The works of the famous Nicholas Machiavel, citizen and secretary of Florence written originally in Italian, and from thence newly and faithfully translated into English.

CHAP. I.

How Towns, or Castles are to be fortified.

Fabr.

YOU must understand that Towns and Castles are strong two ways, by Nature or by Art. They are strong by Nature which are encompassed by Rivers or Fens, (as Mantua, and Ferrara) or seated upon some Rock, or craggy Mountain (as Monaco, and Sanleo) for other places seated upon Mountains, if not difficult of access, are in our days rather weaker than otherwise, in respect of our Artillery and Mines: and therefore at present being to build a City, or erect a Fort that may be strong, we choose to do it in a Plain, and fortifie it artificially with Ramparts and Bastions, and our first care is to make the Walls crooked and retort, with several Vaults and places of receipt, that if the Enemy attempts to approach, he may be opposed and repulsed as well in the flank as the front: If your Walls be made too high, they are too obnoxious to the Cannon; if they be too low, they are easily scaled; if you make a Ditch before the VVall, to make the Scalado more difficult, the Enemy fills it up (which with a great Army is no hard matter) and makes himself Master immediately. My opinion therefore is this, (but with submission to better judgments) that to provide against both inconveniencies the best way will be to make your VVall high, and a Ditch on the inside rather than without; and this is the strongest way that you can build, because it keeps you both from their Artillery and assaults, and gives the Enemy no capacity of filling up the Ditch. Your VVall then is to be of the best height you can contrive; three yards thick at the least to resist their Batteries; it is to have Towers and Bulwarks at the distance of every 200 yards. The Ditch within is to be thirty yards broad at least, and twelve in depth; and all the earth which is taken out of the Ditch is to be thrown towards the

Town, against a Wall which is to be brought for that purpose from the bottom of the Ditch, and carried up a man's height above the ground, which will make the Ditch more deep and secure. Towards the bottom of the Ditch every two hundred yards, I would have a Casemat from whence the Artillery may scour, and play upon any body that shall descend. The great Guns which are used for the defence of a Town, are to be planted behind the Wall on the inside of the Ditch; for to defend the first wall, Falcons and such small Pieces are easier managed, and do as good Execution. If the Enemy comes to scale you, the height of the first Wall defends you easily: If he comes with his Artillery, he must batter down the first Wall, and when he has done that, it being Natural in all Batte∣ries for the Wall and rubbish to fall outward, there being no Ditch without to swallow and receive it, the ruines of the Wall will encrease the Depth of the Ditch, in such manner as that you cannot get forward, being obstructed by the Ruines, hindred by the Ditch, and interrupted by the Enemies great Guns within the Walls that do great slaughter upon you. The only remedy in this case is to fill up the Ditch, which is very hard in respect of its di∣mensions, and the danger in coming to it, the Wall being crooked, and Vaulted, and full of Angles, among which there is no coming without manifest hazard, for the reasons above∣said; and to think to march with Faggots over the ruines, and to fill it up that way is a chimerical thing; so that I conclude a City so fortified is not to be taken.

Battista.

If one should make a Ditch without, besides that within the Wall, would not your Town be the stronger?

Fabr.

Yes, without doubt; but my meaning is, if one Ditch only be to be made, it is better within than without.

Battista.

Would you have Water in your Ditch, or would you rather have it dry?

Fabr.

Opinions are divided in that point; for Ditches with water are more secure against Mines, and Ditches without are harder to be filled up: But upon consideration of the whole, I would have them without water, because they are more secure; for it has been seen, that the freezing of the Ditch in the Winter has been the taking of many a Town, as it hapned at Mirandola when Pope Iulius besieged it: And to prevent Mines, I would carry my Ditch so low, that whoever would think to work under it, should come to the water. Castles I would build (as to my Ditches and Walls) in the same manner, that they might have as much trouble who stormed them. But let me give one caution to any man who defends a City, and it is this, that he makes no redoubts without, at any distance from the Wall, and another to him that builds and fortifies a Castle, and that is, that he makes no works within for retreats in case the first Wall be taken.

The reason that makes me give this Counsel is, because no man ought to do that which may lessen his reputation at first; for the dimunition of that makes all his other orders contemptible, and discourages those who have undertaken his defence. And this that I say will always happen when you make Bastions without, and oblige your self to defend them, they will certainly be lost, for such small things being now adays to contend with the fury of Artillery, 'tis impossible they should hold out, and the loss of them being a lessening to your reputation, the lessening of your reputation will be the loss of the place. When Genoa rebelled against Lewis King of France, he caused certain Bastions to be erected upon the Hills which were about the Walls, which Bastions were no sooner lost (and they were lost presently) but the City was taken.

As to my second advice, I do affirm that there is nothing so pernicious to a Castle as to have those works of retreat; for the hopes that men have of preserving themselves by deserting their Posts, makes them abandon them often, and the loss of their Posts, is afterwards the loss of the Fort. We have a fresh example of this in the taking of the Castle at Furli, when the Countess Catharina defended it against Caesar Borgia, the Son of Alexander VI. who had brought the French Army before it. This Castle was full of those retreats; for first there was a Citadel, then a Fortress, and betwixt both a good Ditch with a draw bridge. The Castle within was divided into three parts, and each part strongly separated from the other with Ditches and Water, and Draw-bridges by which they com∣municated. As soon as the Duke had made his approaches, he with his great Guns bat∣tered one part of the Castle, and laid open a good part of the Wall; whereupon Giovanni da Casale who had the command of that quarter, never stood to make good the breach, but left it to retire into another part, so that the Enemy having entred the first quarter with little difficulty, it was not long before they made themselves Masters of all, by securing the Draw-bridges (in the hurry) which conveyed them one to another: This Castle therefore which was thought inexpugnable was lost by two faults; one was for having so many Re∣doubts, the other was because none of them commanded the Bridges; the ill contrivance therefore of the Fortress, and the imprudence of him that defended it, was a shame

and disappointment of the magnanimous enterprize of the Countess, who had the courage to expect an Army which neither the King of Naples, nor the Duke of Milan had the confidence to attend. Yet though she miscarried in her designs, she reaped the honour which her magnanimity deserved, as appeared by many Epigrams composed in those times in her praise. If then I were to erect a Fort, I would do it with as strong Walls, and with as good Ditches as I have prescribed; and within it, I would build only houses for habitation, and those low and weak, and such as should not hinder the prospect of all the Walls, from those who were in the Piazza; that the Commander might have the advan∣tage to discern with his eye from the main guard, whither he was to direct his supplies, and that every man might understand when the Wall and the Ditch was lost, the Castle was not to be kept. And when I made any redoubts and retrenchments within, I would do it in such manner that they should each of them command the Bridges which should be rais'd upon Pillars in the middle of the Ditch.

Battista.

You have said that small places are not to be defended in our days, and I sup∣pose I have heard quite contrary; that is to say, the lesser a place is, the better it is defensible.

Fabritio.

You were then misinformed, for no place can be now adays strong, where the defenders have not room for new Ramparts and Retrenchments to retire to; for such is the fury of the Artillery, that he who presumes upon the protection of one Wall or one Rampart, will find himself deceived. And because Bastions or Forts (provided they do not exceed their just measure, for in that case they will be rather Castles and Towns) are not made in such manner that there is space to retreat, they must presently be lost. It is wisdom therefore to place these Bastions without, and to fortifie within, especially the entries into the Towns, and to secure the Gates with Ravelins, so as that no body may come in or go out in a direct line, and that from the Ravelin to the Gate there may be a Ditch with a Draw-bridge. The Gates are to be fortified with Portcullisses, to receive their men back again into the Town when they have gone out to engage the Enemy, and when it happens that they are repulsed, and the Enemy pursues, that they may distinguish betwixt their own men and the Enemy, and prevent their entring Pell-mell amongst them. To this purpose Portcullisses (which the Ancients called Cateratte or Pigion-holes) were invented, which being let down excluded the Enemy, and preserved their Friends, whereas without them, neither Bridges nor Gates would be of any use, being possessed by the multitude.

Battista.

I have seen these Portcullisses of which you speak in Germany; and they were made of bars of wood in the fashion of Iron Gates, whereas ours are made of massy Raf∣ters or Girders all of a piece, now I would willingly be informed from whence this diffe∣rence proceeded, and which is most effectual.

Fabr.

I tell you again, that the ways, and customs and orders of War are laid aside all the world over, in respect of what was used among the Ancients, but in Italy they are ut∣terly forgot, and if there be any thing better than other, we have it from the Ultra∣montani, or Northern Nations. You may have heard, and perhaps some of these Gentle∣men may remember how weakly we fortified before the coming of Charles 8. into Italy, in the year 1494. The battlements of our Walls were made but half a yard thick; the Port-holes for our great Guns, and Musquets or small Shot were made narrow without, wide within, with many other defects which I shall forbear to mention, lest I should become tedious; for those thin battlements were quickly beaten down, and our Guns were as easily dismounted.

But now adays we have learn'd of the French to make our Battlements large and thick, and our Port-holes large within, close again in the middle, and wide again without; by which means our Artillery are not so easily dismounted, nor our Soldiers beaten from their Works. Besides these the French have several other good ways, which our Soldiers have not seen, and so have not so much as considered; and among the rest those open Portcullisses like grates is one, and they are much better than ours, for if to defend and fortifie your Gate, you have a close Portcullis, when you let it down to keep out the Enemy, you shut up your selves, and cannot afterwards do him any hurt, so that with Pick-axes, Hatchets, Petards, or Fire, he may do what he please without any interruption. But if your Portcullis be made Lettice-wise and transparent, when it is let down thorough the holes and inter∣vals you may defend it with your Pikes, small Shot, or any other kind of Arms.

Battista.

I have observed in Italy another Northern invention, and that is to make the wheels of your Carriages for your great Guns with spokes crooked or bending towards the Axel-tree, Now I would gladly know the reason of that way, because to me the straight spokes seem stronger.

Fabr.

Do not imagine that things which deviate from common use, are done by accident; or if you fancy they were made in that fashion for beauty, you are mistaken; for where force and strength is required, they never stand upon beauty; but the reason why they were changed, was because these kind of spokes are much more secure and strong; and the rea∣son they are stronger is this; when a Carriage is loaden, it is either equally poiz'd, or hang'd too much on one side. When it is equally poiz'd, the wheels bear equally, and the weight being equally distributed, does not burthen them much: But when it inclines to one side, the weight lies all upon one of the wheels: If the spokes be made straight, they are easily broken, for when ever the wheel bends, the spokes bend with it, as being unable to keep up the weight, so that when the weight is well poiz'd, or is otherwise but mode∣rate, your straight spokes are strong enough, but when your Carriage goes awry, and en∣clines to one side, they are too weak to support it. On the contrary, the spokes of your French Carriages that are made bending, are made so with great reason, for when a Car∣riage enclines to one side, the spokes on that side being made bending, will come to be straight, and will be able to sustain the whole weight better, than when it hangs equal, and (being crooked) bears but half. But to return to our Towns and our Castles. The French, besides what we have mentioned, have another way of securing their Gates, and for the sallying and retiring of their Soldiers during a Siege, than I have yet seen practised in Italy: and it is this, On the outward point of the Draw-bridge they set up two Pillars, and upon each of them they fasten a beam in such manner that one half of it hangs over the Bridge, and the other half without. Then that part which is without the Bridge, they joyn together with Cross bars like a grate, and to the end of each of the beams that hang over the Bridge, they fasten a chain: when therefore they would shut up the Bridge, so as no body should come in from without, they loosen the chains, and let down that part of it that is made with cross bars, which shuts up the Bridge; when they would open the Bridge, they draw the chains, and that part comes up again, and it is to be raised gradu∣ally, so as to receive a man on Foot, and no Horse, or a Horseman as they please, and it is raised or let down with unimaginable dexterity. This way is better than your Portcullisses, because they can hardly be hindred by the Enemy from being let down, not falling in a direct line as your Percullisses do, which are easily stop'd by putting any thing under them. They then who would make a Town strong, are to do it in the same manner as I have pre∣scribed.

Moreover they are to prohibit Cultivation or building within a Mile round; all should be a plain without any Hills, Houses, Banks or Trees to hinder the prospect of the besieged, or give any shelter to the Enemy in his approaches. And you must know that where the Ditch is without the Walls, and there are eminencies above the level of the Country, that Town is but weak; for those eminencies are blinds to the Enemy in their approaches, and when they are possess'd, they are convenient for their Batteries: But let us pass on and come into the Town.