The works of the famous Nicholas Machiavel, citizen and secretary of Florence written originally in Italian, and from thence newly and faithfully translated into English.

CHAP. IV.

There are three ways which Commonwealths have taken to enlarge their Territories.

HE who has read and observed the History of our Ancestors must find, That Common∣wealths had generally three ways of enlarging their Empire. One is that which was observed of the Tuscans of old, who entred into a League of Confederacy with several other Commonwealths, with condition of Equality, that no particular should have any degree or authority above the rest, and that comprehension should be left for all their new Conquests to come in, not much unlike the practice of the Swizzers in our times, and the Achaians, and Aetolians of old. And because the Romans had in those times much controversie with the Tuscans and their Confederates, I shall enlarge my self something in the explanation of their affairs, of which, though there be but little Monu∣ment in History, yet we are assured, that before the greatness of the Romans, the Tuscans were very powerful both by Sea, and by Land; of which power it is no small argument, their sending a Colony into the Mare superum to a place called Adria, which grew so con∣siderable and famous, that it denominated that whole Sea, and it has been called the Mare Adriaticum ever since. It is known likewise that their Empire extended from the Tyber to the foot of the Alps, which comprehends the greatest part of Italy at this day; though 200 years before the Romans came to any considerable strength, the Tuscans received a great defeat by the Gauls; who under the Command of Bollovesus, either in quest of new quar∣ters, or tempted by the pleasantness of the Country, having passed the Alps, possessed themselves of that Province called Lombardy, and gave it the name of Gallia Cisalpina; after which they turn'd out the Natives, settled themselves there, and built several Cities, which they enjoyed, till in process of time, they also were supplanted by the Romans. And this was the method of the Tuscans proceeding, and the manner of their confederating with their Neighbours, which was no less than XII Cities; of which Clusium, Veii, Fe∣sulae, Aretium, and Volterra were the chief; but yet with all their assistance they could not exceed the limits of Italy, nor indeed conquer all that, for reasons which we shall mention hereafter. Another way of extending your Empire, is by associating with several Cities, but so as that the dignity of the Command, the seat of the Empire, and the honour of the Enterprize may remain with you; which was the way observed by the Romans. The third is the way of the Spartans and Athenians, who entertained no Confederates, but what ever Territories they Conquered, they annexed them to their own: which way is undoubt∣edly the worst of the three, as appeared by the two said Republicks, who were ruined upon no other account, but because they had grasped more Dominion than they were able to hold. For it is a thing in it self very arduous and difficult, to keep a City in subjection by a con∣tinued force, especially if ever it was free; wherefore unless your Citizens be very nume∣rous, and your associates very considerable, by whose assistance you may be able to keep what you conquer, it will never be in your power to enlarge your dominion very much,

and the Spartans and Athenians miscarrying in their way, miscarried likewise in their end, and all their great conquest came to nothing: The Romans took the second way, and succeeded to that vast and extraordinary power, by associating equally in many things, with many States, but reserving always to themselves the Seat of the Empire, and the chief command in their Wars, by which means it came to pass, that their Confederates (ere they were aware) subjected themselves to the Romans, at the expence of their own labour, and blood. For after they had carried their Arms out of Italy; reduced several Kingdoms into Provinces, and the Inhabitants being accustomed to live in subjection, without much diffi∣culty submitted, the Romans bearing the name of the War, and the Nations that were con∣quered knowing nothing of their Allies, submitted to their dominion, and would own no body else: whereby it happen'd that their associates in Italy being over-powred by the multitude of provinces which had submitted to the Romans, and by the strength and popu∣lousness of Rome, began to find their error by degrees, but too late, and when they had no way left to defend themselves; for if any of them conspired, they were quickly sup∣pressed, and made Subjects of Associates. This way of administration, and enlarging their Empire was peculiar to the Romans; no other people observed it, and certainly no bet••er is to be found. The next way of confederating (which was practised by the Tus∣cans, Achaians, and Aetolians in old time, and by the Swizzers of late) is the best way next to that of the Romans; for though it cannot arrive at any great Empire, the Confede∣racy consisting of so many free Cities, which being all to be consulted, makes their resolu∣tions very tedious, besides, the Citizens are not so vigorous in a War, where the prize is to be divided into so many parts; yet for these reasons it has two advantages of the third. First, whatever it gains, it keeps a long time, and loses very hardly; and secondly, it engages not so rashly in War, but enjoys with more ease and felicity the blessings of peace: for they are longer in their consultations and debates, where there is to be a general Dyet and Convention, than where things are to be dispatched within the Walls of one City, Be∣sides experience tells us that this way has certain bounds, which have not been exceeded by any example we can find. For after XII or XIV Cities have confederated, they admit no more into the League, as holding themselves enough, and sufficient for their defence, nor are they much solicitous of extending their Empire, because they are under no necessity of making themselves stronger; and their conquest would be of little advantage to every par∣ticular State, for they would be forced upon one of these two rocks, either to incorporate them into their League, and then the multitude would breed confusion, or make them their Subjects which they will hardly continue: When therefore they are got to such a number in their association, as that they seem safe against foreign invasion, and strong enough to defend themselves; They take one of these two ways, either they receive their Neighbour States or Cities into their protection (by which means they draw vast sums of Mony sometimes, that are easily distributed) or else they ••ight for other people, and receive pay from this or that Prince, as the Swizzers do now, and other Nations have done of old. To this purpose Titus Livius gives us an account That at a conference betwixt Phi∣lip of Macedon and Titus Quintus Flaminius, an Aetolian Praetor being present, there happening some words betwixt the said Praetor and King Philip, King Philip reproached him by the avarice, and inconstancy of his Country, as a people that were not ashamed to take pay on one side, and send supplies to the other, by which means it was frequently seen that in both Armies the Aetolian Colours were displayed; from whence we may con∣clude that this way of proceeding by League and Confederacies, has been always the same, and has had the same effects. The third way of subjecting your conquests and annexing them to your own dominions, is very incommodious, and instable; and if it were so to a Commonwealth well constituted and armed, it must needs be much worse to a Government that is weak, as most of the Italian States are at this day; but the Roman way is the best, and most to be admired; for there is no example of any body that made use of it before them, nor has any body imitated them since; and as to the practice of the Tuscans, and Aetolians in their Confederations, there is no body follows it now a days, but the Swizzers, and the Suevians: Which being so, and so many brave things performed by the people of Rome as well for the conservation, as the augmentation of their Empire, it is not strange our affairs succeeded no better, and that we have been a prey to whoever would invade us; for (to say nothing of the rest) it has doubtless becom'd the Tuscans if they could not have imitated the Roman Discipline, nor followed their measures in extend∣ing their Empire, at least to have follow'd the example of their own Ancestors, who though they brought not their Empire to that Grandeur and immensity as the Romans; yet they enlarged it as far as they thought good, and as far as consisted with the Nature of their Government; and by doing so, they kept it a long time, with immortal honour to

their memory, till they were first shaken by the Gauls, and afterwards so totally ruined by the Romans, that there is scarce the lest token left, that there was ever any such thing; which having brought it into my mind to consider what may be the causes of this oblivion of things, I shall discourse of them in the following Chapter.