The anatomy of humane bodies epitomized wherein all parts of man's body, with their actions and uses, are succinctly described, according to the newest doctrine of the most accurate and learned modern anatomists / by a Fellow of the College of Physicians, London.

The Sixth Book. (Book 6)

OF THE BONES.

CHAP. I.

Of the Nature of a Bone.

A Bone is called in Greek 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉,* 1.1 from 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 to stand; for according to Hippocrates, 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, it affords stability, streightness and form to the Body.

It may be defined to be a similar part,* 1.2 most dry and cold, inflexible, void of sense, affording stabili∣ment and form to the whole Body.

Bones have been commonly taught to be made of the more crass,* 1.3 tartareous or earthy part of the Seed, in the Womb, and that they are nou∣rished with the like particles of the Bloud, and moisten'd with their contained Marrow. And I see no reason to recede from this doctrine, unless one would commence litem de nomine, brangle

about a term: for though Women have no true Seed, and the Man's being only an active princi∣ple of generation affords nothing of matter to the parts of the Foetus, but only impregnates the Ovum, (as was shewn in Book 1.) yet if we will but grant the name of Seed to the humour in the Ovum, (which we may do without absurdity) we may continue the old manner of speaking. Now though they are continually nourished, yet towards Manhood, by the encreased heat of the Body, the primigeneal moisture is so lessened, that the Bones through their hardness are not apt to be any longer extended; and so Men cease to grow any higher of stature.

Their nourishment is brought to them by the Arteries,* 1.4 and what is not fit for their use returns back by the Veins. Several of them, as the Shoul∣der and Thigh-bones, have apparent holes for the entrance of the vessels into their Marrow: and such as have no Marrow and so want such holes, they are commonly of a more spongie or fungous substance, into which no doubt some nu∣tritive particles of the Bloud pass from the Arte∣ries, though their branchings therein are not so apparent. There are no Nerves that are inserted into them (except into the Teeth) but these only run through the Membrane or Periosteum that invests them.

The efficient cause of the Bones is the same vivisick spirit or plastick power seated in the Ovum,* 1.5 that forms all the other parts of the Body; Galen call it Facultas 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, the ossi∣fick faculty: some think this same spirit might be called the essential form of the Bones; though com∣monly that is said to be their cold and dry tempe∣rature;

as their accidental form is their figure, which is commonly either round or flat. But these are too dry notions to be insisted on in this place.

Their substance is whitish and hard,* 1.6 (in some Bones, and at some ages, more, and in others less) not altogether dry in living persons, but bedewed with a fat and unctuous moisture, which the more it abounds, the Bones are the tougher and less apt to break; and when they are broken, they are the apter to grow together again with a Callus, which such viscous juice contributes very much to. And it is only by a Callus that any Bone is joined after fracture; for a Bone being of the number of those parts that are called spermatick, can never be generated anew.

CHAP. II.

Of the natural affections of Bones.

THE Affections of Bones are either common to all, or proper to some only.

The common are seven.* 1.7 For first, a Bone must be hard, the more firmly to sustain the Body. Secondly, of a whitish colour, because it is a spermatick part. Thirdly, destitute of feeling, for avoiding of pain in motion. Fourthly, it must be either hollow to contain Marrow in its Cavity for moistening of it; or spongious and porous, that some nutritive particles of the Bloud may pass through its very substance. Fifthly, its ends

must be covered with a Cartilage, and that be∣dewed with an unctuous humour, to procure an easie motion. Sixthly, it must be covered with a Membrane, to preserve it from cariosity; ex∣cept the four Bones of the Ear, and the parts of the Teeth above the Gums. Seventhly, it must be equal. Wherefore the Callus wherewith a broken Bone is united, and nodes in the Pox, are not natural affections.

These tokens that follow, shew a Bone to be preternaturally affected: First, if it be soft; be∣cause that must cause the Member to be too flexi∣ble. Secondly, if it be too dry; for then it is distempered. Thirdly, if it be black; for then it is carious. Fourthly, if its figure be altered; for then it must hinder the action of the part.

The proper affections are four:* 1.8 The first is a Cavity; and it is twofold: for it is either deep, as in the Hip-bone, and is called Cotyle; or shal∣low, as in the Knee, and is called Glene. The second is a Protuberance, of which there be two kinds: for it is either a continued part of the Bone jetting manifestly above its plain superficies, for the more commodious insertion of the Mus∣cles, &c. and is called Apophysis, a Process; or else it is like an additional Bone growing to ano∣ther by simple and immediate contiguity, (and generally softer and more porous than it) and is called Epiphysis, an Appendage. If the Protube∣rance of the Bone be round, it is called its Caput; under which is the Cervix, as in the upper end of the Thigh-bone: If it be flat, it is called Condy∣lus: If pointed, Corone. Other Protuberances are named from the similitude they have to other things; as Styloides, Coracoides, &c. The third

is Inequality: this is seen in the outside of the Oc∣ciput for the insertion of the Muscles. The fourth is Smoothness, as in the outside of the rest of the Skull.

CHAP. III.

Of the differences of the joining of Bones to∣gether.

THEY are coupled together either by Arti∣culation or jointing; or else by Symphysis or growing together.

Articulation is either for manifest,* 1.9 or obscure motion. The jointings which serve for manifest motion are three. First, Enarthrosis, which is when a large head of a Bone is received into a deep Cavity, as the Thigh-bone into the Hip∣bone. Secondly, Arthrodia, which is when the Cavity which receiveth is shallow, and the head of the Bone which is received, flattish: such is the articulation of the lower Jaw with the Temple-bone. The third is Ginglymos; when the same Bone receiveth, and is received. This falleth out three manner of ways. First, when the Bone is received by another, and receiveth the same; this is seen in the articulation of the Shoulder-bone with the Ʋlna. Secondly, when a Bone receiveth one Bone, and is received by another: this may be seen in the Spondyls or Vertebrae of the Back, where the middle Bone receiveth the upper, and is received by the lower. The third

is, when the process of the Bone being long and round, is inserted into another upper Bone, and so is turned in the Cavity like an Axle-tree in a Wheel; so is the second vertebra of the Neck jointed with the first.

Articulation for obscure motion is called Synar∣throsis; and such is the jointing of the Ribs with the Vertebrae, of the Bones of the Carpus and Me∣tacarpus, and of the Talus with the Heel-bone.

Bones grow together either without some mid∣dle heterogeneous substance,* 1.10 or with it. With∣out some middle substance they are joined three manner of ways. First, by a simple line, as the Bones of the upper Jaw and Nose: this is called Harmonia. Secondly, by a suture, as the Bones of the Skull. Thirdly, when one Bone is fasten∣ed in another, as a nail in wood; and so are the Teeth fastened in the Jaw-bone: this is called Gomphosis. If Bones grow together by a middle substance, it is either by a Cartilage, as the Share-bones are joined; which unition is called Synchondrosis: or by a Ligament, and so the Thigh is joined with the Hip-bone; this is called Syneurosis, or more properly, according to Spige∣lius, Syndesmosis: or last of all by Flesh, and so is the Bone of the Tongue by its Muscles to the adja∣cent parts; this is termed Syssarcosis.

Spigelius reckons two other heterogeneous mid∣dle substances by which Bones are united; one when they are joined by a Tendon, as the Knee∣pan to the Thigh-bone and Tibia, which unition he calls Syntenosis; the other by a Membrane, as in Infants the Bones of the Synciput with the Os frontis; and this he calls Synymensis.

CHAP. IV.

Of the Sutures of the Head.

THE Bones of the whole Body belong to these four parts of it; the Head (and Neck) the Breast, the lower Belly, and the Limbs.

The Head is that part which is above the verte∣brae of the Neck: of it there are two parts, the Skull and the Face. The Skull is that bony sub∣stance which containeth the Brain, and is decked with hair.

In the description of the Bones of the Head these two things are to be noted; the Sutures, and the number of the Bones.* 1.11 The Sutures are either proper, or common.

The proper are those which join the Bones of the Skull one with another;* 1.12 and they are either true Sutures, or (mendosae) counterfeit.

The true are those which represent two Saws joined together by their Teeth;* 1.13 and these are three in number: the first is Coronalis, which is seated in the fore part, and passeth from one Temple to the other transversly, joining the Os frontis to the Synciput. The second is Lambdoides, opposite to this, resembling the Greek letter Λ. This beginning at the basis of the Occiput ascends obliquely to either Ear, and joins the Bone of the Occiput to the Bones of the Synciput and Tem∣ples. The third is Sagittalis, which beginning at the top of the Lambdoides comes streight for∣ward by the Crown to the middle of the Coronalis,

and in Children for some years (sometimes in the adult) it runs to the top of the Nose, divi∣ding the bone of the Forehead into two.

The counterfeit or mendosae resemble a line only,* 1.14 and might more properly be called Harmoniae than Sutures. They are two in number. The first passing from the root of the Processus mammil∣laris upwards with a circular duct, circumscribes the Temple-bone on each side of the Head, de∣scending down again to the basis of the Ear: this joins the Bones of the Synciput, Occiput and Sphe∣noides with the Temple-bones, these lying upon those like the Skales upon Fish, whence these Su∣tures are called Squamosae. The second runs from the top of this squamous conjunction obliquely downwards towards the orbit of the Eye, to the beginning of the first common Suture, and joins this Bone above with the Bones of the Synciput, below with the Bone of the Forehead.

The common Sutures are those which belong to the Skull,* 1.15 the wedge-like Bone, and the upper Jaw. The most remarkable are these: first, Frontalis, by which the outer process of the Os frontis is joined with the first Bone of the upper Jaw. The second is Cuneiformis, by which the wedge-like Bone is joined with the first Bone of the upper Jaw. The third is Cribrosa: this is common to the wedge-like Bone, and the Septum or partition of the Nose.

The Sutures have three uses.* 1.16 The first is to help to stay the Brain from tottering, and its parts from being misplaced in violent motions, by permitting some Fibres to pass through from the Dura mater to the Pericranium, by which the said Mater and the Brain invested in it are suspended

as it were. The second is to permit the steams and fumes in the Brain to evaporate. And the third, to hinder the fissures that happen in the Skull from knocks or falls, &c. from extending any farther than through one Bone, for they ge∣nerally stop at the next Suture.

CHAP. V.

Of the proper Bones of the Skull.

THese are in number six, one of the Fore∣head, another of the Occiput, two of the Crown, and two of the Temples.

First,* 1.17 Os frontis, the Forehead-bone. It is bounded by the Coronal and first common Suture, before; and in the sides by the temporal Bones. It is but one in those of ripe age, but double in Children, being divided by a Suture passing from the Coronal to the Nose.

Betwixt the Laminae of this Bone in the upper part of the Eye-brows at the top of the Nose,* 1.18 there is a large Cavity, (often two) from whence two holes pass to the Nostrils. The outer Lamina that constitutes this Cavity, makes the upper plane part of the orbit of the Eye; but the inner, on each side above the Eyes forms a bunchy protuberance uneven with many jettings out like little Hills. The Cavity is invested with a very thin greenish Membrane, and contains a clammy humour. What its use may be is hard to say; some think it gives an Echo to the Voice, making

it more sonorous; others that it receiveth the odoriferous air drawn in by the Nose, to stay it awhile before it be sent to the Brain. It hath two holes in the middle part of the Eye-brow, which go to the orbit of the Eye, by which the first branch of the Nerve of the fifth conjugation of the Brain goes to the Muscle of the Fore∣head, &c. It hath also four processes; the greater two are seated at the greater corner of the Eye, but the lesser two at the lesser, making the upper part of the orbit.

The Bones of the Crown are in number two.* 1.19 Before, they are joined with the Bone of the Fore∣head, by the Coronal suture; behind, with the Os occipitis by the Suture Lambdoides; and on each side to the Temple-bones, by the Suturae squamosae. They are joined to one another in the middle of the Crown by the sagittal Suture. On the outside they are smooth, but on the inside un∣even, for they have a great many furrows run∣ning along them for the passage of the Veins of the Dura mater. Their substance is thinner and more rare even in the adult than that of the other Bones (for the better exhalation of vapours) but in Infants that abound with much humidity, they are membranous and soft, hardening by degrees.

Under these on each side are the Bones of the Temples.* 1.20 They are joined in their upper part to the outside of the Bones of the Crown by the Suturae squamosae; before, to the first Bone of the upper Jaw, by its first process; behind, to the Os occipitis, by a counterfeit Suture. These Bones are even and thin in the upper part, like a Skale; but below thick, hard and unequal or eraggy; wherefore they are called Petrosa.

They have each two Sinus;* 1.21 the outer greater, lined with a Cartilage, betwixt the Meatus audi∣torius and the process of Os jugale, that receives the longer head of the lower Jaw; the inner less, common to the Bone of the Occiput, placed on the hinder side of the said process.

By these Sinus there stands a slender,* 1.22 sharp and longish Appendix, from its shape called Stylifor∣mis, which in Infants is cartilaginous, but in the adult becomes bony.

Besides this Appendix they have three other Processes, two external and one internal.

The first external is blunt;* 1.23 thick and short, a little hollow within, and because it somewhat re∣sembles a Cow's Pap is called Mammillaris.

The second is carried forward from the Meatus of the Ear, and is joined with the Bone of the up∣per Jaw, both of them framing the Os jugale, of which in the next Chapter.

The third, that is internal, is pretty long, jet∣ting out to the inner basis of the Skull, within which it has two holes, through one of which an Artery, and through the other the auditory Nerve pass to the inner Cavities of the Ear, that are excavated in this Bone, namely the Tympanum, Labyrinthus and Cochlea; and without the Skull it hath three holes; the first of which is the Meatus auditorius; the second is narrow, short and ob∣lique, near to the first, by which the Jugular vein enters the inner Cavities; the third is seated be∣twixt the Processus mammillaris and the Styloides appendix, and ends into that passage that goes from the Ear to the Mouth.

As to the four little Bones that are contained in its Cavities, viz. Incus, Malleus, Stapes, and

Os orbiculare, we have spoken of them before in Book 3. Chap. 23.

The Os occipitis,* 1.24 that makes the hinder and lower part of the Head, is five-corner'd, by two of which corners it is joined in its upper part to the Bones of the Synciput by the Lambdoides Su∣ture, by two other in its foresides to the Temple-bones by a counterfeit Suture, and by its fifth corner to the Os cuneiforme, (according to Spige∣lius.) It is but one in the adult, but it consists of four or more in Infants. It is the thickest and most compact of all the Bones of the Skull. It is said to have nine Sinus, two external, and seven in∣ternal. Of the internal the two largest are those that receive the protuberances of the Cerebellum. It has also five Protubernances, and five Foramina, of which the lowest and largest is that by which the Medulla oblongata passes out of the Skull into the Cavity of the Vertebrae. The rest are less, and are for the transit of the Vessels.

These Bones of the Skull consist of two Tables or Laminae, all but the squamous part of the Tem∣ple-bones. The uppermost is hardest, thickest and smoothest: The lower is unequal, and pitted, to give way to the Vessels dispersed through the Dura mater. Between these two Tables there is a certain spongious substance, containing a mar∣rowy and red juice, for the nutrition and humec∣tation of the Bones, and is call'd Diploe. It is red, by reason of the many small Veins and Arte∣ries passing that way. Many times in the Pox a virulent humour is gathered herein, which eats through and corrupts the Laminae, and causes most tormenting pains in the Periosteum and Pericra∣nium.

CHAP. VI.

Of the Bones common to the Skull and up∣per Jaw.

HItherto of the Bones proper to the Skull: Now follow those which are common to it and the upper Jaw. These are three: First, the wedge∣like Bone,* 1.25 Sphenoides or Cuneiforme; so called, not that it is like a Wedge, but that it is seated be∣twixt the Bones of the Skull and the upper Jaw. Before, it is joined with the Forehead-bone; be∣hind, to the Os occipitis. At the sides it doth accompany a good way the Os petrosum. Above, it doth touch the first, fourth, and sixth Bone of the upper Jaw; and below, the Bones of the Pa∣late of the Mouth by the wing-like Processes. It is thick in the middle, but thinner at the edges, and in the adult it consists of two Laminae and a Diploe, like the other Bones proper to the Skull. In Infants it consists of three or four. It has four external Processes, of which two, that are conti∣guous to the upper Jaw, are called Aliformes Wing-like; and four internal also, that compose the sella Turcica, upon which the Glandula pituitaria lieth, that receiveth the pituitous excrements falling from the Brain by the Infundibulum. But this sella Turcica is not perforated, as we intima∣ted from Dr. Lower in Book 3. Chap. 5. though that has been generally taught, supposing that the pituitous matter did destil through its holes upon the Palate, &c. whereas it is resorbed by the Veins, as that learned Doctor affirms. It

hath sundry perforations, by which the motory and optick Nerves of the Eye, and other Nerves for the motion of other parts, as also Veins and Arteries do pass.

The second common Bone is Os cribriforme,* 1.26 because, like a Sieve, it hath many holes, by which smells pass to the Processus mammillares or olfactory Nerves. It is covered with the Dura mater, and seated in the middle basis of the Fore∣head at the top of the Nostrils, and is joined by the Sutures called Harmoniae to the Os frontis, the second Bone of the upper Jaw and to the Cunei∣forme. On its upper side in the middle it has growing upon it a kind of triangular process, like to the Comb of a Cock, which is therefore called Crista galli. And opposite to this in its lower side it has another that is thin and hard, di∣viding the Nose into two parts or Nostrils, the right and the left, and is called Septum nasi. To this Os cribriforme, in the cavity of the Nostrils, there adhere two other Bones called Spongiosa, because they are full of holes like a Pumice-stone. But most Anatomists consider them as parts of the Os cribriforme, confounding their names one with the other, calling this, Os spongiosum or cribri∣forme indifferently.

The third common Bone is Os jugale, or the Yoke-bone. It is placed on each side of the Face between the Meatus of the Ear and the first Bone of the upper Jaw, being framed of two Bones, of which the hinder is a process of the Temple-bone that is carried from the Meatus auditorius; and the fore-bone is a process of the first bone of the upper Jaw, which maketh the lower side of the lesser corner of the Eye. These two Processes are

joined by an oblique Suture, and make the Os ju∣gale. It sustaineth the Tendon of the temporal Muscle which passeth to the lower Jaw, and that of the Muscle Masseter.

CHAP. VII.

Of the Jaws.

NOW follow the Bones of the Face, which are the Jaw-bones with their Teeth; to which we shall subjoin the Bone of the Tongue.

The Jaws are two,* 1.27 the upper and lower. The substance of the upper Jaw especially on its in∣side is not solid but spongious; and unequal, be∣cause it is framed of sundry Bones. They are six pair, six in each side. The first is Zygomaticum: this maketh up the best part of the Os jugale, and the outer corner of the Eye. The second is Os la∣chrymale. It is a round, little and thin Bone in the inner corner of the Eye, whereon the Carun∣cula lachrymalis resteth. In the lower part of it there is a hole which passeth to the cavity of the Nose: by this a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves passeth to the inner Membrane of the Nose. The third is thin as the former, but quadrangular. It is placed between the two former in the inner side of the orbit of the Eye, and is continuous to the Os spongiosum of the Nostrils. The fourth is Os malae, the Cheek-bone, the greatest and thick∣est. This maketh up the greatest part of the Cheek and Palate, and containeth all the upper

Teeth in its caverns. It is joined above, on that side next the Nose, to the Bone of the Forehead, but below with the wedge-like Bone; before with the Os lachrymale, behind with the third, and last of all with its fellow. Under the Eye it has a hole for the passage of a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves that is bestowed on the Face; and another near the bottom of the Nose, by which an Artery and a Vein pass from the Palate to the Nostrils. The fifth is long, hard, and reasonable thick; it with its fellow maketh up the bony part of the Nose. It is joined with the Cartilages of the Nose below, (to which purpose it is very rough and unequal on that side) but to the internal pro∣cess of the Os frontis above. The sixth doth make up the Roof of the Mouth, (with its fellow.)

Six Bones then make up the orbit of the Eye. The first is Frontale, which maketh the upper vaulted part. The second is placed in the outside, where the lesser corner is, and is a portion of the wedge-like Bone. The third is the first Bone of the upper Jaw, and maketh up the outside, con∣curring with the former portion of the wedge-like Bone. The fourth and fifth are the second and third of the said Jaw, and make up the in∣side. The sixth maketh up the lower part. These are joined one to another partly by common, and partly by proper Sutures.

The lower Jaw in those of ripe age is but one Bone,* 1.28 but in Children, till they are a year or two old, it consists of two, which are joined to∣gether at the Chin by Synchondrosis, and after∣wards grow into one. This is moveable, but the upper immoveable. It resembleth in shape the Greek letter v. At both the ends of it there are

two processes, whereof the one from a broad ba∣sis grows sharp, and is called Corona: this recei∣veth the Tendon of the temporal Muscle, which is also the first of the lower Jaw. The other may be called Articularis, because it serveth for Arti∣culation. This has a Neck and a longish Head (called Condylus) that is covered with a Carti∣lage for its easier motion. By this Head it is in∣articulated into the Sinus of Os petrosum that is also lined with a Cartilage, and is knit strongly thereto by a membranous Ligament. This Bone has a cavity within, especially in the fore part toward the Chin, which contains a marrowy juice for its nourishment. It has four Foramina; of which two are at the roots of the Processes, by which a branch of the fifth pair of Nerves to∣gether with a Vein and Artery pass to the Teeth; and two other in its fore-part by the sides of the Chin, by which two twigs of the said fifth branch pass out again to the lower Lip and its Muscles and Skin.

Both the Jaws have Alveoli or Sockets for the Teeth, in number equal with the number of the Teeth. But when in old age the Teeth fall out, the Sockets close together, so that in time there remains no print of them, but the Bone becomes sharp.

CHAP. VIII.

Of the Teeth.

THE Teeth are called in Latin Dentes, quasi Edentes, from their office; and are fixed in the Jaw-bones as a Nail into a Post, by Gomphosis. Their root is tied to the Mandible by a Nerve, by Syneurosis; and the upper part as far as 'tis com∣passed by the fleshy substance of the Gum, by Syssarcosis.

Their substance is the hardest of all other Bones.* 1.29 That part of them that stands out naked above the Gums is smooth and covered with no Perioste∣um; but that part within the Sockets of the Jaws is rough and invested with a thin Membrane or Periosteum that is of exquisite sense. The Grinders have a manifest cavity within, (but the Incisores and Dog-teeth but an obscure one) whereinto by the very small holes of their roots they each receive a Capillary artery from the Ca∣rotides, a Vein from the Jugulars, and a twig of a Nerve from the fifth pair (as abovesaid) which last being expanded through the thin Membrane that invests the said cavity gives it a most acute sense; but the bony substance of it self is wholly insensible. The Vein, Artery and Nerve are united together and clad with a common Mem∣brane when they enter the Jaw, within which they have a proper channel to run along in under the roots of the Teeth, sending twigs to each as they pass under them.* 1.30

The rudiments or principles of the Teeth are

bred with the other parts in the Womb, but lie hid for some months within the Jaws and Gums, in which they encrease and are perfected by de∣grees, some breaking through the Gums sooner, others later, as every one may observe in Chil∣dren. But though after such a term of man's life, no new Teeth spring; yet they grow conti∣nually as long as a Man lives, else would they be soon worn to the stumps by their daily use; and we see that when a Tooth is lost out of either Jaw, that which is opposite to it in the other Jaw, will grow longer than the rest, having none to grind against.

When Children come to be seven or eight years old,* 1.31 they change several of their Teeth; but very rarely, if ever, all. The Incisores or Fore-teeth, the Canini, or Eye-teeth, and the foremost Double-teeth most change; but the rest of the Double-teeth very few. Now concerning this changing of the Teeth we must note, that the old ones do not come out by the roots, but their upper part only drops off, their root remaining still in the Socket of the Jaw, which (being like seed for the new ones) by degrees grows up above the Gums to supply the place of that which was faln off. Commonly about the twentieth year (or upwards) there spring out two Double-teeth behind the rest, which till then had lain hid in their Sockets. These are called Genuine teeth, or Dentes sapientiae, because Men are then come to years of discretion.

As for the number of them,* 1.32 commonly there are found sixteen in each Jaw; if there fall out any difference in number as to individual persons, it commonly falleth out in the Molares.

There are three ranks of 〈◊〉〈◊〉▪* 1.33 Those of the first rank (or the foremo••••) are called Incisores, Cutters. Most commonly 〈…〉〈…〉 found in each Jaw: they have but one root o•• phang, and so easily fall out. These first make way out of the Gums in Children, because the tops of them are sharpest. Those of the second rank are called Canini, or Dog-teeth, from their length, hardness and sharpness above the rest. In each Jaw there are two, at each side of the Cutters one. They are commonly called Eye-teeth, either from an opinion that their roots (viz. of the upper) reach as far as the Eyes, or that the same Nerve that moves the Eye sends a twig to these Teeth; neither of which conceits are true. The roots of these are single as those of the Incisores, but they are both sometimes crooked; and if such people in whom they are so, chance to have one of them drawn, they can hardly be pulled out without breaking off a piece of the Alveolus in which they are sixt. Those of the third rank are called Molares, Grinders; be∣cause like Milstones they grind the meat. Most commonly they are twenty in number▪ five in each side of both Jaws. The two foremost that stand next to the Dog-teeth, are less than the rest, having but two knobs at the top, but the three hindmost are larger and have four, being in a manner foursquare. The two foremost also have but two roots at most, but the three hind∣most commonly three or four. But those of the upper Jaw have for the most part one root more than those which are opposite to them in the lower. The reason whereof may be, first, be∣cause they hang; and secondly, because the sub∣stance

of the upper Jaw is not so firm as that of the lower.

The ••se of the Teeth is principally to chew the meat to prepare it for the Stomach,* 1.34 that it may the easilier concoct it into Chyle. The Incisores bite off the morsel, the Dog-teeth break it, and the Grinders make it small; wherefore they are flat in the top, that they may the better receive and keep the meat, and rough, that they may grind it the better. The Teeth contribute also to the formation of the Sp••••••h, especially the Fore-teeth; for those that have lost them, lisp as we say, and cannot pronounce pl••inly such syllables as have C. X. &c. in them.

CHAP. IX.

Of the Bone of the Tongue called Os hyoides.

THIS Bone is seated under the lower Jaw, in the uppermost part of the Larynx. It is shaped like the Greek vowel ••, (whence it is also called Os Ypsiloides) or to the lower Jaw; because it is arched before, and extended with two points like horns behind. It is commonly compounded of three Bones. That in the middle is gibbous for∣wards and hollowinwards, and by its gibbous side is joined to the basis of the Tongue. The other two are lateral, and are called Cornua, or Horns. Each of these has a Cartilage adhering to it; and the middle, two. They are all tied to the adja∣cent parts, partly by a fleshy, partly by a nervous

substance. In its Sinus it receiveth the Epiglottis. It moves together with the Tongue, and serveth to keep the Throat open, that the meat may de∣scend into the Stomach, and the air have passage to the Wind-pipe while we speak and breath.

CHAP. X.

Of the Bones of the Neck.

HItherto of the Bones of the Head, now fol∣low those of the Neck.

They are of two sorts, to wit, the Claviculae or Channel-bones, and the Vertebrae.

As to the Claviculae,* 1.35 some reckon them to the Thorax, others to the Shoulder; but considering their situation, they may as fitly be reckoned as pertaining to the Neck. They are called Clavi∣culae from their resembling the shape of old-fashi∣oned Keys, which were of the figure of an Ita∣lick s; such as Spigelius says he has seen belonging to old Houses at Padua. They are not so crooked in Women as in Men. Their substance is thick and spongie, but more about the heads than about the middle. In number they are two, one on each side. Near the Throat they are round; but towards the Shoulder flattish. They are join∣ed to two Bones, to wit, one end to the Shoulder-blade, and the other to the top of the Breast-bone. The use of them is to uphold the Shoulder-blades, that they should not fall upon the Breast together with the Shoulder-bone; which fal∣leth

out, when there is a fracture in them.

The Vertebrae of the Neck are in number seven.* 1.36 The Bones of these are less, but harder than those of the other, because they are more moved. These have first a large hollowness to give way to the Spinalis medulla to descend by: then two holes in their transverse Processes, one in each side, through which Veins and Arteries pass to the Head. Their Bodies have Processes oblique, transverse and posteriour; which last are forked, except in the first and last Vertebrae.

The first Vertebra is called Atlas, because the Head stands upon it, like a little World. It hath no Spine behind (only a little blunt knob) lest the two small Muscles of the Head springing from the second Vertebra should be hurt, when the Head is extended. It has two ascending and also two descending Processes, (otherwise called ob∣lique) and both of them a little hollowed; the upper receiving the tubercles of the Occiput, and the lower the ascending. Processes of the second Vertebra. Upon these the Head is moved for∣wards and backwards. The substance of this Ver∣tebra is harder, solider, but thinner than that of the rest, because it is the least, and yet its cavity is biggest. Within on the foreside of its great Foramen, it has a semicircular Sinus lined with a Cartilage, whereby it receiveth the tooth-like Process of the second Vertebra.

The second is called Vertebra dentata, because out of its upper side between its two ascending Processes, there springs a round, longish and hard Process, in shape like a Tooth, which being invested with a Cartilage is jointed into the fore∣said Sinus•• of the first Vertebra, upon which as

upon an Axis the Head turns round. And when a luxation happens here▪ the Neck is said to be broken. This tooth-like Process in that part which enters not into the said Sinus, is environed with a Ligament, by which it is knit to the Occi∣put. The hinder Processes of this Vertebra are cleft into two, as those of the four following are, for the better connexion of the Muscles and Liga∣ments. Its transverse Processes are less than theirs, and have also smaller holes.

The four that lie under these, in all things are like them, save that their lateral Processes are larger, and divided into two as well as the hinder. The seventh is the largest of all. It is liker to the Vertebrae of the Thorax than of the Neck; for neither are its transverse Processes like the fore∣going, nor is its hinder one forked, but both are like those of the Thorax, to be described in the next Chapter.

CHAP. XI.

Of the Vertebrae of the Thorax.

THE Bones of the Thorax are the Vertebrae of the Back, the Ribs and Breast-bone.

As for the Vertebrae,* 1.37 they are twelve in number, unto which so many Ribs answer; whereof seldom doth one abound, more seldom lack. Their Spines or hinder Processes are not divided into two as those of the Neck, but are solid and simple. The transverse are short and blunt, and have

each a shallow Sinus for the inarticulation of the Ribs; but are not perforated like those of the Neck. The oblique Processes are four, two as∣cending, and two descending: these serve for articulation. The descending are a little hol∣lowed, and receive the (something protuberant) heads of the ascending Processes of the next Verte∣bra below them, successively. The forepart of their body next to the cavity of the Thorax is round. As for their holes, they have a large one in the mid∣dle, which containeth the marrowy substance; and two lesser besides, on each side one, betwixt their jointings one with another, for the egress of the Nerves, and ingress of the Veins and Arteries.

CHAP. XII.

Of the Ribs.

THE Ribs are twelve in number. Their substance is partly bony, partly cartilagi∣nous; the first serving for firmness, the second for articulation, and the easier motion of the Breast in respiration. The bony substance to∣wards the Vertebrae of the Back is thick and roun∣dish, but towards the Sternum flat and thin. Within, it is fungous or spongie, whence the Ribs being broken are more readily joined toge∣ther by a Callus than most other Bones. The Cartilages in bigness answer the bigness of the Ribs: for the bigger Ribs have the bigger Car∣tilages; and on the contrary. The Ribs in the

upper side are blunt or broadish, but in the under sharper. In the lower and inner side they have a furrow that runs along them to receive the Inter∣costal vessels, the Veins, Arteries and Nerves.

The Ribs are of two sorts; for they are either long, or short.

The long (otherwise called the true Ribs) are seven in number (being the uppermost) and by their cartilaginous productions are immediately knit to the Breast-bone by the articulation called Arthrodia;* 1.38 for in the Breast-bone there are an equal number of Cavities, which receive their cartilaginous heads. Their bony end is covered with a Cartilage and articulated into the shallow Sinus of the transverse Processes of the Vertebrae of the Back by Synarthrosis; and is knit to the said Vert••brae by very strong Ligaments.

Note that the Cartilages of these true Ribs are usually observed to be harder in Women than in Men; which may seem to be for the better sus∣taining of the weight of their Breasts that lie upon them.

The short (otherwise called Nothae or Spuriae,* 1.39 bastards Ribs) are five in number; of which the four uppermost having their Cartilages bending upward and cleaving one to another are joined before to the lower side of the Cartilage of the seventh true Rib: but the last, which is the least, grows sometimes to the Diaphragm, and some∣times to the Musculus rectus of the Abdomen, as also sometimes does the lowest of the four next above it. Behind they are joined to the Vertebrae of the Back, like as the true Ribs were.

Their use is first,* 1.40 to keep the Breast and the upper part of the Abdomen distended, that in the

former the Heart and Lungs may have free space for their motion; and in the latter, the Sto∣mach and Liver might not be prest upon by the circumajacent parts. Secondly, to preserve those parts from external injuries, as from bruises or the like. And lastly, to sustain the Muscles that serve for respiration, and to promote their mo∣tions; for if the Breast had been environ'd with one continued Bone, it had not been capable of dilatation in inspiration, nor of contraction in expiration.

CHAP. XIII.

Of the Breast-bone or Sternum.

THIS Bone is seated in the middle of the Thorax before, serving as a Breast-plate, and having the cartilaginous productions of the true Ribs inarticulated into it. It is of a red fungous substance, and in children almost wholly cartilaginous, only its uppermost part is some∣what more bony than the rest, perhaps because one end of the Clavicula is jointed into it. In In∣fants it consists of seven or eight, but after some years they so coalesce one to another, that in the adult it is compounded but of three, and in aged persons it seemeth but one Bone, yet it is distin∣guished by two transverse lines, shewing the for∣mer division, which are more conspicuous in the for∣mer division, which are more conspicuous in the inside than outside.

The uppermost Bone is thickest and broadest;

it hath in each side a longish cavity, lined with a Cartilage, to receive the points of the Channel∣bones; between these in its middle and upper part is a pit called Jugulum. It has also a small cavity on the inside, to give way to the Wind∣pipe descending. The second bone is neither so thick nor broad, yet four times as long. It is joined to the former by an intervening Cartilage, and in each side has five or six cavities for the in∣articulation of so many of the true Ribs. The third is least of all, yet it is broader than the se∣cond, unto the lower end of which it is joined. What Ribs were not jointed into the middle Bone, are received by this. To its lower end is annexed the Cartilage called Mucronata or Ensi∣formis, Sword-like. This Cartilage is triangu∣lar, about an inch long, and on the outside of it there is formed a cavity in the Breast, called Scrobiculus cordis or Heart-pit; and the gnawing pains felt there, Cardialgiae; though those pains are not from any affection of the Heart, but of the upper orifice of the Stomach, which lies un∣der this Cartilage.

CHAP. XIV.

Of the Vertebrae of the Loins.

THE Bones belonging to the Abdomen are these; five Vert••brae of the Loins, five or six of Os sacrum, Os cocoygis and Os ischii.

The five Vertebrae of the Loins are larger than those of the Breast, and the lowest of them are biggest. They are jointed with the last Vertebra of the Back and the first of Os sacrum, and with one another, by an intervening clammy Carti∣lage, but more loosly than those of the Back, because the Body bends more upon them. They have each one large hole, to give way to the Spi∣nalis medulla; and two small, by which Nerves pass out to the adjacent parts, and Veins and Ar∣teries come in. As for their Processes, their po∣steriour (or Spines) are shorter and more blunt, but broader and thicker than those of the Vertebrae of the Thorax, and turn something upwards; but their lateral are longer. They also differ in their inarticulation, one with another; for whereas in those of the Thorax the upper Processes were knobby, and the lower hollow, to receive them; in these the contrary is seen; for the upper Pro∣cesses are hollow, and the lower knobby. Only the last or twelfth Vertebra of the Thorax has both its ascending and descending oblique Processes hollowed to receive the heads or knobs of the Processes of the last but one of the Thorax, and the first of the Loins.

CHAP. XV.

Of the Os sacrum, and Os coccygis or Rump∣bone.

THE Os sacrum is the broadest of all the Bones of the Back, and doth sustain all the other Vertebrae. On the inside it is smooth and hollow, on the outside convex and uneven, being of some∣thing a triangular shape. In its upper part on each side it is knit firmly to the Ossa Ilia by an in∣tervening Cartilage. It consists of five or six Bones, plainly distinguishable in Infants, but more obscurely in grown persons. These Bones have the resemblance of (and are usually called) Vertebrae, for each of them hath a Body and Pro∣cesses, and a large hole to receive the Spinalis me∣dulla. In this, these differ from the other Verte∣brae; because in those, the lower part is bigger, but in these the lesser; wherefore the uppermost of them is the biggest, and the lowest the least. Besides the large cavity to receive the Spinalis medulla, they have other lesser for the egress of the Nerves; and these are not in their sides, as those of the Vertebrae of the Neck, Thorax and Loins, but before and behind, between their jointings: of these holes those before are much larger than those behind. As for their Processes, the oblique can hardly be discerned, except in the first. The transverse are pretty long, but so united, that all seem but one. The hindermost are like the Spinae of the Loins, but less, and still the lower the lesser; insomuch that the lowest

hath no Process, but only a round Protuberance.

To the Os sacrum the Os coccygis or Rump-bone is joined by a Cartilage, somewhat loosly, that it may bend a little backwards in Women in travail for the freer passage of the Foetus, &c. It is com∣pounded of thr•••• or four Bones, of which the first hath a small ••ollowness which receiveth the last Vertebrae of Os sacrum. The rest of its Bones grow each less than other, so that the lowest ends in a cartilaginous point. It is called Os coccygis, because in shape it resembleth the Cuckow's Bill. Its lower end bends inward, to stay the streight Gut and the sphincter Muscle, which are tied to it. The Bones of it are spongious and soft, and have neither Process nor any hollowness, for the spinal marrow descends no further than the bot∣tom of Os sacrum.

CHAP. XVI.

Of the Hip-bone.

THIS Bone was by Galen called Os innomina∣tum, because it had then no proper name imposed upon it, that he had met with. But Homer had long before him called it 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, from whom it is now generally known by that name. There is one on each side, and they are knit to the sides of Os sacrum (through the intervention of a Cartilage) by a most strong Ligament, and together with it frame the Pelvis, or that cavity in which the Womb, Bladder and part of the In∣testines

are contained. In Children it plainly appeareth to be framed of three Bones (called Os Ilium, Coxendicis, and Pubis) joined by a Cartilage, untill the seventh year; but in Men of ripe age these three, the Cartilage being dried and harden'd into a Bone, seem but one entire Bone. However for the more exact description of its parts, we must consider it as consisting of three.

The first is called Os Ilium,* 1.41 because under it lieth the small Gut called Ilium. This is the up∣permost and broadest; in figure, semicircular; arched without, within hollow. Its edge which makes the semicircle is called Spina, the arched part Dorsum, the hollow part Costa. It is joined with the Os sacrum by a common membranous and most firm Ligament, with a Cartilage in∣tervening, as abovesaid.

The second is called Os coxendicis,* 1.42 by some particularly Os ischium, and in English the Hip∣bone: though more commonly both these last names are taken in a larger signification, and in∣clude all the three. This Bone is the lower and outer part of Os innominatum, and has a large ca∣vity in it (which is called Acetabulum coxendicis) which receives the round head of the Thigh-bone, by the articulation called Enarthrosis. The brims of this Cavity are tipt as it were with a Cartilage, called its Supercilium. Its lower end has a large Appendix which we lean or bear upon when we sit.

The third Bone is called Os Pubis,* 1.43 and Pectinis, or the Share-bone. It is seated in the fore-part, and in the middle it is joined to its fellow by a Cartilage, which is much thicker, but looser and

softer in Women than in Men. It has a very large Foramen in its middle, which makes it the lighter. And above, it has a Sinus, by which the crural Veins and Arteries pass to the Thighs. The Pelvis that is composed by these three Bones and the Os sacrum, is bigger in a Woman than in a Man, to make the larger room for the Foetu••.

CHAP. XVII.

Of the Scapul•• or Shoulder-blade.

NOW follow the Bones of the Limbs, which are the Legs and Arms. The Bones of the Arms are either above the joint of the Shoulder, or under.

Above the joint lieth the Shoulder-blade, in Greek called 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, in Latin, Scapula.▪ The substance of it is for the greatest part thin, but hard and solid. The outside is somewhat arched, but the inside hollow. It is somewhat of a trian∣gular figure, and joined to sundry parts by means of the Muscles; which sort of union we called a∣bove, Syssarchosis. Thus it is joined with the Bone of the Occiput by the cucullar. Muscles or the first pair that move the Scapula; to the Vertebrae of the Neck by its second pair; and to the Back by the Muscle Rhomboides. It has three Processes: of which the first is extended along its middle, and is called its Spine; and that end of it that by a shallow Sinus receives the Clavicula, Acromium, its point or tip. The second is lower, less and

acute, something like a Crow's Bill, whence it has the name of Coracoides; by others it is called Ancyroides, Anchor-like. The third is the short∣est, called Cervix its Neck, which ends in a Sinus that in its upper part is acute, but in its lower round: this cavity being but shallow of it self has its brims tipt with a Cartilage, which makes it the deeper, in which the head of the Shoulder-bone is jointed. This jointing is strengthened by very strong Ligaments and Tendons, and is partly hindred from luxation by the top of the second Process.

The Shoulder-blade hath a three-fold use. First, it receiveth the Os humeri in the cavity of its third process by the articulation called Arthro∣dia; as it does the Clavicula in the Sinus of its first process by Synarthrosis. Secondly, sundry Mus∣cles spring from the Shoulder-blade, which serve for the motion of the Shoulder-bone. Thirdly, it defendeth the Back, so far as it reacheth, from external injuries, like a Shield.

CHAP. XVIII.

Of the Os humeri or Shoulder-bone.

THE Bones of the Arm under the joint of the Shoulder are the Shoulder-bone, the Cubit-bones, and the Bones of the Hand.

The Shoulder-bone is but one in each Arm, reaching from the Shoulder to the Elbow. In figure it is round, only a little flattish behind to∣wards

the Elbow; of a hard and solid substance. It is hollow all along like a Pipe, wherein a mar∣rowy substance is contained. That end that is jointed to the Scapula has a great and round head, cover'd with a Cartilage, which is received into the cavity of the Scapula by that kind of articula∣tion which is called Arthrodia. On the hinder side of this head there stand two rough and uneven Prominences, into which the Ligaments are in∣serted. And betwixt these two Prominences there is a round and long chink through which the ner∣vous head of the Musculus biceps doth pass. Its lower end is articulated with two Bones, viz. the Ʋlna and Radius, by Ginglymus, for it both receives them and is received by them, having three Pro∣cesses and two Sinus betwixt them; so that by these it resembles a Pully, whence it is called Tro∣chlea. The Ʋlna is jointed with its inner side, and the Radius with the outer. On its inside, be∣sides the three foregoing, it has a large Process or Tubercle from whence those Muscles arise that lie on the inside of the Cubit; and another less on its outside, from which those Muscles spring that lie on the outside. On the hinder side of the Tro∣chlea there is one deep large cavity, and on the foreside two small ones, into which the Bones of the Cubit hit, when they are moved backward or forward, and are stopped from being carried fur∣ther. About the middle of this Bone in the in∣side, you may perceive a hole, through which Vessels pass to the marrowy substance for nourish∣ment.

CHAP. XIX.

Of the Bones of the Cubit.

THese are in number two; to wit, the lesser above called Radius, and the larger below called Ʋlna. Their substance is firm and solid, all but their appendages. They are near of the same length (but the Ʋlna is the longer of the two) and both have a cavity in which they con∣tain a marrowy substance. They are somewhat rough in their superficies by reason of their lines that are appointed for the rise or insertion of the Muscles.

The Ʋlna is larger in its upper end that joints with the Os humeri,* 1.44 and grows smaller and smaller towards the Hand, ending into a round Tubercle, with a round Sinus in it, (having on its hinder side a small sharp Process, from its shape call'd Styloides) whereby it is knit (by Arthrodia) to the little Bones of the Wrist, by Ligaments, (a Cartilage intervening.) Its upper end is ar∣ticulated with the Os humeri by Ginglymus, to which end it has two Processes, of which the hinder enters into the hinder cavity of the Shoul∣der-bone behind the Trochlea, (by which the Cu∣bit is stayed from further extension than to a streight posture) and is called Ancon or Olecra∣num. And at the same end it has also two Sinus, by the outer and less whereof it receives the head of the Radius, and by the hinder and larger one of the Processes of the Os humeri, which moves in it as a Rope in a Pully. As it receives the Radius in

its upper end, so is it received by it in its lower: but in the midst it bends or recedes a little from it, yet is knit to it by a long Ligament.

The second Bone is upper and something shor∣ter,* 1.45 called Radius. Its upper end is slenderer, having a round head, one side of which is received by the Ʋlna; but its tip has a round shallow ca∣vity in it, which receives a Process of the Os hu∣meri, by Diarthrosis. Its lower end is thicker, which by a little Sinus in its side receives the Ʋl∣na; and at its extremity it has two other small Sinus, into which it admits the two first and high∣est Bones of the Carpus.

CHAP. XX.

Of the Bones of the Hand.

THE Hand is divided into three parts: the Wrist, called Carpus; the distance between the Wrist and Fingers, called Metacarpus; and the Fingers themselves.

The Bones of the Wrist are eight in number,* 1.46 whereof there are two ranks or orders. The upper rank hath three Bones so joined together, that they seem but one; these are articulated to the Ʋlna and Radius by Arthrodia: but the fourth being the least of all, is placed a little out of its rank on the outside of the third. The inferior hath four Bones; they are joined to one another by Harmonia, but to the Bones of the Metacarpus by Arthrodia synarthrodes, having some motion

though but obscure. They are firmly knit to one another by both a membranous and cartilaginous Ligament; and besides, by another called annu∣lar, which compassing the Wrist, comprehendeth both them and the Tendons of the Muscles which pass to the Fingers.

The Metacarpus hath four Bones;* 1.47 they are of a solid substance, round, hollow within like a Pipe, being full of marrow. They are bigger than those of the Fingers: that which answereth the Fore-finger is thickest and longest, and the rest grow each shorter and slenderer than the foregoing. Between each two a distance is left for the Musculi interossei of the Fingers. Both in their upper and lower end they have an Appen∣dix; by the upper they are joined to the little Bones of the Wrist, by the lower to the Fingers: the upper hath a cavity, and so receiveth the Bones of the Carpus; but the lower a round long head, covered with a Cartilage, and is received by the Sinus of the Fingers.

In the Palm of the Hand there is a transverse Li∣gament, which doth tie the Bones of the Fingers to the Metacarpium.

The Fingers (taking in the Thumb) have fif∣teen Bones,* 1.48 each three. The first are largest, the second less, and the third the least On the outside they are round, but on the inside plain and a little hollow, that they may lay the firmer hold upon things. Each has a Process at each end. The upper Processes are round, and those of the first Bones have one round Sinus in them whereby they receive the round head of the Bones of the Metacarpus: but the upper Processes of the second and third Bones have each two Sinus,

parted by a small Protuberance. The lower Pro∣cesses have two heads divided by a Sinus, which are received by the double Sinus of the upper Process of those Bones that join to them: except only the last or third Bone, which is received by none, but is fenced by a Nail. The second Bone is joined to the first, and the third to the second by Ginglymus, and by them the Fingers are only stretched out and contracted. For as for their motion sideways, that depends only upon the ar∣ticulation of the first Bones with the Bones of the Metacarpus, which is done by Enarthrosis, or at least by Arthrodia. The jointings of the Thumb answer to these of the Fingers, saving that its upper appendix is not joined to any Bone of the Metacarpus (with which it has no communicati∣on) but immediately to the Wrist; and its lower has but one head, whence the second Bone has but one Sinus in its upper appendix to receive it.

Besides these Bones there are in the inside of the Hand,* 1.49 at the joints of the Fingers, some small Bones called from their figure and bigness sesa∣moidea, like the Grains of Sesama, (a sort of In∣dian Corn so called by Pliny.) They resemble in figure the Knee-pan, and seem to serve for the same use; for in strong extensions of the Fingers they strengthen the Tendons of the Muscles upon which they are placed▪ and hinder the luxation of the joint. Authors differ very much as to their number, because being so small they are seldom all found: but most agree upon the number of 12 to each Hand, placing them thus. At the second joint of the Thumb there are two. The second and third joint of the Fore-finger have each one; but its first joint, as also the first of the other three

have each two. In Children they are of a carti∣laginous substance, but grow bony by degrees, (being invested with a Cartilage) yet not solid but fungous or porous.

CHAP. XXI.

Of the Thigh-bone, and Patella.

THE Leg (in a large sense) is divided into three parts, the Thigh, the Shank (or Leg strictly so called) and Foot.

The Thigh hath but one Bone:* 1.50 but of all o∣thers it is the longest and thickest. Before, it is round: but behind, something depressed and hol∣low. In the upper part it has a round head; the slender part under this is called its Neck, and is pretty long and oblique. The Neck is an Apo∣physis or process to the Bone it self, and the round Head an Epiphysis or Appendix to the Neck. This Head is received by the large Cavity or Ace∣tabulum of the Coxendix, and is detained therein by two strong Ligaments; one that encompasses the brims of the Acetabulum, and another that springs out of its bottom, and is inserted into the tip of this round Head or Appendix. At the lower end of the Neck there spring two Promi∣nences; which, because the Muscles called Rota∣tores are fastned to them, are called Trochanteres. The hinder and lower is the lesser Trochanter; and the lateral or uppermost, the bigger. The lower end of the Thigh-bone growing thicker by degrees

hath two pretty large Prominences or Heads, leaving a cavity in the middle which receiveth the Apophysis of the Tibia: And again these Pro∣minences are received by the cavities of the Tibia, by a ••oose Ginglymus, both the Prominences and Cavi••ies being lined with Cartilages. The fore∣part of this articulation is called the Knee, the hindermost the Ham.

Upon the Knee appeareth a Bone,* 1.51 not joined with any other Bone, called the Pan, or Patella: it is roundish, about two inches broad, plain without, having many holes; but within bunched, covered with a Cartilage. It is set before the Thigh-bone and the Tibia, to strengthen the ar∣ticulation; for otherwise the Thigh-bone would be in danger to slip out forward in going down a Hill, or the like. It cleaveth to the Knee by the thick Tendons of the second, third, and fourth Muscles that extend the Tibia, which pass under the Patella to it, and are implanted into its fore∣knob. Two Ligaments fasten the articulation of the Thigh-bone with the Tibia: the one fastens the Cartilage that environs the brims of the Sinus of the Tibia, the other rises out of the Apophysis of the Tibia, and is inserted into the Sinus of the Thigh-bone.

Behind there are two Ossa sesamoidea, which adhere to the two beginnings of the first Muscles which move the Foot, to strengthen them. Great wounds of the Ham are mortal, by reason of the great Vessels which pass that way.

CHAP. XXII.

Of the Bones of the Shank.

THE Shank (or Leg strictly so called) is composed of two Bones. The greater is called Tibia, the lesser Fibula. These are slightly articulated into one another near each end; but in their middle they recede one from the other, yet so as they are tied together by a strong Liga∣ment that comes between them.

The Tibia (commonly called Focile majus) is partly triangular,* 1.52 by its sharp edge before making what we call the Shin. It has an appendix at each end. That above is bigger, and in its upper part hath one Process, which is received by the Sinus of the Thigh-bone; and two longish Cavi∣ties for the receiving of the two Prominences of the Thigh-bone, (so that the articulation is by Ginglymus) as was said in the foregoing Chap∣ter. About the brims of these Sinus there is join∣ed by Ligaments a moveable Cartilage, soft, slip∣pery, and bedewed with an unctuous humour, called Cartilago lunata, the Moon-like Cartilage. It has also a little Head behind (below the fore∣said appendix) which enters into the Sinus of the upper appendix of the Fibula. Its lower appen∣dix is less than the upper, jetting out with a no∣table Process toward the inside of the Foot, ma∣king the Malleolus internus or inner Ankle. It has two Cavities; one less in its side, by which it re∣ceives the Fibula; another greater and lower, di∣vided as it were into two by a small Protuberance

in the middle, and lined with a Cartilage, re∣ceiving the convex head of the Talus that lies un∣der it; as the said Protuberance is received by the shallow Sinus in the convex head of the Talus: the one being articulated into the other by Gin∣glymus, so that the Foot moves upwards and downwards upon this joint.

The lesser and outer Bone of the Leg is called Fibula (or Focile minus;)* 1.53 it is as long as the for∣mer, but much slenderer. This has also an ap∣pendix at each end: the upper of which reaches not so high as the Knee, nor is it jointed to the Thigh-bone; but in its inner side has a shallow Cavity which receives the little hinder (or late∣ral) Head of the Tibia, that is seated under its upper appendix which is jointed with the Thigh-bone. Below, the Fibula is received by the Sinus of the Tibia, and extends its appendix with its process to the side of the Talus, making the Mal∣leolus externus or outer Ankle, which is lower than the inner.

CHAP. XXIII.

Of the Bones of the Tarsus.

OF the Foot (as of the Hands) there are three parts, Tarsus, Metatarsus, and the Toes.

The Tarsus is the distance between the lower end of the two Focils,* 1.54 and the beginning of the five Bones which are articulated with the Toes.

It hath seven Bones much differing from one ano∣ther in bigness and shape.

The first is called Talus or Astragalus (in Eng∣lish the Ankle or Huckle-bone.)* 1.55 This is of a various figure: above, it has something a convex head with a shallow Sinus in it, articulating with the Tibia, as is described in the foregoing Chap∣ter. By the process of the Tibia that makes the inner Ankle it is hedged in as it were on the in∣side, as it is by that of the Fibula on the outer. Before, it has a long neck, on which grows a round head that enters into the Sinus of Os navi∣culare; upon which jointing the Foot is moved sideways. Its hinder side is rough, and in its up∣per part has a transverse Sinus for the receipt of the Ligament of the Tibia, and in its lower a little descending Sinus, by which the Tendons of the Muscles pass. Below, it has a Sinus behind and a Protuberance before, by which it is articulated with the Heel-bone by Ginglymus. Betwixt the Sinus and Protuberance there is a long and pretty deep Cavity, and over against it another such in the Heel-bone. In these is contained a mucous substance which moistens the cartilaginous Liga∣ments that join the Talus to the Heel-bone, keep∣ing them from drying by continued motion.

The second Bone of the Tarsus is called Os calcis or Calcaneus,* 1.56 the Heel-bone, and is the biggest of the seven. It lies under the Talus, with which in its upper side it is articulated in the manner just now described. Behind, it receiveth the great Tendon called Nervus Hectoreus, composed of the Tendons of three Muscles of the Shank. Its fore end is received by the Os cubiforme. On its inside it has a large Sinus, by which the Tendons and

larger Vessels descend to the lower parts of the Foot; and on its outside it is uneven with several knobs, for the firmer connexion of the Liga∣ments and Tendons.

The third is called Os Naviculare or Cymbiforme,* 1.57 from its figure. Behind, it receiveth the Talus in a large Sinus; but before, it is convex, with three flattish smooth heads that are admitted into the very shallow Sinus of the three Ossa cuneiformia or lesser Bones of the Tarsus.

The remaining four are less than the three al∣ready described, and stand all in one rank; the first of them articulates with the Heel-bone, the other three with the Os naviculare. There is no Cartilage betwixt them, but they are knit one to another on the outside by a cartilaginous Liga∣ment; and are cover'd both in their hinder and fore-part with a smooth Cartilage where they are jointed with other Bones. The first is called Cu∣biforme or Die-like,* 1.58 having six sides. This is bigger than the other three that follow, and is seated on the outside of the Foot. In its foreside it is joined to the fourth and fifth Bone of the Metatarsus; in the hinder with the Heel bone; and in the inside, to the third Bone of the Cunei∣formia: but its other three sides, viz. the outer, upper and lower are joined to none.

The three ensuing are called Cuneiformia,* 1.59 or wedge-like Bones; for above they are thick, and below thinner, so that being joined, they repre∣sent a Vault, being convex on the upper side, but on the under hollow; in which hollowness the Tendons and Muscles are lodged, so that one does not press upon and bruise them in going. The first of these Bones is the greatest, seated in

the inside of the Foot; the second is the least, placed in the middle; the third is in the mean between both in bigness. These three behind are joined to the Os naviculare, and before to the three first Bones of the Metatarsus.

CHAP. XXIV.

Of the rest of the Bones of the Foot.

THE Metatarsus,* 1.60 or Instep, hath five Bones: for one is appointed for the sustaining of the great Toe, as well as others for each of the rest; though in the Hand it is not so, where the Thumb has no Bone in the Metacarpus answering to it.

They are solid without, but hollow within; and are longer than the Bones of the back of the Hand. That which stayeth the great Toe is thickest, but the longest is that which stayeth the next Toe: the other three grow each shorter than other, but are almost of an equal thickness. Their lower ends being round are inserted into the Sinus of the first joints of the Toes: but the upper in their own shallow Sinus receive the Bones of the Tarsus.

The Bones of the Toes are in number fourteen;* 1.61 for the great Toe hath only two, but the rest three. These bones are solid without, and hollow within like those of the Instep. Their articulation is altogether like that of the Fingers, so that we shall not need here to describe it over again.

[illustration]

Each Foot has twelve Ossa sesamoidea, as well as the Hands: but seeing they are seated wholly alike in both, the Reader may please to turn back to their description in Chap. 20.

The Explanation of the Figure.

• It representeth the Sceleton of an adult Body on the foreside, that the mutual contexture of all the Bones may appear.
• A The Forehead-bone.
• bb The Coronal Suture.
• C The Temple-bone.
• d The Mammillary Pro∣cess.
• E The Os jugale.
• F The upper Jaw.
• GG The lower Jaw.
• hhh The Vertebrae of the Neck.
• iiiii The Ribs.
• KK The Breast-bone.
• LL The Channel-bones.
• MM The inner side of each Shoulder-blade.
• NN The Shoulder-bone.
• OO Its Head jointed with the Shoulder-blade.
• PP Its lower end that is inarticulated with the Ulna & Radius, where
• q points at the inner Tu∣bercle, and
• r at the outer.
• SS The Bone of the Cubit called Ulna.
• TT The other Bone of the Cubit called Radius.
• YY The Wrist consisting of eight little Bones.
• ZZ The Metacarpus ha∣ving four Bones.
• 〈◊〉〈◊〉 The Fingers.
• 〈◊〉〈◊〉 The Thumb.

The following Letters point at the lower Bones of the Sceleton.

• Aaaaa The ••ive Verte∣brae of the Loins.
• BB The inner side of Os sacrum.
• ...

• ... CC The cavity of Os Ilium, making a great part of the Pelvis.
• DD The Coxendix.
• EE The Ossa pubis.
• F The middle line that joins the two Bones of the Pubes together, by the mediation of a Car∣tilage.
• GG The Thigh-bone.
• hh Its round Head.
• ii Its Neck.
• kk The outer Process of its Neck, or the greater Trochanter.
• ll The inner Process, or lesser Trochanter.
• mmmm The lower heads of the Thigh-bone.
• NN The Patella or Knee-pan.
• OO The Tibia.
• pPPP Its upper Proces∣ses.
• rr Its Spine that makes the Shin.
• ss Its lower Process that makes the inner Ankle.
• TT The Fibula.
• uu Its lower Process that makes the outer Ankle.
• XX The Tarsus consist∣ing of seven Bones.
• ... The Astragalus.
• The Heel bone.
• d The Os cubiforme.
• YY The Metatarsus con∣sisting of five Bones.
• ZZ The Bones of the Toes, in all fourteen, viz. two of the great Toe, and three of each of the rest.

CHAP. XXV.

Of a Cartilage.

AS an Appendix to the Doctrine of Bones we will add a word or two of the Cartilages and Ligaments of the Body; because the former come nearest to the nature of Bones; and the latter, as they tye several other parts one to another, so especially the Bones.

A Cartilage is a similar part, cold, dry and void of sense, flexible and not so hard as a Bone. But when by age its glutinous particles are dried up, it many times degenerates into a Bone.

As for the Cartilages of the Eye-brows, Ears, Nose, Larynx, &c. we shall not need here parti∣cularly to describe them, having done it where we treated of the respective parts; only we will note in general, that all the Bones in their arti∣culations one with another, are covered or lined with Cartilages, whereby their motion becomes more easie and glib: and sometimes themselves are the medium by which Bones are joined, which articulation is called Synchondrosis, such as that of the Ossa pubis: and lastly, by tipping as it were the brims of the Cavities of the greater joints, they make the Sinus deeper.

CHAP. XXVI.

Of a Ligament.

A Ligament is a similar part, cold and dry, of a middle substance betwixt a Cartilage and a Membrane, appointed for the tying of sundry pa••••s together.

Note, that as it is either harder or softer than is suitable to its proper nature, it acquires the epi∣thets of cartilaginous or membranous respectively: so, that which proceeds out of the top of the Thigh-bone and is inserted into the cavity of the Coxendix is called a cartilaginous Ligament, for its hardness; and that which environeth the joint of the Shoulder, is called membranous, from its softness.

Those which tye Bones together are without sense, (for otherwise upon every motion we should have been in pain:) but those that knit other parts together, (as those that tye the Liver, Womb, &c. to the neighbouring parts) are sen∣sible.

Ligaments are found in several parts of the Bo∣dy. As first, the Head being moved upon the first and second Vertebra of the Neck, there are four Ligaments to strengthen the articulation. Secondly, a common membranous Ligament be∣girts the whole articulation of the lower Jaw with the Temple-bone. Thirdly, the Bone at the root of the Tongue has four, by which it is tyed to the neighbouring parts; and the Tongue it self has one strong one on its under-side, (other∣wise

called its Fraenum) which being two short or running too near its tip, hindreth its motion. Children being so troubled, are said to be Tongue∣tyed, and must have it cut. Fourthly, both the Bodies and Processes of all the Vertebrae of the Back are knit together by Ligaments, as also are the Ribs with the Vertebrae behind, and with the Breast-bone before. Fifthly, sundry are to be seen in the Abdomen. The first tieth the Os ilium to Os sacrum. The second knitteth the Os sa∣crum to the Coxendix. The third and fourth knit the Share-bones together, one of them compassing them circularly, and the other, which is mem∣branous, possessing their very Foramen. As for the Ligaments of the Liver, Bladder, &c. those were discoursed of when we described those parts in Book 1. Sixthly, in the Arm these appear. 1. Five tie the Os humeri to the Shoulder-blade. 2. The Bones of the Cubit, Ʋlna and Radius, are tied first one to another; secondly, to the Shoulder-bone; and thirdly, to the Wrist by (mostly) membranous Ligaments. 3. There are annular Ligaments at the Wrists, which being transverse, confirm and make steady the Tendons which pass to the Fingers. They are two; one in the outside, for the Tendons of the extending Muscles; the other in the inner side, for the Ten∣dons of the contracting Muscles. 4. The Bones of the Wrist, back of the Hand and Fingers, have membranous Ligaments. Seventhly, In the Leg are these. 1. The Thigh-bone is tied to the Coxendix by two Ligaments. 2. The lower end of it is tied to Tibia and Fibula by six Ligaments. 3. The Tibia is joined to the Fibula by three mem∣branous Ligaments, viz. two common and one

proper. 4. Tibia and Fibula are joined to the Talus by three Ligaments, and there are three other for the strengthening of the Tendons. 5. The Talus is tied with the other Bones of the Foot by five Ligaments. 6. The Bones of the In∣step and Toes are tied with such Ligaments as those of the Hand are.

CHAP. XXVII.

Of the Nails.

IN the last place we will say something of the Nails, which though they are not truly parts of the Body, yet for their usefulness ought not to be omitted.

They are of an horny transparent substance, coming nearest to that of Bones, fasten'd upon the ends of the Fingers and Toes for their de∣fence. They are endued with no sense, nor is that colour which they appear to be of upon the Fingers, owing to their proper substance, but to the colour of the parts that lie under them; whence they sometimes look ruddy, sometimes pale, blue or yellow, and thereby give some inti∣mation of the state of the Body. They grow very firmly to the Flesh that lies under them; and to fasten them the better, they are tied about their root with a Ligament, and on their sides the Skin closes them in. The parts that lie under them are very sensible, for there are several twigs of Nerves and tendons of Muscles that run to the

very Fingers ends; so that upon handling any hard or rugged thing we should have been conti∣nually in pain, if these so sensible parts had not been thus defended by the Nails.

They may in some sense be reputed parts of the Body, so as that it would not be perfect and in∣tire without them: but that is but an improper notion of a part. For if they were properly parts, they should live by the common life of the Body; but that they do not, seeing they as well as the hair continue to grow after a Man is dead: and their growth seems meerly to be by apposition of new particles to their roots, which drive on suc∣cessively those before them; as we may see when there is a black or white speck on any of them, for it still goes forward together with the Nail, till it arrive at the Fingers end beyond the Flesh.

FINIS.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Its name.
• * 1.2

  Definition.
• * 1.3

  Matter.
• * 1.4

  Vessels.
• * 1.5

  Efficient and formal causes.
• * 1.6

  Substance.
• * 1.7

  Common affections.
• * 1.8

  Proper.
• * 1.9

  Articula∣tion.
• * 1.10

  Symphy∣sis.
• * 1.11

  Sutures proper or common.
• * 1.12

  Proper su∣tures true or counter∣feit.
• * 1.13

  Three true.
• * 1.14

  Two coun∣terfeit.
• * 1.15

  Common sutures.
• * 1.16

  The uses of the sutures.
• * 1.17

  Os frontis.
• * 1.18

  Its cavity.
• * 1.19

  The bones of the Syn∣ciput.
• * 1.20

  The Tem∣ple-bones.
• * 1.21

  Their Si∣nus.
• * 1.22

  Os styloi∣des.
• * 1.23

  Processus mammil∣lares.
• * 1.24

  Os occi∣pitis.
• * 1.25

  Os cunei∣forme.
• * 1.26

  Os cribri∣forme.
• * 1.27

  The upper Jaw con∣sists of 〈◊〉〈◊〉 bones.
• * 1.28

  The lower Jaw.
• * 1.29

  Their sub∣stance.
• * 1.30

  Origine.
• * 1.31

  Change.
• * 1.32

  Number.
• * 1.33

  Sorts.
• * 1.34

  Ʋse.
• * 1.35

  Claviculae.
• * 1.36

  Vertebrae seven.
• * 1.37

  Vertebrae twelve.
• * 1.38

  Seven ve∣rae.
• * 1.39

  Five no∣thae.
• * 1.40

  Ʋse.
• * 1.41

  Os ilium.
• * 1.42

  Coxendix.
• * 1.43

  Os pubis.
• * 1.44

  ••lna.
• * 1.45

  Radius.
• * 1.46

  Bones of the Carpus eight.
• * 1.47

  Of the Metacar∣pus four.
• * 1.48

  Of the fin∣ger•• ••ifteen.
• * 1.49

  Ossa sesa∣moidea.
• * 1.50

  Os femo∣ris.
• * 1.51

  Patella.
• * 1.52

  Tibia.
• * 1.53

  Fibula.
• * 1.54

  The Tarsus hath seven bones.
• * 1.55

  1. Talus.
• * 1.56

  2. Os cal∣cis.
• * 1.57

  3. Os na∣viculare.
• * 1.58

  4. Os cu∣biforme.
• * 1.59

  5. Three Cuneifor∣mia.
• * 1.60

  The bones of the In∣step five.
• * 1.61

  Of the Toes fourteen.