A new history of ecclesiastical writers containing an account of the authors of the several books of the Old and New Testament, of the lives and writings of the primitive fathers, an abridgement and catalogue of their works ... also a compendious history of the councils, with chronological tables of the whole / written in French by Lewis Ellies du Pin.

CHAP. XX. (Book 20)

Observations on the Ecclesiastical Affairs of the Twelfth Century.

THE Illustrations that we have inserted in the Body of this Work, as to the most im∣portant Ecclesiastical Affairs of the Twelfth Century, may serve to supersede any far∣ther Pains that might be expected here, in making several Remarks on the Doctrine and Discipline of that Age. For, as to the original and progress of Scholastick Divinity, recourse may be had to what we have said in the XV Chapter. As to the manner of explaining the Holy

Scriptures, it would be requisite to consult the Observations made in Chap. XVI. And as to the Reception of Gratian's Decretal, only to peruse what has been related in Chap. XVII. Neither is it necessary to enlarge on the Heresies and Errors which appear'd in the Church in those Times, or on the Doctrines that were established against them, since we have already treated of them in par∣ticular Chapters. Indeed the Affair of the Investitures might supply us with some Reflections, if we had not discoursed at large on that subject in the Second Chapter; so that nothing more re∣mains to be said, concerning the Schisms of the Popes, and the Contests they had with the Em∣perors and Kings, which rent the Church, and occasion'd innumerable Calamities. I shall only observe here, That these Dissensions were so far from diminishing the Power of the Popes, that * 1.1 they serv'd even to corroborate and augment it: For it was in this Century, that they established their Sovereignty in Rome, and their Independency of the Emperor, and even assum'd to them∣selves a Right of conferring the Imperial Crown: They extended their Jurisdiction and Authority over the Churches farther than they had hitherto done, and met with much less Opposition in their Attempts than in former Times. The most part of the Councils were call'd either by them, or by their Legates, and they were the Authors of the Constitutions that were made therein, and to which the Bishops scarce did any Thing else but give their Consent. Appeals to the Pope in all sorts of Causes, and in favour of all sorts of Persons, were become so frequent, that no Affair was transacted, the Determination of which was not immediately referr'd to the Court of Rome; which oblig'd those Persons, who had any Zeal for the maintaining of Church-Discipline, and among others St. Bernard, publickly to complain of the Abuse. And indeed, they were constrain'd to find out some means to prevent it, in the Third General Council of Lateran, by forbidding Appeals that were enter'd before the Sentence was pronounced, and by ordaining that the Appellants should be oblig'd to prosecute them within a limited Time.

The Discipline of the Church was likewise weaken'd by the frequent use of Dispensations, which were granted at Rome, with so much facility, that that Abuse is esteem'd by St. Bernard as one of the most notorious Disorders that ever happen'd in the Church. The Popes had a very great share in the Collating of Bishopricks: For although the Bishops were then chosen by the Clergy, and or∣dain'd by the Metropolitan; nevertheless the Decision of the Differences that arose about the Vali∣dity of the Election, being of necessity referr'd to the Consistory of Rome, the Popes had an abso∣lute Power to favour whom they should think fit; and if the Metropolitan refus'd to ordain him, whose Election was approv'd by them, they were in a Capacity to ordain him themselves. Sometimes they sent a Legate to assist on their behalf in the Election, where certain Persons were recommended to the Electors, or to the Patrons of the Benefices, and it would be difficult to have no regard to such Recommendations. The Elections of the Popes were reserv'd solely and wholly to the Cardi∣nals, whose Dignity was advanced to such a degree of Height, that they were not only reputed to be superior to Bishops, but also to Patriarchs and Primates. These Cardinals were then chosen in∣differently out of all Nations, and France produced above Fifty in that Age.

The Manners of the Clergy were more regular in this Century than in the Two preceeding; in∣somuch that Simoniacal Practices, and other Enormities were not committed by Ecclesiastical Per∣sons, neither so frequently, nor so publickly: It was forbidden to exact any Thing for the Ad∣ministration of the Sacraments, for Ordination, or for the Collation of Benefices; yet this was practis'd at Rome, and elsewhere, under divers Pretences. Hitherto it was strictly prohibited, that they who were in Orders should marry; nevertheless when they did so, they were not divorced from their Wives; but only were degraded, turn'd out of the Clergy, or put to Penance: 'Twas only in this Century, that these Marriages were declar'd null, and that those Persons who had contracted them were constrain'd to be divorced; at least the first Ordinance which imports such an Injunction, is that of the First General Council of Lateran. The Constitution which excluded the illegitimate Sons of the Priests from the Clergy, was generally receiv'd, and many were enac∣ted to prevent the Continuance of Spiritual Livings in Families, as it were a peculiar Inheri∣tance. The Clergy-men us'd their utmost Efforts to exempt their Persons and Estates from the Jurisdiction of the Secular Powers, and the Bishops, who as yet were wont to administer Eccle∣siastical Justice personally, began to have Officials, whose Name and Functions were unknown till that time: They likewise communicated their Episcopal Authority to Deans and Curates; which Custom was forbidden by the Third General Council of Lateran: They excommunicated or suspended the Laicks, who usurped or retain'd the Revenues belonging to the Church, or who meddled with the disposal of Spiritual Livings: However they themselves sometimes bestow'd Altars, that is to say, Benefices on Lay-men to enjoy the Revenues of them for a time; and these sorts of Benefices were call'd Personats: This Custom prevail'd in like manner amongst the Eastern Churches, where the Emperors and Patriarchs granted the Revenues of certain Monasteries to Laicks. The Visitations of the Ordinaries became so very chargeable to the Curates, that there was a Necessity of regulating their Retinue. Lastly, all the Bishops were oblig'd to have in their Cathedrals a Person capable of teaching the Arts and Sciences, and Universiries began to be form'd in the great Cities; amongst which those of Paris and Bononia were the most Famous; the former for the study of Divinity, and the other for that of the Civil Law.

The Doctrine of the Sacraments was reduced in form of a methodical System in this Age, and * 1.2 divers Questions were discussed on that Subject, which never were started before. We shall not at present insist on them, but only observe certain particular Points of Discipline: The Administra∣tion of Baptism, even that of Infants, was reserv'd for solemn Days; but Parents were not al∣low'd to assist at that of their Children, and the triple Immersion was still in use. The Custom

of publick Penance for publick Offences was not entirely abolished; but it was very seldom put in practice, by reason that Remission of Sins must be obtain'd by other means, more especially by Crusades and Pilgrimages. The granting of Absolution for certain Crimes began to be reserv'd to the Pope, and the Bishops: At First, the Species of a Sin in general was not reserv'd, but a par∣ticular Action which appear'd to be enormous; and afterwards the Offence of those Persons, who abus'd Clergy-men, was generally referr'd to the Pope's Cognizance. Publick Confessions at the point of Death were likewise in use; but the Benefit of Absolution, and of the Communion, was deny'd, at least in France, to Malefactors condemn'd to Death: Persons who were in Distress, out of a Principle of Devotion, often caus'd themselves to be laid on Ashes, having their Bodies cover'd with a Hair-cloth, or cloathed in the Habit of a Monk: Voluntary Mortifications, such as the Penitential Shirt, the Hair-cloth, and the Scourging Discipline which Penitents gave themselves, or caus'd to be given by others, were very much us'd in those Times: They were wont to eat only once a Day, on the Days of Abstinence; but they began to break their Fast at the Hour of * 1.3 None in 〈◊〉〈◊〉, and at Noon at another time: Fridays Fast was observ'd more regularly than that on Saturdays. The Participation of the Eucharist under both Kinds was customary during the whole Century; although in the beginning of it some took the Two Species both together, by steeping that of the Bread in that of the Wine, and in the end of the same Century, some took only one. The Term of Transubstantiation was then us'd by certain Writers, to express the Change of the Elements of Bread and Wine into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. Then also the Priests re∣ceiv'd Alms for their Masses, but it was forbidden to demand any; and although they offer'd the Sacrifice for certain Persons in particular, yet it was not doubted but that it was offer'd by them at the same time for all the Faithful; to which purpose see a remarkable Passage of Arnulphus of Lisieux, which we have related in the Account of the Works of that Prelate. Constitutions were published about the time, during which the Hosts might be kept; but the Ordinations, and even the Consecrations made by Schismaticks, or by Hereticks, were reputed to be void, and of none effect.

To say somewhat in like manner concerning the Monastick State, we shall observe that the * 1.4 Benediction of Monks, which was first introduced in the Eastern, and afterwards in the Western Churches, became as it were necessary, and that an express Profession was enjoyn'd, which till then was never requir'd. This Benediction was usually given by a Bishop, or by an Abbot; nevertheless a simple Monk might also perform the Ceremony, and it was not forbidden to be re-iterated: When a Monk was made Abbot, he receiv'd the Benediction from his Diocesan; yet such Benediction was not judg'd absolutely necessary. It appears that it was customary in those Times, both in the Levant, and in the Western Countries, that the Monasteries should receive Money or Goods of those Persons, who were to be admitted into them; but that it was prohibited to exact any Thing on that account. The Cistercian Order, which was small and poor in the beginning, soon became so Numerous and Rich, that it gave some cause of Jealousy to that of Cluny, and to all the other Black Friers. There arose several Contests betwixt them, as well by reason of the Difference of their Customs, as upon account of Temporal Interests, and more espe∣cially, because the Cistercian Monks receiv'd those of the Order of Cluny, who were desirous to pass over to them: It likewise fell out sometimes, that the Cistercians retir'd to Cluny, and were there entertain'd; but they procur'd a Dispensation from the Pope for that purpose, and it does not appear, that those of Cluny, who went to Cisteaux, observ'd the same Formality. This Custom of passing thus from an Order of a moderate, to another of a more austere Disci∣pline, began to be introduced in the Twelfth Century. The greatest part of the Monasteries obtain'd Exemptions of the Popes to withdraw themselves from the Bishop's Jurisdiction; an Abuse that was condemned by St. Bernard, and which the Prelates were afterwards oblig'd to restrain in the Third General Council of Lateran. Some considerable Abbots were permitted by the Pope to wear the Episcopal Ornaments; viz. the Mitre, the Dalmatick, the Gloves, the Sandals, and even the Crosier: Although those who were of a more moderate Temper disliked this Custom; nevertheless it became so frequent, that many Abbots usurped that Right, without any Licence from the Pope; and it was necessary that the Third General Council of Lateran should forbid it them, as well as the simple Monks, who were not in Orders, the wearing of Maniples. Monks were likewise prohibited, in the First General Council of Lateran, to administer the Sacraments, and to exercise any of the Functions of Curates; but this Prohibition did not hinder, but that many were taken out of Monasteries to be made Bishops and Cardinals. It was also very Customary for Bishops to retire in the end of their Life into Monasteries, and having spent the remainder of their Days in pious Exercises, to die in those Places of retreat. The Order of Grandmont was founded in the beginning of the Century, by Stephen Muret; this Society being compos'd of Hermits dwelling in little Cells, which were separated and shut up within the same Inclosure: The Rule which he enjoyn'd them to follow, was very judiciously com∣pos'd, and approv'd of by the Popes, Urban III. and Clement III. It is also affirm'd, That the Order of the Carmelites began to be established in the Year 1121. by certain Hermits of Mount Carmel, whom the Patriarch of Antioch got together to form a Religious Society: They were Lay-men, who were wont to say the Office of the Virgin Mary, and were oblig'd to no other Vow but that of Obedience.

The Regular Canons were employ'd in administring the Sacraments, and in exercising the * 1.5 Functions of Curates, when they were authoriz'd to that purpose, by their Bishops: But some Prelates made a Scruple to admit them to such Employments, and the Regular Canons them∣selves were not very willing to be taken off from their Solitary Life. At that time there arose a

kind of Contrast between them, and the Monks, about the Preeminence and Dignity of their Sta∣tions: The Order of Regular Canons was augmented by a new Congregation, of which St. Nor∣bert was the Founder, A. D. 1120. They were call'd Canonici Tunicati, by reason of their Habit, whereas those who bore the Name of St. Augustin were styled Superpelliceati.

With these Regular Canons may be joyn'd the Military Orders, which became very numerous in that Century, and were under the same Conduct and Rule: The most Ancient were those of St. John of Jerusalem, or the Knights Hospitallers, instituted in the beginning of the Century, to entertain the Pilgrims who were travelling to that City. The Second, are the Knights Templars, who had their Institution in the Year 1118. and whose Office it was to provide for the Safety of the Pilgrims, by encountering those who disturb'd them in their Journey. The Knights of the Teutonick Order, who professed ••o perform both these Employments, were established some time after. Lastly, in imitation of these Orders, those of St. James, and of Calatrava, were instituted in Spain, for the Pilgrimages of St. James in Galicia, and some others, in other Coun∣tries.

FINIS.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Of the Au∣thority of the Pope.
• * 1.2

  Observati∣ons on the Discipline of the Sa∣craments.
• * 1.3

  One of the Cano∣nical Hours.
• * 1.4

  Remarks on the Mo∣nastick Life.
• * 1.5

  Regular Canons.