Archæologiæ græcæ: or, The antiquities of Greece. By John Potter, M.A. and Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxon

CHAPTER X. Of their Sieges, with the most remarkable of their Inventions, and Engines us'd therein.

THERE are no Footsteps of any Siege amongst the primi∣tive Grecians; their Cities were not fortify'd with Walls, but lay open to all Invaders, and, their Inhabitants once vanquish'd in open Field, became an easy Prey to the Conque∣rors▪ Wherefore 'tis not to be wonder'd, that the People of those Times enjoy'd no fix'd and settled Habitations, but frequently re∣mov'd from one Part of the Country to another, being forc'd to quit their Seats, whenever they were coveted by a Power superiour to their own (c) 1.1.

This moving and unsettled Condition, wh••rein they continu'd for some Ages, caus'd them to attempt several Methods to secure themselves: Some built their Cities upon the Tops of unaccessible Rocks, and Mountains, whence they could easily r••pell a greater Force of Enemies: Others, whose Situation was not so d••fensi∣ble, were driven to seek other Ways for their Safety, 'till at length some Heads of no vulgar Understanding brought forth an ama∣zing

Contrivance to enclose their Houses and Possessions within Walls; this at first was look'd on as a Work so wonderfull, so far above Human Capacity, that the Gods were frequently call'd from their blessed Mansions to undertake it: The Walls of Troy (to mention no more) were of Divine Workmanship, and rais'd by no meaner Persons than Neptune and Apollo: But if Mortals had the Happiness to project, and finish so great a Design; they seldom sail'd of being translated to Heaven, and having their Names enroll'd among those exalted Beings, to whom they were thought to make neat Approaches, whilst on Earth.

And, since it was their Custom to immortalize the first Authors of every little Contrivance, 'tis no Wonder if they conferr'd the same Honours on those great Benefactours, to whom they were ob∣lig'd for the Security and quiet Possession of whatever the rest of their Deities had gratify'd them with. Once, indeed, enclos'd within Walls, they look'd upon themselves safe from all Assaults; and, had not a weak Opposition within been sufficient to repell much greater Forces of Invaders, such a Town as Troy could ne∣ver have held out ten Years against an hundred-thousand Besiegers.

Nor were the Grecians of later Ages, however renown'd for Know∣ledge in Military Affairs, very willing to undertake, or expert in managing Sieges; But rather chose to end thei•• Quarrels, if possi∣ble, by one decisive Battle, than to undergo the Fatigue, and other Incommodities of so tedious, so d••ngerous, and expensive a Method.

Of all the Grecians the most averse from undertaking Leaguers, the most unskilfull in carrying them on to Advantage, were the Lacedemonians; insomuch that after Mardonius's Defeat at Plataeae, when a Body of Persians had taken Refuge in some Wooden For∣tifications, they could find no Means to drive them thence, but must have been forc'd to retire, had not the Athenians, and some other Grecians advanc'd to their Assistance (a) 1.2. For we are told by Plutarch, That their Law-giver oblig'd them by a special Injun∣ction not easily to engage in Besieging Towns; and to loose their Lives in such Undertakings was accounted inglorious, and un∣worthy a Spartan, as we learn from the same Authour (b) 1.3, who, speaking of Lysander's being slain before the Gates of a little Baeo∣tian Town call'd Halia••tu••, tells us,

That like some common Souldier, or one of the forlorn Hope, he cast away his Life in∣gloriously, giving Testimony to the ancient Spartans, that they did well to avoid Storming of Walls, where the stoutest Man may chance to fall by the Hand not only of an abject Fellow, but of a Boy, or Woman; as they say Achilles was slain by Paris at the Scaean Gates of Troy (c) 1.4; Pyrrhus also the great King of Epirus fell by the Hand of a Woman at Argos (d) 1.5.

When they endeavour'd to possess themselves of a Town, or Castle, it was usual first to attempt it by Storm, surrounding it with their whole Army, and attacking it in all Quarters at once, which the Greeks call'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, the Romans corona cingere. When this Method prov'd ineffectual, they frequently desisted from their Enterprize: But if resolv'd to prosecute it, they prepar'd for a longer Siege; in carrying on which they seem not to have pro∣ceeded in any constant and settled Method, but to have vary'd it according to the Direction of their Generals, as well as the Diffe∣rence of Time, Place, and other Circumstances.

When they design'd to lay close Siege to a Place, the first Thing they went about was 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, the Works of Circumvallation, which we find sometimes to have consisted of a double Wall, or Rampire, rais'd up of Turss call'd in Greek 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, and 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, in Latin cespites. The interiour Fortification was design'd to prevent sudden and unexspected Sallies from the Town, and to deprive it of all possibility of Succour from with∣out; the exteriour to secure them from foreign Enemies, that might come to the Relief of the Besieg'd: Thus, when the Pelo∣••••••ncsians invested Plataeae, Thucydides reports, they rais'd a double Wall, one towards the City, the other towards Athens, to pre∣vent all Danger on that Side; the middle Space, which was six∣teen Feet, was taken up with Lodges for Guards and Sentinels, built at due Distances from one another, yet so close, that at a distant View the whole Pile appear'd to be one broad Wall, with Turrets on both Sides, after every tenth of which was a larger Tower extended from Wall to Wall.

Engines were call'd by the ancient Grecians 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, and after∣wards 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉▪ The first Invention of them the Grecians claim to themselves, b••ing not easily induc'd to allow the Contrivance of any Art to other Nations; for it was their Custom to travel into Egypt, India, and other Eastern Countries, to furnish themselves with Sciences, and Inventions, which afterwards they made pu∣blick in Europe, and vented as Productions of their own: Hence was deriv'd most of the Grecian Philosophy; and as for Engines us'd in Sieges, it appears they were invented in the E••••tern Nations many Ages before Greece had the least Knowlege of, or Occasion for them: Moses's Times seem not to have been unacquainted with them (a) 1.6, several of the Iewish Kings likewise app••ar to have known the Use of them; whereas the Grecians 'till Homer's Time are not found to have had the least Hint of any such Thing: Statius in∣deed carries them as high as the Trojan War, and, speaking of the various Presents sent to Achilles by the Grecians in order to carry

on the War, reports that Pylos and Messene furnish'd him with En∣gines to batter the Walls;

Murorum tormenta Pylos Messenaque tralunt.

Large bat••'ring Engines are from Pylos sent, And from Me••••ene—

But the Poet seems to have forgotten the rude and unskilfull Age of this Hero, and to have form'd his Description from the Pra∣ctices of his own Times; ••ince Authors of better Credit have no mention of any such Thing: Homer indeed speaks of 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, which some ancient Interpreters take for 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, scaling Lad∣ders(a) 1.7,

—〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉

Bearing well-pointed Spears these straight ascend The scaling Ladders.—

But it may with no less Propriety be taken for the Pinnacles of Towers, as we find it us'd in the following Verse(b) 1.8;

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉

The Tower's losty Pinnacles they raz'd, Demolish'd all their Bulwarks.—

Others again will have them to have been as ancient as the The∣ban War, and to have been the Contrivance of Capaneus, one of the seven Champions; the Story of whose being knock'd down with Thunderbolts was grounded on no better a Foundation, than that, attempting to scale the Walls of Thebes with Ladders, he was beaten down and slain with Stones: And since the Contrivance is so easy and obvious, it may not be wholly improbable, that even those Ages were acquainted with it, however the different sorts of Ladders were invented afterwards, when some of them were 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉(c) 1.9, p••••catiles, folded, others 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, 〈◊〉〈◊〉, to b•• taken in Pieces(d) 1.10, for the Convenience of Car••iage. Th•• Matter they were compos'd of, was likewise very different, being not only Wood, but Ropes, Leather,&c.

The rest of their Engines seem however to have been later: The Ram indeed is said by Pliny to have been invented in the Tro∣jan War, and to have given occasion to the Fable of the Wooden

Horse built by Epeus, it being the constant Practice of those Times to wrap up the Original of every Invention in Fables: But this is only Conjecture, and may with the same Ease be deny'd, as asserted; Athenaeus indeed speaks of this Engine as very ancient(a) 1.11, but doth not fix it's Invention to any determinate Time, only ob∣serves that the Romans were oblig'd for it to the Grecians; and since Vitruvius gives the Honour of it's Contrivance to the Car∣thaginians in their Si••ge of Gades, and neither Homer, nor any Greek Writer for many Ages after has the least mention thereof, there seems little reason to credit Pliny's Report. 'Tis probable however, that those Ages might have some small Helps in taking Towns, contriv'd, as by several others, so particularly by E••cus, who is famous in Poetical Story for b••ing an Artificer, and (as Lycophron reports) was very serviceable on that Account to the Gre∣cian Army,

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉(b) 1.12, Dauntless in Boxing, but dismay'd at th' Sound Of clashing Arms, yet by his famous Art He was most usefull to the Grecian Fleet.

But these Devices seem to have been exceeding contemptible, and unartificial; and therefore were wholly laid 〈◊〉〈◊〉 wiser Ages, and, it may be, never practis'd but at their first Invention. The only constant Instruments us'd by the ancient Grecians in demo∣lishing Walls, were (for ought appears to the contrary) those they call'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, in Latin terebrae, which were long Irons with sharp Ends: Wherefore 'tis reasonable to conclude that most of their famous Engines were invented about the Time of the Pe∣loponnesian War, wherein 'tis plain from Thucydides they were us'd; Diodorus(c) 1.13 and Plutarch(d) 1.14 will have Peri••••es to have contriv'd seve∣ral of them by the Assistance of Artemon an Artificer of Ciazome∣nae, as Rams, Tortoises, &c. yet Cornelius Nevo•• r••ports, that some of them were us'd in the Age before by Mil••iades, when he be∣sieg'd Paros; Plutarch also himself, when he reports out of Epho∣rus, that battering Engines were first employ'd in th•• Samian War by Pericles, and compos'd at that Time by Artemon, being then a strange and surprizing Sight, presently after add••, that Heracli∣des of Portus will have that Engineer to have flouri••h'd several Ages before the Samian War; so that nothing of certainty can be expected in this Matter. The Principal of the Grecian Inventions were these which follow:

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, testudo, a Tortoise, a defensive Invention, so call'd from it's Strength, because it cover'd and shelter'd the Souldiers under it, as a Tortoise is cover'd by it's Shell: Several sorts we find of them, as,

• 1. 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, testudo militaris, term'd sometimes 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, when the Souldiers, drawn up close to one another, and the hin∣dermost Ranks bowing themselves, plac'd their Targets above their Heads; as if we suppose the first Rank to stand erect, the rest to stoop lower and lower by Degrees, 'till the last Rank kneel'd upon the Ground; the Men in the Front and on the Sides holding their Targets before their Bodies, the rest covering the Heads of those that were plac'd before them; so that the whole Body re∣sembled a Pent-house, or Roof cover'd with Tiles, down which the Enemy's missive Weapons easily glided without Prejudice to the Souldiers underneath: This Invention was us'd in Field-battles, but more frequently in surprizing Cities before the Besieg'd were prepar'd for Defence; and serv'd to protect the Besiegers in their Approach to the Walls.
• 2. 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 was four-square; the chief Design thereof was (as the Name imports) to guard the Souldiers in filling Ditches, and casting up Mounts.
• 3. 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, was triangular with it's Front shelving down∣wards for the Protection of Pioneers, who undermin'd Walls.
• 4. To these may be added Testudo arietaria, wherewith those that batter'd the Walls were protected; of which afterwards.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, Wicker Hurdles, resembling the Roman vineae, which the Souldiers held over their Heads. The Word came at length to signify Trifles, from the Siege of Syracuse, where the Athenians calling continually for Hurdles to shelter them, the Besiegers in Derision us'd to cry 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉.

Another Engine compos'd of Boards, and, like the Roman plu∣teus, was us'd by Alexander's Souldiers, as we read in Curtius.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, agger, a Mount, which was rais'd so high as to equal, if not exceed the Top of the besieg'd Walls: The Sides were wall'd in with Bricks or Stones, or secur'd with strong Rafters to hinder it from falling; the Fore-part only, being by Degrees to be advanc'd nearer the Walls, remain'd bare. The Pile it self consisted of all sorts of Materials, as Earth, Timber, Boughs, Stones, &c. as Thucydides reports in the Siege of Plataeae: Into the Middle were cast also Wickers, and Twigs of Trees to fasten, and, as it were, cement the other Parts. The whole Fabrick is thus describ'd by Lucan(a) 1.15;

—tunc omnia late Procumbunt nemora, & spoliantur robore silvae;

Ut, cum terra levis mediam virgultaque molem Suspendant, structa laterum compage ligatam Arctet humum, pressus ne cedat turribus agger.

The Groves are fell'd, and strongest Timber sought, From thickest Forrests largest Oaks are brought, To make strong Rafters to support the Pile, Left th' Earth break in and frustrate all their Toyl, Unable to sustain the Tower's Weight.

Mr. Hutchin.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, turres, mov•• 〈◊〉〈◊〉 Tow•••••• of Wood, usually plac'd upon the Mount: They were driven upon Wheels, which were fix'd within the Bottom-planks to s••cu••e them from the Enemies. Their Size was not always the same, but proportion'd to the Towers of the City they besieg'd; the Front was usually cover'd with Tiles, and in later Times the Sides were likewise guarded with the same Materials; their Tops were cover'd with raw Hides, and other Shrowds, to preserve them from Fire-balls and missive Weapons: They were form'd into several Stories, which were able to carry not Souldiers only, but all sorts of portable Engines; whence Silius(a) 1.16;

Turris multiplici surgens ad sidera tecto Exibat, tabulata decem cui crescere Grajus Fecerat, & multas nemorum consumserat umbras.

Thin were the Groves, and scarce cou'd boast a Shade, When th' Grajan with ten Rooms a Tower made, Whose va••ious Turrets seem'd the Stars t' invade.

The first Contrivance is attributed to some Artificers of Sicily about the Time of Dionysius the Tyrant; by some to Polyidus a Thessa∣lian, Philip of Macedon's Engineer(b) 1.17; by others to Diades and Chaereas(c) 1.18, who were Polyidus's Scholars, and entertain'd by Alexan∣der in his Eastern Expedition: The last of these seem rather to have been Improvers of the former Invention, for we find men∣tion of Wooden Towers in the elder Dionysius's Reign(d) 1.19: It may be the Device of making 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, portable Turrets to be taken in Pieces and carry'd along with the Army, may be owing to them.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, aries, the Ram, was an Engine with an Iron Head call'd in Greek 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, resembling a Ram's Head, where∣with they batter'd the Enemies Walls: Of these there were three kinds:

• 1. The first was plain and unartificial, being nothing but a long Beam with an Iron Head, which the Souldiers drove with main Force against the Wall.
• 2. The second was hung with Ropes to another Beam, by the Help of which they thrust it forwards with much greater Force.
• 3. The third differ'd only from the former, as being cover'd with a 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or Shrowd to guard the Souldiers, whence 'tis call'd testudo arietaria.

The Beam was sometimes no less than an hundred and twenty Feet in length, and cover'd with Iron Plates, left those who de∣fended the Walls should set it on Fire; the Head was arm'd with as many Horns as they pleas'd; Iosephus reports that one of Ve••pasian's Rams, the Length whereof was only fifty Cubits, which came not up to to the Size of several of the Grecian Rams, had an Head as thick as ten Men, and twenty-five Horns, each of which was as thick as one Man, and plac'd a Cubit's Distance from the rest; the Weight hung (as was customary) upon the Hinder-part, weighed no less than one thousand and five hundred Talents; when it was remov'd from one Place to another, if it was not taken in Pieces, an hundred and fifty Yoke of Oxen, or three hundred Pair of Horses and Mules labour'd in drawing it; And no less than fifteen-hundred Men employ'd their utmost Strength in forcing it against the Walls; at other Times we find these Rams driven upon Wheels.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 was first invented by Demetrius, Son to Antigonus, who, having taken Rhodos, with several other Towns by the Help of this Engine, was honour'd with the Sirname of 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉. We have several Descriptions of it left us by Vitruvius(a) 1.20, Plu∣tarch(b) 1.21, and Diodorus(c) 1.22, who, tho' differing in other Points, are thus far agree'd, That it was a Machine of prodigious Bulk, not un∣like the Ram cover'd with a Shrowd, but vastly bigger, and of far greater Force; that it was driven both with Ropes and Wheels, and contain'd several other smaller Engines, out of which Stones, and other missive Weapons were cast.

〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 are us'd in different Sences, sometimes for Arrows, sometimes for Engines, out of which Arrows were cast; in the later of which Significations they are term'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, and 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉. They are likewise, tho' not very properly, taken for En∣gines to cast Stones; and we find them sometimes us'd to throw great Pieces of Timber: The Invention of them is ascrib'd to the Syrians by Pliny; but Diodorus (d) 1.23, and Plutarch report, they were first contriv'd in Sicily, about the Time that the elder Dio∣nysius engag'd in the War with Carthage.

Engines to cast Stones were of several sorts; some only for smaller Stones, such as 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, Slings; others for those also of a a larger Size, call'd sometimes only by the general Names of 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, and 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, the former of which seem to signify all sorts of Engines, the later all those design'd to cast missive Weapons; sometimes by more peculiar Ti∣tles, as 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, which Names are yet so general, as to comprehend all Engines that cast Stones: Nor is there any proper Term, that I know of, for that famous En∣gine, out of which Stones of a Size not less than Mill-stones were thrown with so great Violence, as to dash whole Houses in Pieces at a Blow: 'Twas call'd indeed by the Romans Ballista, but this Name, tho' of Grecian Original, appears not to have been us'd in Greece; this Engine however was known there, and was the same with that us'd by the Romans, the Force of which is thus express'd by Lucan (a) 1.24;

At saxum quoties ingenti verberis ictu Excutitur, qualis rupes, quam vertice montis Abscidit impulsu ventorum adjuta vetustas; Frangit cuncta ruens, nec tantum corpora pressat Exanimat, totos cum sanguine, dissipat artus.

Such is the Force, when massy Stones are thrown, As when from some Mount's Top a Rock falls down, Which now worn out with Age can't longer bear The Shock of Winds, and Fury of the Year; They break thro' all that in their Passage lye, And do thro' Walls and Houses force their Way, No only kill the Man, but spread all o'er The Ground his scatter'd Limbs and reeking Gore.

Mr. Hutchin.

These were the most remarkable Engines the Grecians us'd in taking Towns. It will be expected in the next Place, that some Account be given of the Methods, by which the Besieg'd defend them∣selves.

Upon the Enemy's Approach they gave notice to their Con∣federates (if they had any) to hasten their Assistance: In the Day this was done by raising a great Smoak; in the Night by Fires, or lighted Torches call'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, and 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, whence to signify the coming of Enemies was call'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 (b) 1.25: These were term'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, to distinguish them from those they call'd 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, which were lighted upon the Approach of

Friends: They differ'd in this, that the later were held firm and unmov'd, the former toss'd and wav'd to and fro in the Air.

They seem not to have had any constant Method of defending themselves; but thus much may be observ'd in general, that the Walls were guarded with Souldiers, who, with Stones, and all sorts of missive Weapons assaulted the Invaders; and the 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 with other Engines of that Nature were planted within the Town, and play'd upon them. Several other Methods were practis'd against them, as, when the Tyrians heating brass Bucklers red hot, and filling them with Sand and Lime, pour'd it upon Alexan∣der's Souldiers, which getting between their Armour and Flesh, burn'd vehemently, and caus'd them to fling off their Armour, so that the Besiegers wounded them at pleasure, without receiving any Hurt. Several Ways they had to elude the Force of their Engines, and defeat their Strategems: Their Mines they render'd ineffectual by Countermines; their Mounts they let fall to the Ground by Un∣dermining their Foundations: Their Towers and all their Engines they burn'd with Fire-balls; themselves they defended with Skins, Wooll-packs, and other Things proper to ward off Stones, and other missive Weapons: The Heads of Battering Rams they broke off with Stones of a prodigious Size from the Walls; or (as we read of the T••rians) ••ender'd them useless by cutting the Ropes, whereby they were govern'd, with long Seythes: And if there remain'd no Hope of defending their Walls, they some∣times rais'd new ones with Forts within. Many other Contri∣vances were us'd, as the Posture of Affairs requir'd, and as the Be∣sieg'd were ingenious in finding out Methods for their own Pre∣servation.

Their manner of treating Cities they had taken, was not always the same, depending upon the Temper of the General, who some∣times put all, at least all that were in Arms, to the Sword, demolish'd the Walls and Buildings, and made the rest Slaves; sometimes graciously receiv'd them into Favour, requiring only some Tributary Acknowlegement. The Athenians had a Custom of sending Colonies to inhabit the Places they had depopulated, which they divided by Lots among some of the Commonalty, when met together in a publick Assembly (a) 1.26.

When they demolish'd a City, it was frequent to pronounce direfull Curses upon whoever should endeavour to rebuild it; which some imagine was the reason that Troy could never be rais'd out of it's Ashes, tho' there wanted not who attempted it, being devoted to eternal and irreparable Ruin by Agamemnon (b) 1.27: This seems to have been a very ancient Custom, and deriv'd from the Eastern Nations; for (to omit other Instances) we find

Ioshua at the Destruction of Iericho to have six'd an Imprecation upon the Person that should rebuild it (a) 1.28, which was accomplish'd in Hiel the Bethelite many Ages after in the Reign of Ahab (b) 1.29.

Notes

• (c) 1.1

  Thucydides initio lib. I.
• (a) 1.2

  Herodotus lib IX. cap. LXIX.
• (b) 1.3

  Plutarch. Sylla.
• (c) 1.4

  Homer. Iliad. 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, v. 360.
• (d) 1.5

  Plutarchus Pyrrho.
• (a) 1.6

  De••teronum. cap. XX 2••.
• (a) 1.7

  Iliad. ••. v. 444
• (b) 1.8

  Ibid. v. 258.
• (c) 1.9

  Appian.
• (d) 1.10

  Plutarchu•• 〈◊〉〈◊〉
• (a) 1.11

  Fine lib. VI.
• (b) 1.12

  Cassandr. v 945.
• (c) 1.13

  Lib. XII.
• (d) 1.14

  〈◊〉〈◊〉.
• (a) 1.15

  Lib. III.
• (a) 1.16

  Lib. XIV.
• (b) 1.17

  Athenaus Mechanicit apud Turneb. Vitruvius lib. X. cap. XIX.
• (c) 1.18

  Heron cap. XIII.
• (d) 1.19

  Diodorus Seculus.
• (a) 1.20

  Lib. X.
• (b) 1.21

  Demetrio.
• (c) 1.22

  Lib. XX.
• (d) 1.23

  Lib. XIV.
• (a) 1.24

  Lib. III.
• (b) 1.25

  Theog••••du Scholiastes. Homeri S••holiastes Iliad ••.
• (a) 1.26

  Aristophanu Scholiastes 〈◊〉〈◊〉 p. 134.
• (b) 1.27

  E••tathius Iliad. ••. p. 350.
• (a) 1.28

  Iosua cap. VI. 26.
• (b) 1.29

  I. Reg. cap. XVI. 34.