentleman told me, That he had ob∣serv'd the Tinged Spirit sometimes higher, when it was frosty, than when it was not. And he further told me, That the Weather-Glass being left in Water till it was froze, when it was cleared of the Ice and exposed to the Air, the Spirit manifesty subsided. The size of the Ball of this Weather-Glass was as big as that of a large Crab, and the Stem was a∣bout 2 foot and ½ long. And the distance be∣twixt the station which the Spirit rested at in the Water and the Air was above three Inches.

A Relation given me by an Ingenious Gentleman lately returned out of Poland.

1. In frosty clear Weather, he observ'd the Sun and two Parhelions one Eastward and the other Westward; betwixt ten and twelve a Clock; and when the Sun-shine appeared it was full of glit∣tering Particles of Ice.

2. A Dutch and a Scotch Ship having sailed beyond Greenland, within one degree of the Pole, they observed, That tho' there were vast Regions of Ice near the shores; yet near the Pole, the Sea was open and free enough. From the North-East they observ'd, That there came a great rolling Sea, not unlike the Spanish Seas: And that the Cold was no violenter than that in Greenland. And further they observ'd,

That sailing from Greenland, the Compass first varied a Point and then two, and when they came near the Pole, the Compass varied 4 Points, and that towards the East.

The Captain likewise told me, That they are troubled at Sea, sometimes with thick Fogs, some of which last half a Day, others a Day; and others a whole Day.

And he likewise told me, That lying at An∣chor near Bellsound on the coast of Greenland, near a very high Rock, he and some others got to the top of it; which they judged to be half a Mile high: And when they came there; they found the Weather clear and the Sky serene, and so Hot that they were forced to strip them∣selves: But below they could discern a thick fogg; which when they came down, they found was very Cold, and Dark.

A Passage taken out of the Czars-Doctor's Letter.

• 1. At Vologda in the North-East from Mos∣cow we found the Cold Weather in December not to last 3 Days; but the Rain was unusual and dangerous. And for 30 years past the Win∣ters have been so moderate, That People are not froze on the Roads in several Postures; but sometimes they lose their Noses, and have their Faces froze.
• 2. The Warmer the Room is in the Day, the thicker the Hoar is at Night upon the Glass; being sometimes an Inch thick: And if it be a small Frost, The Nails of the Windows and Doors will be tipped with Frost. The Falconers say. That the Birds creep under the Snow at

• Nights. Bears make themselves Caves against Winter, and I remember I kept one two Days without meat or drink; he in the mean time, making a Lather with his Tongue and sucking his Paws.
• 3. A Wind from the Sea causes a Thaw as well as at Archangel. The Air is so healthful they use very little Physick, so that the Poor∣er sort live 80 or 100 years old.

TITLE XIX. Of the strange Effects of Cold

* 1.25THE Dutch tell us, That they found it so Cold in Nova Zembla that when their Sheets were washed and hung to dry by a fire, one side would freeze as the other thawed, and that they themselves were so Cold, That they could not warm themselves by the fire; for they usually smelt their stockings burn, be∣fore they were sensible of the Heat. And Capt. James tells us, That in Charlton-Island, the one side of Water in a Vessel froze, whilst the other was next the fire. To these Relati∣ons I shall add, That Marcus Polus was told, That on a Plain, which was betwixt two of the highest Hills in the World; fire would nei∣ther burn so briskly, nor boil things so effect∣ually as in other Places; which I am the more unwilling to reject as impossible: Because if Snow and Ice owe their Coldness to some∣thing which reigns in the Air, Nature may make

the Air as Cold in any other Northern Climates; Saline Expirations being every where disper∣sed through the Earth and Sea. And this Cold is so violent, that Water being poured on a stool and a Tankard placed upon it; by a Mix∣ture of Snow and Salt, the Tankard will be so frozen to the stool, That the one being lift up, raises the other along with it.

2. Gerat de Veer, says, That if they put a Nail into their Mouth it would be froze, and bring Blood along with it when taken away. And Dr. Fletcher tells us, That in Muscovy, if one hold a Pot in ones Hand; being froze to it, it will pull off the skin at Parting. And in No∣va Zembla, it hath been observed to be so Cold, That it froze Salt Water two Inches thick.

3. In the Market-Place at Moscow, Olearius tells us, That the extreme Cold caused a Clift a foot broad and several Inches long; and that considerable Clifts will be made by the Cold, I am inform'd by others: And the Dutch in Nova Zembla acquaint us, That the Ground was so froze, that they were not able to thaw it by burning Wood upon it.

4. As for the Effects of Cold on compound Bodies, &c. That it will freeze Beer, Ale, Vinegar, Oyl, common Wine, and even Sack and Alicant we have already shewn; and that it hath considerable Effects on Wood, Bricks, Stone, Vessels of Glass, Earth, and even Pew∣ter and Iron themselves. To which I shall add, That tho' Cold preserves some Plants; yet an excessive degree of it destroys them.

5. Capt. James tells us, That he found the Cold when at the highest degree insupportable; and Olearius acquaints us, that sometimes the Cold in Muscovy is so excessive, That neither motion nor Cloaths resist the ill Effects of it; but in Moscow the Air is very good and healthly, the Plague very seldom happening there. And Dr. Fletcher tells us, That in Russia it is so Cold sometimes, That People fall Dead in the Streets, and that the Bears and Wolves in∣vade and Plunder the Towns in whole Troops. And the Effects of Cold have been found so strange sometimes, That it hath caused Blisters to rise, not only upon the Hands and Face but their Arms and Legs: Besides these Instances, Capt. James tells us, That their Cloaths would be covered over with Frost, and Iceicles would so hang to their Hair, That he was forced to shave his Head and Face, that they might have nothing to hang at. And Purchas says, That their very shoes would be covered over with a Hoar-Frost on the inside, so that they were not able to wear them. And I am told, That an Army of 40000 of the Turks all perished at once by excessive Cold. I am also inform'd, That a Province of Poland, of the same height of the Pole with Normandy, is subject to some sort of Colds, which occasion a pecu∣liar kind of Sickness and at other times Death. And Cancerous Sores are as fatal as those caused by Hot corroding Humours; and those that dye of the Cold, either are seized with a drow∣ziness and Coldness of the Extreme Parts, and dye in a sleep, or having their Guts and Reins first froze and then Gangre∣ed

and Mortified, vomit every thing they take, and then languish with violent pain and Dye; and their Bodies being opened, their Guts are black, and as if it were glewed to∣gether.

6. What effects Cold hath upon other Ani∣mals, hath not been much observ'd by Authors: But a French Author tells us, That the Cold in Ʋkrain as the Polanders call it, is sometimes so great, That it destroys Horses and some o∣ther tame Beasts. And the same Author men∣tions a four-footed Creature, called Bohack, pe∣culiar to that Province, one of which being dug out of the Ground where he was froze, (for they usually hide themselves there in the Win∣ter) when they were about to flea him, the sense of Pain recovered him; and this was present∣ed to a Polish Lord from whom I had the Rela∣tion.

7. It is reported, That in the Northern Countries, the Birds and wild Beasts are usual∣ly turned white: But tho' I don't wholly re∣ject it as false; yet I cannot believe it univer∣sally true. But this is certain, That good Au∣thors mention, white Bears and Foxes in No∣va Zembla, and white Partridges upon the Snowy Alps; and I have heard of white Pheasants in Savoy. What may be the Reason of this Co∣lour I shall not dispute, nor shall I determine, whether it be caused by any seminal Impressions, or the Imagination of the Females, who have Snow always as an Object before them: But that all Beasts and Fowls in the Northern Cli∣mates are of that white colour I find is a Mistake; for I have seen Deers skins brought from Green∣land

of a Dun colour. Yet one thing which is very strange is, That in Greenland and Livonia Hares become white in the Winter, and return to their Natural colour again in the Summer. And Capt. James tells us, of Foxes in Green∣land which are pied black and white.

Particulars referrable to the XIX Title.

• 1. Lieutenant G. Drummon told me, That at Smolensco, the Barrels of Beer, being frozen a considerable thickness; the Liquor contained within was much stronger.
• 2. Two Swedish Ambassadors confirmed to me, That the Hares in Muscovy, change from their Natural colour to white in the Winter, and recover their own colour in the Summer; and that on one side the River Duna which separates Livonia and Muscovy, the Hares are white, and on the other side of ordinary colours.
• 3. It is observ'd in Russia, That if a Man, touches his Tongue with the Metalline Head of a Cane, it freezes his tongue immediately; so that he cannot separate it without much Pain: For the Parts of the Metal being at rest, and the Spittle whose Parts are in a weak Mo∣tion, striking against the Metalline Body, are wholly deprived of it, and consequently freeze. So in a Billiard-Table one Bowl in Motion stri∣king against another not in Motion, communi∣cates as much of it's Motion as it can to the other, and loses it's own; and so the Vapours and steams in a Room, in frosty Weather striking against the Glass-Windows, are de∣prived

• of their Motion and froze, which is ob∣serv'd to be much thicker upon the Glass in Russia than here in England.

A Note out of Martinius in his account of China.

This Author tells us, That at Peking, tho' the Pole be not elevated above 42 degrees; yet for four Months together, from the mid∣dle of November, the Rivers are froze in one Day, so that they bear Coaches and Hor∣ses.

A Note taken out of Martinius Cromerus his Polonia.

The Cold is so violent in these Countries sometimes, That the Trees wither at the Roots, and Water is froze as it falls through the Air; and the Waters are froze up for two Months, so that they bear Horses loaden, and Coaches. And this Author tells us, That he passed over the Weisell in Massovia with a Coach and Hors∣es, and other Horse-Men. And in Prussia the Fishing in the Ice began after the beginning of November, and lasted till March was en∣ded.

Another Note out of the same.

1. They catch Fish more commodiously in Winter than Summer; for breaking holes in se∣veral Places in the Ice, a Net being cast into one of them, and ropes fastned to it, Men with

Poles, and Horses, draw the Net from one Place to another.

2. I am told that at Warsaw, in twelve Hours the Water was froze 4 Inches downwards. One that sailed to make Discoveries beyond the Arct∣ick Circle, told me, He could eat as much in one Day, as in ten here; and that after they had sailed over a deep blew Sea, they came to one as black as Ink, which being sounded, it was above 70 Fathom. Sack being froze, and thaw∣ed again, presently lost its Vigour.

3. In these Parts the Frost penetrates the Ground five Foot; and the Ice in Iberia in the River Ob, is said to be a Fathom and a half thick; there being there but twelve Weeks in the whole Year without Frost: The Rivers have breathing places a Mile long, out of which Fumes ascend, as out of a Cellar, when the Door is open'd. Death by Cold is not painful, if it be intense. Cold dries excessively, cleaves the Earth, and causes Timber to crack.

TITLE XX. Experiments concerning the Weight of Bodies frozen and unfrozen.

* 1.261. TO try whether Bodies upon freezing would grow heavier, since Epicurus and other Atomists, suppose Congelation to depend upon the crowding in of frigorifick Atoms; we exposed Eggs to be froze all Night, and in the Morning we found they had lost four Grains of their Weight, which we suspected to proceed

from the Avolition of some Exhalations through the Shell; since at other times we observ'd, That Eggs counterpoised lost eight Grains of their Weight, in some process of Time.

2. Water froze and weighed, counterpois'd a Grain and a little more, than when it was thawed: But the Experiment being made in a Glass with a long Stem, hermetically seal'd when the Water was froze; it was as heavy or heavier after it was thawed; and the same Equa∣lity of Weight betwixt frozen and unfrozen Water, happened in other Experiments.

3. Stones being weighed after exposed to the cold Air, and also in a warm Air, they seemed to discover an Increase of Weight; but I suspe∣cted it proceeded from Water imbibed into their Pores, since Stones are observ'd to increase their Weight in Water: And further, because one that was well polished, and not apt to im∣bibe Water, retain'd barely its own Weight. So that the Doctrine of the Epicurean Freezing, must be invalid, except he supposes the frigori∣fick Atoms, like those of a Load-stone, to be without Weight.

An Appendix to the XX Title.

The fore-going Experiments, may not only satisfie us, That the Doctrine of the Epicureans is erroneous, but may likewise help us to cor∣rect some extravagant Relations, on the other Hand: For Helmont tells us, That Water thaw∣ed in a Vessel Hermetically sealed, was ⅛ heavi∣er than before. But perhaps this Difference might in part depend on the Access of Vapors

on the outside the Glass. In opposition to what Manalphus tells us, I found, That Water froze in a Metalline Porringer, in one Experiment lost 50, in another 60 Grains of its Weight; which I attributed to an Avolition of some Parts of the Water, since when we order'd the Mat∣ter so, that no Water could steam out, there was no considerable Increase or Decrease in the Weight of Water froze or thawed.

Particulars referrable to the XX Title.

• 1. Quick-silver being weighed in the Air, and afterwards counterpoised in Water, when by the application of a Mixture of Snow and Salt, it began to freeze; the Bubble weighed ¾ of a Grain less than before. A Globe of Snow rammed into a Mould, whose Diameter was an Inch, weighed 112 Grains. A Globe of Ice of the same Diameter weighed, 2 Drams, and 5 Grains.
• 2. After a long Frost and Snow, the Liquor in the gaged Weather-glass stood below the first Mark; but the Mercury in the Baroscope stood at near 2/•• below 29 Inches; which perhaps might be attributed to the high Wind.
• 3. Four Ounces of Snow being counter poised were exposed to the Frost all Night, and at 10 or 11 in the Morning, had lost near 30 Grains, which Parts seemed to have been evaporated; the melted Liquor in the Bottom of the Scale a∣mounting to no more than 8 Grains.
• 4. Two Ounces of Snow depressed flat, so as to form a large Superficies, and counterpoised, in a Night's time, lost 55 Grains; no Water be∣ing

• found in the Scale; and two Hours after, the Decrement was 63 Grains, none of the Snow appearing yet to be melted.

TITLE XXI. Promiscuous Experiments and Observations concerning Cold.

* 1.271. SEveral Flowers being gathered in Decem∣ber and January, and hastily smel••ed 〈◊〉〈◊〉 had no sensible effect on the Sensory, whic•• Phaenomenon I attributed to the Frost, hindring a sufficient Quantity of spirituous Sap from ri∣sing up into them; and not that it prevented those spirituous Parts from emitting Effluvia; since a vigorous fresh Primrose, had an Odour genuine and sweet.

2. Rose-water being froze, when it was whol∣ly Ice, afforded a genuine Scent, but something fainter, than when it was thawed again; but in making these Experiments it is requisite, that the Body smelt at, should not be held too long near the Nose, lest the warmth of one's Face should help to excite those Odoriferous Parts, and consequently frustrate the Tryal.

3. Stinking Water being exposed to the Cold and froze, was altogether inodorous.

4. It is reported by several, and attested by Olearius, That the Russians and Livonians, en∣able themselves to bear Cold extremely, by go∣ing out of their Store naked, immediately in∣to cold Water, and even Ice it self.

5. Having made use of a good burning-Glass to concentre the Rays of the Moon, I could nei∣ther perceive them cold or hot; tho' Sanctorius tells us, That they are hot, and that being con∣centred, and cast upon the Ball of a common Weather-glass, the Water was sensibly depres∣sed; but since my Glass, for as much as I can gather from the Narrative, was better than his, I must suspend my Assent, 'till further satisfied by Experience; for since he tells us, that seve∣ral of his Scholars stood by to watch the Event, the Effect might in a great measure depend on the Warmth of their Breath.

One Particular referrable to the XXI Title.

The Samojedes cloath themselves with Renes Skins, the Hair being outward; and I have found a Pair of Cangies warmer than furred Gloves. They are chiefly made use of for the Sledge, tho' one may walk in the Snow with them, it being so dry, that a Scarlet being co∣vered all over with it, it will brush off without wetting or endammaging it.

To the XI Title.

* 1.281. The Barrel of a Gun which was about a Foot long, and of a proportionable Diameter, had the Touch-hole riveted up, and a Screw fitted to the Nose of the Barrel, which being done, it was filled full of Water, and suspended in a Perpendicular Line: The Screw having been thrust down as forcibly as a Man could; in a frosty Night, the congealed Ice raised the Screw

considerably, so that Ice had made it's way out at the sides of the Barrel: But the Experiment being repeated, and the Intervals of the Screw filled up with melted Bees-wax, the expanded Ice not being able to raise it, the Nose of the Barrel was cracked obliquely; besides several o∣ther Flaws in other Places, which gave way to the Wind blown into the Barrel to try it.

An Appendix to the XVII Title.

* 1.29Bartholinus citeing an Experiment, wherein the Proportion betwixt Nitre and Water was 35 to 100; to try the success of it, we mixed a Pound of Salt-Petre with 3 Pounds of Water, and stirring it about constantly, as Cabaeus directs, in an Hour and half we perceived not the least Ice; whereas, according to him, it ought to have been wholly froze in less time; but we could not perceive the Vapours on the outside of the Glass in the least froze.

For a further Tryal, we mixed two Ounces of Salt-Petre with six of Water in a Glass-Vial, but by all the shaking we could not produce the least Ice; tho' whilst the Nitre was dissolving the Mixture was sensibly colder; and the same we have observ'd to happen upon a Dissolution of Common Salt; tho' the Degree of Cold was not sufficient for Congelation, which I was satis∣fyed in, by removing a Thermoscope out of the Mixture of Nitre and Water, into Water which was placed in Snow and Salt: For by that means the Liquor in the Weather-Glass subsided in the latter about 3 Inches; so that I am apt to think

the Learned Cabaeus mistook Chrystals of Nitre for Ice.

It is believed by most Water-men, That the Water begins to freeze at the bottom, because they observe large Pieces of Ice rise from the bottom of the Water: But the Truth of it is very reasonably question'd, since we not only see, that Water in Vessels, but in Wells, begins to freeze at the Top; and several Arguments in proof of the contrary may be found in our Section of the Primum frigidum. And as for those Pieces of Ice, which they observe to e∣merge, that Phaenomenon may easily be solved, without supposing the Water to begin to freez at the Bottom: For since the Water, which runs along the sides of the Banks being froze, seve∣ral Stones may stick to it; they by their Weight may cause it to subside, when it is partly loos∣ned by the Heat of the Sun, and the Water, by that Rarifaction becomes lighter: Yet, when the Water above is cooled, and the Water be∣low being warmer, hath melted the Ice in some measure, and loosned some of those Stones which were before froze to it; the Ice becoming speci∣fically lighter than the Water, must consequent∣ly emerge. On which occasion, I shall here ob∣serve, that Capt. James Hall takes notice, That they found a Stone of three hundred weight upon a Piece of Ice. In confirmation of our Solution of this Phaenomenon, I might al∣ledge the Experiments laid down in the Section of the Duration of Ice. And it were to be wish∣ed, that for a further Decision of this matter, that either Divers were sent down, or Instru∣ments

which would bring up Ice if any were there.

We took a seal'd Weather-Glass, and having inverted the Stem of it when furnished with Spirit of Wine, so that, that being placed in a Hole purposely made in a Box, the Ball of the Weather-Glass rested on the Box; about that we placed a Mixture of Snow and Salt, and found, that presently the Spirit of Wine was retracted. So that Liquors may be condensed, without the assistance of their Gravity, to de∣press and cause the Parts of the Body to sink to∣gether: But whether in this case, the Contra∣ction was assisted by the Tenacity of the Liquor or the Springiness of some Elastick Particles, will be inquired into in a more proper Place.

Frogs and Toads being taken up from under Ice, were brisk and lively; and it is observ'd, that in frosty Weather they generally lye in the Bottom of Pits, for their Security.

Paralipomena to the II and XX Titles, of the frost getting into hard and solid Bodies.

* 1.30In England it hath been observ'd, That Wood whose Diameter, was a Foot through hath been froze; and in Poland the Frost hath been so powerful, that it hath rendred the Timber so hard, that Hatchets would not cut it; and the Wood with which the Houses were cover'd would give Cracks as loud as Pistols. And I am told by one, that his Bow being froze, if he did not take a great deal of Care in thawing it, it would break. Marle and Chalk will be shat∣tered with the Frost, the Texture of those Bo∣dies

being by that means opened and rendered more fit to nourish Plants and Grass. And I am told by an Experienced Mason, that even free stone, of which Houses are built, will crack and flaw in frosty Weather. And it is observ∣ed in England, That stones dugg up in the be∣ginning of Summer and seasoned in the Air are not near so subject to flaw as those that are dug up and worked, whilst the Frost continues. And it is further observed, That both Earthen as well as Glass-Vessels are considerably im∣paired by the Effects of Frost upon them. To which instances I shall add the Testimony of Maistre Bernard Palissy who says, That tho' the stones of the Mountain Ardenne are harder than Marble; yet for fear of Frost they are drawn out of the Quarries in the Winter: And he further adds, That in the Winter the Rocks sometimes crack and fall down without being cut. And it hath been observed, That Iron-In∣struments brought out of the Cold into a warm Room have been covered over with a white Hoar; and it is not only confirmed by foreign Artists but several here, That Cold hath so great an Effect on Steel as to make several Piec∣es of Metal more brittle than in the Summer; so that they are then forced to work them ano∣ther way and to give them a different tem∣per.

* 1.31It being a Tradition, and also taught by A∣ristotle, That Hot Water is sooner froze than Cold; to determine the matter, I made the following Experiments.

Cold Water being exposed to freeze in one Porringer, boiled Water cooled in another, and Hot Water in a Third, at 8 a Clock; the Cold Water began to freeze at ¼ after ten; the Boild Water cooled, at ¾ past ten; and the Hot Water at ¼ an hour past Eleven. And the like success happened, when the Experiment was tryed a second time in Metalline Vessels: And the Experiment being again tryed with grea∣ter exactness, the Cold Water and the rest being exposed to freeze at ¼ after 6, the first beganto freeze ¼ after 7; the Water heated and cooled again ¾ after 7, and the Hot Water was not froze ½ an hour after Eight.

The like Experiment being tryed with Wa∣ter contained in Glass-Cylinders of an equal Bore sealed at one end, we found that there was very little difference in the time of their Congelation, when immersed in a Mixture of Snow Salt and Water; but once, when the end of one of the Cylinders was drawn smaller than Ordinary, the smallness of the Pipe occa∣sioned the Hot Water to begin to freeze soon∣er than the Cold Water.

Postcript.

Accidentally looking upon the Circulus Pisa∣nus of Berigardus, I found, That tho' that Au∣thor opposes Aristotle in other Points; yet he agrees with Him, That Hot Water cooled, will sooner freeze than ordinary Cold Water; but having tryed the Experiment, I observ'd, That both being exposed to freeze when by a Weather-Glass I found them of the same temper,

my Domestick who attended them, took notice al∣so that they both began to freeze at one time. And tho' Berigardus further wonders, That warm Salt-Water should be less subject to freeze for being Salt; yet from▪ Experiments already laid down, it abundantly appears, That tho' Salt Externally applyed promotes it, yet Inter∣nally being dissolv'd in Water, it prevents Congelation.

Particulars referrable to several Titles.

For a further Confirmation of the VI Title. I shall add that Purchas relates Lib. 4. Cap. 19. That the Samojeds, when they Bury their Dead, only cover them with a Pile of stones, and tho' the Dead Bodies may be seen through them; yet the Coldness of the Air preserves them from stinking. And the same Author tells us, That in a certain Island they preserve their Fish and Flesh, by hardening it in the Air, bet∣ter than if it were corned with Salt.

In Confirmation of what hath been delivered under the VII Title, I exposed several Vials filled with Water and unstopped, to be froze, and found that the Bottles were broke in pieces, by the Expansion of the frozen Water; so that the Phaenomenon could not be attributed to Nature's abhorrency of a Vacuum: For if either the Expanded Water could have made it's way by stretching the Glass, or leaving the Super∣ficial Ice congealed at first in the Neck, or a∣ny other way easier than to break the Vessel; the Vessel would probably be left intire, I say probably, because sometimes in such Expe∣riments

something may intervene which requires further Tryals and Observations to discover: Since I have in other Experiments made it appear, That the Water beginning to freeze at the Bottom rose a considerable height in the Stem without breaking the Bottle, and I have some∣times had a good deal of a Liquor froze in a stopped Vial without breaking it, as if the success were varyed by some uncommon Pro∣perties in the Glass, or some peculiar softness of the Ice.

In Confirmation of what is delivered in the VII Title, of the Expansion of freezing Water, I shall add, That the Capacity of a large Bottle being filled with Water, except the Neck, and that filled with Oyl, the expanding Water not only elevated the Cork; but raised it several Inches; it being supported by a Cylinder, part∣ly consisting of Oily, and partly of Watry Particles of Ice.

It is a General Tradition amongst Fisher-men, That when Ponds or Rivers are froze up, ex∣cept several holes are broke up for the Air to communicate with the Water, the Fishes will be suffocated; and Olaus Magnus, tells us, That Fishes are usually found suffocated, when a thaw comes, where Veins of living Water do not enter.

But I am not satisfyed, whether, if the Tra∣dition be true, they may not be killed either by some Subterraneal Steams or their own Excre∣mentitious Effluvia prevented, by the Ice, from making their way out of the Water; and it may be questioned further, whether this Phaenome∣non

may not be caused, by excessive Cold as well as for want of Air.

Wherefore to satisfie my self, whether the Vulgar Opinion be true or not, I enclosed some Gudgeons in a large Glass with a long Neck, and having froze the Water in the Neck by applying a Mixture of Snow and Salt, I found, That the Fishes lived a considerable time. And the like I observed, when the same Fishes were contained in an Earthen Vessel with a little Water frozen over: Where the External Air was wholly separated, and prevented from communicating with the Water under the Ice; yet one thing observable was, That there was a large Bubble of Air, under the Ice, which I suppose came from the Fish: For I have ob∣served, not only these sort of Fish but Lam∣prels take in Air, and then being immersed un∣der Water emit Bubbles, both at their Mouths and Gills. Gudgeons frozen up in Ice in a Ba∣sin recovered when it was thawed; but some that continued 3 Days in Ice revived not. Frogs froze in Water till they were all enclosed with Ice, and till one of them was stiff with it, recovered when it was thawed, and Swam about; tho' before some of them lay with their Bellys upwards and void of Motion.

As for the weight of Bodies frozen, Capt. James tells us, That Wood, that had lain all Winter under Ice would sink when cast into the Water. And he likewise tells us, That the Ice of Wine is so durable, that a Butt of Wine which was froze in the Winter; conti∣nued unthawed in May.

Purchas tells us, of two pieces of Ice which they found lay fast on the Ground, the one of

which was 20 fathom under Water and 12 a∣bove, and the other 18 fathom below the Sur∣face of the Water and 10 above it.

It is observed by Purchas and several others, That the Snow lying upon the Ground in Rus∣sia as well as in England makes it fruitful.

* 1.32It would be worth while to try, what Ef∣fects Cold hath upon occult Qualities as well as manifest ones; and likewise upon Fermentati∣on; since it is observ'd to retardate the work∣ing of Ale extremely; and it is observed, That Must may be preserved sweet a long time in a deep Well, or if let down into the Bottom of a River; and will when taken up, be less apt to ferment than other parcels of Must kept in the warmer Air.

It hath been observed in the Northern Coun∣trys, That the most Spirituous Parts of Li∣quors, have been separated and Collected to∣gether by a Congelation of the Phlegm; where∣fore to try what Cold would Effect in our Cli∣mates, I hung out a Bottle of Beer in a sharp Night; and found, That most Part of it being froze, the Liquor which was not froze, was very strong and Spirituous; the frozen Part being Spiritless. But Rectifyed Spirit of Wine tinged with Cochineel being mixed with Wa∣ter, Congelation separated not their Parts, nor did it separate the red and the Watery Parts of Claret. I made several Tryals upon Milk and Blood, as also on Vinegar, in which my Attempts proved insatisfactory: But a Solution of Salt be∣ing made in 24 Parts of Water, so that it was as strong as the Sea-Water about us, I caused it to be exposed to freeze in a flat Vessel, which was the larger, That the Superficies of the Water

might be considerable; and when it was cove∣red with a Cake of Ice, that being taken off, it acquired another; which, when dissolved, yiel∣ded Water, not near so Salt as that which re∣mained unfroze; and being Hydrostatically weig••ed was considerably lighter.

Having exposed several Vegetable and Animal Substances to be froze, I found, That by that means I could discover, their succulent juices, and squeez them out in the form of Ice, which being done; by cutting them transversely and length ways, I could discover also the Figure and Size, of the Pores in which those Juices lodged. Amongst the Animal substances ex∣posed to freeze, were the Eyes, and the Brains of Animals; which by being froze would be fitter to be dissected; the latter, when cut in two seeming like an Apple froze, the Ventricles and i•…•… whole substance being filled with Icy Particles.

N••ither an Eye nor a Liver, lean flesh or fish▪ nor a living Frog; would be crusted over with Ice, as Eggs and Apples are, when put into Water; after they had been froze. As for the Reason why flesh is usually much impaired by being froze, I suppose it to proceed hence, viz. That the Alimental Juice being expended by freezing hath not it's own texture altered only, but even the solid Vessels which contain it, are thereby bruised and crushed; for from several Experiments it is evident, That Eggs will be burst by the freezing of the Alimental Juice, and that the Textures of Stones and Vegetables will be destroyed by the Powerful Congelation of their respective Juices, which will be less

wondered at, if we consider that Aqueous Parts by their Expansion were able to burst the Barrel of a Gun: Had I had leasure and conveniency I would have tryed what Effects Cold hath upon Animals froze to Death; but having exposed a Rabbet to the Cold all Night, I found that only one Leg was swelled and a little stiff. But a strangled Rabbet being ex∣posed to be froze, Ice was produced in se∣veral Parts.

It is affirmed by several Modern Writers, That if Water be impregnated with the Salts of Vegetables; upon Congelation, they will re∣present the shape of the Plant they belong to: But notwithstanding I have several times tryed the Experiment, I found it either false or ve∣ry contingent; since it did not once answer Expectation. But having exposed a Lixivium of Pot-ashes to freeze; I found, That the Chrystals upon the Surface of the Water were Prismatical, and that under those lay a great many thin Parallel Plates of Ice; but not ranged in such an order as to represent the shape of Trees: And tho' Bartholinus tells us, That if a Decoction of Cabbage be froze it will re∣present a Cabbage; yet I could never find, That the Experiment succeded, except that once there appeared the faint resemblance of a single Leaf. But I have found, That fair Water froze would represent the shapes of Vegetables oftner than their Decoctions. And tho' Berigardus also affirms the same; yet I suspect, That he only wirt, without trying the Experiments himself.

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And yet, I deny not, but that prepossessed Spectators may fancy they see such things when they do not, for tho' Sea-Salt and Allum consist of Parts of determinate Figures; yet when dissolved in Water they exhibit Figures too various and extravagant, not to be refer∣red to Chance. And on this occasion, to what hath been said I shall add, That by Distilling and rectifying Oyl of Turpentine from Sea-Salt in a Glass-head, as the degrees of Heat were varyed, so would the Figures of Trees be re∣presented different on the inside the Glass. And I have several times produced the shapes of Trees from Bodies belonging to the Ani∣mal Kingdom. And I have found, That tho' Figures curious enough would be represented by Spirits, Solutions, Decoctions, Vinegar, Milk and even common Water; yet it was in vain to hope for the same success, and that the like Figures should always be afforded by the same Liquor; since very small Circumstances would vary them considerably: And in trying of such Experiments as these it may not be amiss to advertise, That it will be convenient, that the Liquor should be as shallow as it possi∣bly may, That it may be more speedily froze.

A frozen Egg being Put into Oyl of Tur∣pentine instead of common Water it gathered not about it any crusty Film.

It is observed by Mr. Wood, That tho' New-England be 10 or 11 degrees remoter from the Pole; yet the Winters are much more pierc∣ing and Cold than ours. And to what hath

been delivered in the XVIII Title of the infri∣gidating Power of Wind, I shall add, That sometimes it hath been so much more Cold than at others, That being blown through the frigorifick Mixture, it would cause not only the Spirit of Wine to subside; but being blown upon the Ball of another Weather-Glass; not only the Liquor; but even Mercury it self would be forced to ascend, tho' the Vicinity of the frigorifick Mixture could not cause that Effect. And I have often tryed, That when the Temperature of the Air was such, that tho' when first blown upon the Ball of a nice Ther∣moscope; it would not cause the Liquor to as∣cend; yet at another season the Tinged Li∣quor ascended, as if the Air by being more than ordinarily compressed in the Room, had some sensible Effect in compressing and con∣tracting the Air included in the Thermo∣scope.

To try whether Liquors, by losing their fluidity and becoming consistent would acquire a greater degree of Coldness, I caused the Ball of a Weather-Glass to be immersed in Sallet-Oyl, and a Solution of Minium in Vinegar, or of Quick-lime in Water, either of which will coagulate the Oyl; but I did not find, That the Mixture tho' consistent was Colder than the fluid Ingredients.

To try whether Water was capable of Com∣pression, we took a Glass-Ball with a long Stem, and filled it with Water within two Inches of the Top; then we Hermetically sealed it up, and freezing it from the Bottom upwards in a fri∣gorifick

Mixtre, when the included Air was compressed as much as we thought the Glass would bear, we nipt off the Apex; and found, That thereupon the Air flew out and the Wa∣ter rose ¼ of an Inch above it's former Surface: So that it seemed to be compressed ⅜ of the length of the Aqueous Cylinder; but whether this Phaenomenon might be occasion'd, by the Spring of some latent Air in the Pores of the Water, or whether it might be occasioned by some Springiness in the Ice, or Whether the Glass being before distended and now reduced to it's former Dimensions occasioned this Phae∣nomenon, I will not undertake to determine without further Tryals. And,

To what hath been observed in this Experi∣ment, I shall add, That if the Apex were broke off before the Air was much compressed, it would cause no considerable Noise: And fur∣ther, when the Experiment was a second time repeated with one of the same Glasses, and the same Liquor; it would rise ⅛ and ¼ in the Stem, higher than before, upon breaking of the Apex.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Experi∣ments of Bodies ca∣pable of freezing others.
• * 1.2

  Of Bodies disposed to be frozen.
• * 1.3

  Bodies not disposed to freeze.
• * 1.4

  Of the de∣grees of Cold in several Bodies.
• * 1.5

  See Plate. 1. Fig. 1.
• * 1.6

  What way or in what Line Cold acts most vigorously.
• * 1.7

  Of the Pre∣servation of Bodies by Cold.
• * 1.8

  Of the Ex∣pansion of Water and other freez∣ing Liquors.
• * 1.9

  Of the Con∣traction of Liquors by Cold.
• * 1.10

  Of the Le∣vity of Ice and its Cause.
• * 1.11

  The expan∣sion and contraction of Liquors measur'd.
• * 1.12

  Of the Expansive force of freezing Water.
• * 1.13

  A new way of Estima∣ting the Ex∣pan•…•…e force of Con∣gelation.
• * 1.14

  Of the Sphere of Activity of Cold.
• * 1.15

  Of the Me∣diums through which Cold may be dif∣fused.
• * 1.16

  Concerning Ice.
• * 1.17

  What Li∣quors soon∣est dissolve Ice and Snow.
• * 1.18

  Of the Pri∣mum Fri∣gidum.
• * 1.19

  The Earth not the Pri∣mum Frigi∣dum
• * 1.20

  Earth the Summum Frigidum.
• * 1.21

  Water not the Primum Frigidum.
• * 1.22

  Air not the Primum Frigidum
• * 1.23

  Nitre not the Grand Efficient of Cold.
• * 1.24

  Of the tem∣per of the Air.
• * 1.25

  Of the strange Ef∣fects of Cold.
• * 1.26

  The Weight of Bodies frozen and unfrozen.
• * 1.27

  Whether Frost hinder odoriferous Effluvia from exert∣ing their Power.
• * 1.28

  The force of Expansion by Cold.
• * 1.29

  Of the Ef∣fects of Ni∣tre in free∣zing.
• * 1.30

  Of the Ef∣fects of Frost on so∣lid Bodies.
• * 1.31

  Hot Water does not freeze soon∣er than Cold.
• * 1.32

  Of the se∣paration of Liquors by Cold.