The works of the famous Nicholas Machiavel, citizen and secretary of Florence written originally in Italian, and from thence newly and faithfully translated into English.

CHAP. I.

That a Sect or Commonwealth be long-liv'd, it is necessary to correct it often; and reduce it towards its first Principles.

'TIS a certain truth, that the things of this World are determined, and a set time appointed for their duration; but those run thorow the whole course which is assigned them by their Stars, who keep their body in such order, that it may not alter at all, or if it does, it is for the better. I speak now of mixt bodies, as Commonwealths, and Sects, and I say, that those alterations are salutiferous, which reduce them towards their first principles; and therefore the best ordered, and longest liv'd are they, who (by their own orders) may be often renewed, or else by some accident (without the help of the said orders) may tend to renovation: 'tis as clear as the day, that no bo∣dies of men are of long duration, unless they be renewed; and the way to renew them (as is said before) is to reduce them to their principles. For the Fundamentals of all Sects, Commonwealths and Kingdoms have always something of good in them, by means of which they recover their first reputation and grandeur. And because in process of time that goodness corrupts, that body must of necessity die, unless something intervenes that reduces it to its first principles. The Physitian speaking of the body of man, tell us, Quod quotidie aggregatur aliquid, quod quandoque indiget curatione; That there is not a day passes, but it contracts something which afterwards will require to be cured. 'Tis the same with the Body Politick; and as to them, I say that they are to be cured, by being renewed; and they are renewed, partly by external accident, and partly by internal prudence. The first happens as it were by destiny or fate, as that Rome should be taken by the French, that thereby it might reassume its old customs and virtues, and revive its ancient Worship, Re∣ligion

and Justice, which were superannuated and decayed, as appears very plain by the description of their preparation against the French, in which it is declared by Titus Livius, that upon the marching out of their Army, and investing their Tribunes with Consular power, they observed no religious ceremony: at the same time they not only refused to correct the three Fabii, who contra jus gentium had fought against the French, but created them Tribunes. And it is easily to be presum'd that they made less account of the good Laws and Constitutions ordained by Romulus and other wise Princes, than was reasonable and (perhaps) necessary to preserve the liberty of their State. This foreign invasion hap∣ned to them therefore, that all the obsolete Laws of that City might be revived, and that the people might be taught that it was necessary not only to maintain Religion and Justice, but to respect their good Citizens, and esteem their vertue above the advantages which they seemed to want, for want of their assistance. And it fell out exactly, for Rome was no sooner taken, but they began to renew the Orders of their old Religion: they punished the Fabii who had fought against the Law of Nations, and conceived so great a value for Camillus, that the Senate and People both laid aside their old animosity, and plac'd the whole burden of the Commonwealth upon his single shoulders. 'Tis necessary therefore (as was said before) that men which live together under a Government, be often reminded by these exterior or interior accidents. The interior way is when there is a Law which takes an account of all people in that Corporation; or else when there is some excellent person among them who by his virtuous example does the same thing, so that this happi∣ness results to a Commonwealth either by the virtue of some great person, or the autho∣rity of some Law. And as to this last, the Orders which reduc'd the Commonwealth to∣wards its first principles, were the Tribunes of the people, the Censors and all the other Laws against the ambition and insolence of man; which Laws have need to be revived and quickned by the virtue of some Citizen; who with great courage and generosity shall put them in execution in despight of all the power of the delinquents. The most re∣markable executions before the taking of Rome by the French, were the death of Brutus his Sons, the punishment of the Decem-viri, the execution of Sp. Melius: after the City was sack'd by the French, the most considerable were the death of Manlius Captolinus, the death of the Son of Manlius Torquatus, the prosecution of Papirius Cursor against. Fabius the Master of his Horse, and the accusation against Scipio; which things being extraordi∣nary, were the more remarkable, and when ever any of them hapned, they reminded the people of their beginning, and that they were to live according to Law. But when these examples began to be more rare, men took occasion to grow worse, and their exorbitan∣cies were with more danger and tumult; for if in ten years space no examples be made, nor no execution done, people begin to forget and despise the Laws, and unless something happens that may remember them of the punishments, and infuse something of fear into them, the Delinquents will grow so numerous that it will be dangerous to punish them. To this purpose they who governed the State of Florence from the year 1434 to the year 1494 were wont to say, that it was necessary every five years to review the State; for other∣wise it would be very hard to maintain it: They call'd reviewing the State, reducing the people to the same terror and awe, as they had upon them of old, when every man was punished according to his crime, let his quality be what it would. But when the memory of these punishments are lost, and suffered to go to decay, men take the confidence to at∣tempt any thing, and speak ill of whom they please, against which no remedy is so proper as reducing them towards their first principles, which is to be done by the example of some excellent person, inciting you to such executions, without dependance upon any Law; and they are many times of so great reputation, that good men desire to imitate them, and bad men are ashamed to live contrary to them. Those who in Rome liv'd after this man∣ner were Horatius Cocles, Scaevola, Fabritius, the two Decii, Regulus Attilius and some others, whose rare and virtuous example had the same effect in Rome, that good Laws, and good Customs would have had; and if every ten years some of those examples or executions aforesaid had hapned in that City, the minds and manners of the people could never have been so corrupted, but as those virtuous examples, and heroick punishments grew seldom, and scarce, so corruption began to multiply, for after Regulus his time, there was not any such example to be seen; and though the two Cato's succeeded, yet there was such great distance betwixt them, that their examples could do but little good, especially the last of the Cato's, who finding the greatest part of the City debauched, could not work any considerable reformation upon them. And so much for Civil Governments; as to the conservation of Sects, the same renovation is necessary, as may appear by the example of the Roman Religion, which would doubtless have been lost before this, had it not been reduced towards its first principle by St. Francis and St. Dominick, who by their poverty,

and Christian-like examples revived it in the minds of men, where it was almost effaced; and prevailed that the loosness and depravity of the Prelates and Cardinals did not ruine it; for men seeing them live in that indigence and poverty; by confessing their sins to them, and hearing them preach, they began to learn meekness and charity, and obedience; not to upbraid people by their vices, but to leave them to God, whereas their lives must neces∣sarily be bad, who neither see nor feel what punishment is. So then it is this renovation and reduction to its first principles, that has, and does still maintain our Religion. And as to Kingdoms, they as well as Commonwealths have occasion to reform, and reduce as the other; which course has been of no small advantage to the Kingdom of France; for that Kingdom living under Laws and Customs more than any other, the said Laws and Customs are preserved and executed by Parliaments, and especially by that of Paris, which revives them every time it makes out process against any great Person, or opposes the King in its arrests: and hitherto it has preserv'd it self by its severity against Delinquents, without re∣gard to the greatness of their quality, whereas should they pass unpunished, they would multiply so fast, that they would become incorrigible in a short time, and not to be reform'd but with the disorder, if not the dissolution of the whole Government. We may con∣clude therefore, that there is no safer way of preserving a Commonwealth, Kingdom or Sect, than by reforming and reducing them to their primitive reputation, which is to be done rather by good Laws, and examples at home, than foreign force; for though that way be effectual sometimes, (as it was in Rome) yet it is so uncertain and dangerous, it is not to be desired. And to demonstrate how much particular examples have conduced to the grandeur of Rome, and what great effect they have wrought, I shall make them the subject of my discourse in this third Book; and although among them some great exam∣ples might be produced, which have been exhibited by Kings, yet History having spoken of them so largely, I shall pass them by without speaking any thing of them but what be∣longs to their own private advantage. And begin with Brutus the Father of the liberty of the Romans.