The commentaries of C. Julius Cæsar of his warres in Gallia, and the civil warres betwixt him and Pompey / translated into English with many excellent and judicious observations thereupon ; as also The art of our modern training, or, Tactick practise, by Clement Edmonds Esquire, ... ; where unto is adjoyned the eighth commentary of the warres in Gallia, with some short observations upon it ; together with the life of Cæsar, and an account of his medalls ; revised, corrected, and enlarged.

OBSERVATION.

IF it be demanded, why Caesar did passe his Ar∣my over the river, leaving it on his back, and

did not rather attend the enemy on the other side, and so take the advantage of hindring him, if he should attempt to passe over; I will set down the reasons in the sequele of this warre, as the oc∣currences shall fall out to make them more e∣vident. In the mean time let us enter into the particularitie of these six cohorts, that we may the better judge of such troups which were em∣ployed in the services of this war. But that we may the better conjecture what number of soul∣diers these six cohorts did contain, it seemeth ex∣pedient a little to discourse of the companies and regiments which the Romans used in their Ar∣mies.

And first we are to understand, that the great∣est and chiefest regiment in a Roman Armie was termed by the name of Legio; as Varro saith, quod leguntur milites in delectu; or as Plutarch speaketh, quod lecti ex omnibus essent militares; so that it taketh the name Legio, of the choice and selecting of the souldiers. Romulus is said to be the first authour and founder of these legi∣ons, making every legion to contain 3000 soul∣diers: but shortly after they were augmented, as Festus recordeth, unto 4000; and afterward again from 4000, to 4200. And that number was the common rate of a legion untill Hanni∣bal came into Italy, and then it was augmented to 5000: but that proportion continued only for that time. And again, when Scipio went in∣to Africk, the legions were increased to 6200 footmen, and 300 horse. And shortly after the Macedonian warre, the legions that conti∣nued in Macedonie to keep the Province from rebellion, consisted of 6000 footmen and 300 horse. Out of Caesar it cannot be gathered that a legion in his time did exceed the number of 5000 men, but oftentimes it was short of that number: for he himself saith that in this warre in Gallia his souldiers were so wasted, that he had scarce 7000 men in two legions. And if we ex∣amine that place out of the 3. of the civile warre, where he saith that in Pompey his Army were 110 cohorts, which amounted to the number of 55000 men; and it being manifest as well by this number of cohorts, as by the testimony of divers authours, that Pompey his Army consi∣sted of 11 legions; if we divide 55000 into 11 parts, we shall find a legion to consist of 5000 men. Which number or thereabout being gene∣rally known to be the usuall rate of a legion, the Romans alwayes expressed the strength of their Army by the number of legions that were there∣in: as in this warre it is said that Caesar had eight legions; which by this account might arise to 40000 men, besides associates, and such as ne∣cessarily attended the Army. Further we are to understand that every legion had his peculiar name, by which it was known and distinguished from the rest: and that it took either from their order of muster, or enrollement; as that legion which was first enrolled, was called the first le∣gion, and that which was second in the choice, the second legion, and so consequently of the rest; and so we read in this history, the seventh, the eighth, the ninth, the tenth, the eleventh and twelfth legion: or otherwise from the place of their warfare, and so we read of legiones Ger∣manicae, Pannonica, Britannicae, and such others: and sometime of their Generall, as Augusta, Claudia, Vitelliana legiones, and so forth: or to conclude, from some accident of quality, as Rapax, Victrix, Fulminifera, Plundring, Victorious, Lightning, and such like. And thus much of the name and number of a legion: which I must necessarily distinguish into divers kinds of souldiers, according to the first institu∣tion of the old Romans, and the continuall ob∣servation thereof unto the decay of the Empire, before I come to the description of these smaller parts whereof a Legion was compounded.

First therefore we are to understand that af∣ter the Consuls had made a generall choise and sworn the souldiers, the Tribunes chose out the youngest and poorest of all the rest, and called them by the name of Velites. Their place in re∣gard of the other souldiers was both base and dishonourable: not only because they fought a∣far off, and were lightly armed; but also in re∣gard they were commonly exposed to the enemy, as our forlorn hopes are. Having chosen out a competent number for this kind, they proceeded to the choice of them which they called Hastati, a degree above the Velites both in age and wealth, & termed them by the name of Hastati, forasmuch as at their first institution they fought with a kind of Javelin, which the Romans called Hasta: but before Polybius his time they used Piles; notwithstanding their ancient name continued unto the later time of the Empire. The third choice which they made, was of the strongest & lustiest-bodied men, who for the prime of their age were called Principes: the rest that remain'd were na∣med Triarii, as Varro saith, Quod tertio ordine extremis sub sidio deponuntur: These were al∣wayes the eldest and best-experienced men, and were placed in the third division of the battell, as the last help and refuge in all extremitie. Poly∣bius saith that in his time the Velites, Hastati, and Principes did consist of 1200 men apiece, and the Triarii never exceeded the number of 600. although the generall number of a legion were augmented: whereof L••psius alledgeth these reasons; First, because these Triarii con∣sisted of the best of the souldiers, and so might countervail a greater number in good worth and valour. Secondly, they seldome came to buckle with the enemy, but when the controversy grew very doubtfull. Lastly, we may well conjecture that the voluntaries and extraordinary followers ranged themselves amongst these Triaries, and so made the third battell equall to either of the

former: but howsoever they never exceeded the number of 600. And by this it appeareth that in Polybius his time the common rate of a legion was 4200.

In this division of their men, consisted the ground of that well-ordered discipline; for in that they distinguished them according to their yeares and ability, they reduced their whole strength into severall classes; and so disposed of these different parts, that in the generall com∣position of their whole body, every part might be fitted with place and office, acc••••ding as his worth was answerable to the same: and so they made not only a number of grosse, but a number distinct by parts and properties; that from eve∣ry accident which met with any part of the Ar∣my, the judgement might determine how much or how little it imported the whole body: besides the great use which they made of this distinction in their degrees of honour and preferment, a mat∣ter of no small consequence, in the excellency of their government.

The souldiers at their enrollement being thus divided according to their yeares and abi∣lity, they then reduced them into smaller com∣panies, to make them fitter for command and fight: and so they divided the Hastat••, Prin∣cipes, and Triarii, each of them into 10 com∣panies, making of those three sorts of souldiers 30 small regiments, which they called Mani∣puli: And again, they subdivided every maniple into two equal parts, and called them Ordines, which was the least company in a legion, and according to the rate set down by Polybius, con∣tained 60 souldiers. In every Ordo there was a Centurion or Captain, and a Lieutenant, whom they named Optio or Tergiductor. The maniples of the Triarii were much lesser then the maniples of either the Hastati or the Principes; forasmuch as their whole band consisted but of 600 men. The Velites were put into no such companies, but were equally distributed amongst the other maniples; and therefore the Hastati, Principes and Triarii were called subsignani milites, to make a difference between them and the Velites, which were not divided into bands, and so consequently had no ensigne of their own, but were distributed amongst the other companies: so that every Maniple had 40 Ve∣lites attending upon it. And now I come to the description of a Cohort, which the history here mentioneth.

The word Cohors in Latine doth signify that part of ground which is commonly inclosed be∣fore the gate of a house, which from the same word we call a court: and Varro giveth this rea∣son of the metaphor. As in a farm house, saith he, many out-buildings joyned together make one inclosure; so a cohort consisteth of seve∣rall maniples joyned together in one body. This cohort consisted of three maniples; for every le∣gion had ten cohorts, which must necessarily comprehend those thirty maniples: but these three maniples were not all of one and the same kind of souldiers, as three maniples of the Ha∣stati, three of the Principes, and three of the Tri∣arii, as Patricius in his Paralleli seemeth to affirm; for so there would have remained an odd maniple in every kind, that could not have been brought into any cohort: But a cohort con∣tained a maniple of the Hastati, a maniple of the Principes, and a maniple of the Triarii; and so all the thirty maniples were included into ten cohorts, and every cohort was as a little legion, forasmuch as it consisted of all those sorts of soul∣diers that were in a legion. So that making a le∣gion to contain five thousand men, a cohort had five hundred; and so these six cohorts which he encamped on the other side of the river under the command of Titurius Sabinus, contained three thousand souldiers: but if you make a legion to consist but of four thousand two hundred, which was the more usuall rate, there were two thou∣sand five hundred and twenty souldiers in these six cohorts.

By this therefore it may appear that a legion consisted of four sorts of souldiers, which were reduced into ten cohorts, and every cohort con∣tained three maniples, and every maniple two orders, and every order had his Centurion mar∣ching in the head of the troup, and every Centu∣rion had his Optionem, or Lieutenant, that stood in the tail of the troup.

When a legion stood ranged in battell ready to confront the enemy, the least body or squa∣dron that it contained was a maniple; wherein the two orders were joyned together, making joyntly ten in front, and twelve in file: and so every five files had their Centurion in front, and Lieutenant in the rereward, to direct them in all adventures. In the time of the Emperours, their battalions consisted of a cohort, and never ex∣ceeded that number how great soever the Army were.

Polybius distinguishing a maniple into two centuries or orders, saith, that the Centurion first chosen by the Tribunes, commanded the right order, which was that order which stood on the right hand, known by the name of Primus ordo; and the Centurion elected in the second course, commanded the left order; and in the absence of either of them, he that was present of them two commanded the whole maniple. And so we find that the Centurion of the first place was called Prior Centuri••: in which sense Caesar is to be understood, where he saith that all the Centuri∣ons of the first cohort were slain, praeter princi∣pem priorem. From whence we gather two spe∣cialities: first, the priority between the Centuri∣ons of the same Maniple; for a cohort consisting of three Maniples, whereof the first Maniple were Triarii, the second Principes, and the third Ha∣stati,

and every Maniple containing two orders, and every order a Centurion, he saith that all the Centurions of this cohort were slain, saving the first or upper Centurion of the Principes. The second thing which I observe, is the title of the first cohort: for these ten cohorts whereof a Legion consisted, were distinguished by degrees of worthinesse; and that which was held the worthiest in the censure of the Electors, took the priority both of place and name, and was called the first cohort; the next, the second cohort; and so consequently unto the tenth and last.

Neither did the Legions want their degrees of preeminence, both in imbattelling and in en∣camping, according either to the seniority of their inrollment, or the favour of their Generall, or their own vertue: And so we read that in these wars in Gallia the tenth Legion had the first place in Caesars Army. And thus much concer∣ning the divisions and severall companies of a Legion, and the degrees of honour which they held in the same.

Upon this description it shall not be amisse briefly to lay open the most apparent commodi∣ties depending upon this discipline; the excel∣lency whereof more plainly appeareth, being compared to that order which Nature hath obser∣ved in the frame of her worthiest creatures: for it is evident that such works of Nature come near∣est to perfect excellency, whose materiall sub∣stance is most particularly distinguished into parts, and hath every part indued with that pro∣perty which best agreeth to his peculiar service. For being thus furnished with diversity of instru∣ments, and these directed with fitting abilities, the creature must needs expresse many admirable effects, and discover the worth of an excellent nature: whereas those other bodies that are but slenderly laboured, and find lesse favour in Na∣tures forge, being as abortives, or barbarously composed, wanting the diversity both of parts and faculties, are no way capable of such excel∣lent uses, nor fit for such distinct services, as the former that are directed with so many properties, & inabled with the power of so wel-distinguisht faculties. Which better works of Nature the Ro∣mans imitated in the Architecture of their Army, dividing it into such necessary and serviceable parts as were best fitting all uses and imploi∣ments; as first Legions, and legions into co∣horts, and cohorts into maniples, and maniples into centuries or orders, and these into files; wherein every man knew his place, and kept the same without exchange or confusion: and thus the universall multitude was by order disposed into parts, untill it came unto a unity. For it cannot be denied but that these centuries were in themselves so sensibly distinguished, that every souldier carried in his mind the particular Map of his whole century: for in imbattelling, every century was disposed into five files, containing twelve in a file; whereof the leaders were al∣wayes certain, and never changed but by death or some other speciall occasion; and everie leader knew his follower, and every second knew the third man, and so consequently unto the last.

Upon these particularities it plainly appeareth how easy a matter it was to reduce their troups into any order of a march or a battell, to make the front the slank, or slank front, when they were broken and disrankt to rally them into any form, when every man knew both his own and his fellows station. If any companies were to be imploied upon sudden service, the generall I∣dea of the Army being so deeply imprinted in the mind of the commanders, would not suffer them to e••re in taking out such convenient troups, both for number and quality, as might best agree with the safety of the Army, or nature of the action. At all occasions and opportunities these princi∣ples of advantage offered themselves as ready means to put in execution any design or strata∣gem whatsoever: the project was no sooner re∣solved of, but every man could readily point out the companies that were ••it to execute the inten∣tion. And which is more important in regard of the life and spirit of every such part, their soda∣lity was sweetned, or rather strengthened with the mutuall acquaintance and friendship one of another; the captain marching alwayes in the head of the troup, the ensign in the midst, and the lieutenant in the rereward, and every man accompanied with his neighbour and his friend: which bred a true and unfeigned courage, both in regard of themselves and of their followers. Besides these specialities, the places of title and dignity depending upon this order were no small means to cut off all matter of civile discord, and intestine dissension: for here every man knew his place in the File, and every File knew his place in the Century, and every Century in the Maniple, and every Maniple in the Cohort, and every Cohort in the Legion, and every Legion in the Army; and so every souldier had his place according to his vertue, and every place gave ho∣nour to the man, according as their discipline had determined thereof.

The want of this discipline hath dishonoured the martiall government of this age with blo••d∣shed and murthers; whereof T••ance is too true a witnesse, as well in regard of the French them∣selves, as of our English forces that have been sent thither to appeale their tumults: for through defect of this order, which allotteth to every man his due place, the controversy grew between Sir William Drurie and Sir John Burrowes, the issue whereof is too well known to the world: wherein as our Commanders in France have been negli∣gent, so I may not forget to give due commenda∣tion to the care which is had of this point amongst the English troups in the service of the States in the United Provinces, where they are very curi∣ous

in appointing every man his place in the File, and every File in the Troup, and find much bene∣fit thereby, besides the honour of reviving the Ro∣man discipline.

To conclude this point, I will only touch in a word the benefit which the Romans found in their small battalions, and the disadvantage which we have in making great squadrons. And first it cannot be denied but that such troups stand best appointed for disposition and array of bat∣tell, which standing strong to receive a shock, bring most men to ••ight with the enemy: for the principall things which are required in setting of a battell, are so to order the troups, that the depth in slank may serve conveniently to with∣stand the assault, taking up no more men then may well serve for that purpose, and giving means to the rest to fight with the enemy: and in these two points were both their defensive and offensive considerations comprehended. But smaller troups and battalions afford this conve∣niency better then great squadrons, which drown up many able men in the depth of their ••lanks, and never suffer them to appear, but when the breaking of the squadron doth present them to the butchery of the enemy. The Mace∣donian Phalanx, as I have noted in the first book, never carried above sixteen in slank, and brought five hundred to fight in front. And these little battalions (considering them as they stood in battell ray) made as great a front or greater then that of the Phalanx, keeping a depth answe∣rable to the same; besides the second and third battell, which alwayes were to succour them, which the Phalanx wanted: neither would their thick and close imbattelling admit any such suc∣cour behind them. Now if we compare the ad∣vantages and discommodities which by place and accident were incident to either of these, we shall find great odds between them. These great squa∣drons are not feasible but in plain and open pla∣ces, where they may either stand immoveable, or make easy and slow motions without shaking or disordering their body: but the lesser are a scant∣ling for all places, champain or wooddy, levell or uneven, or of what site or quality soever. And to conclude, if two or three ranks of these great battalions chance to be broken and disordered, the whole body is as much interessed in the disor∣der as the said ranks are, and hath lesse means to rally it self then any other lesser company: but if any violence chance to rout a Maniple, it proceedeth no further in the Army then that part which it taketh: Neithe can the disranking of any one part betray the safety of the Army to disorder and confusion, forasmuch as their di∣stinction served to cut off such inconveniences, and yet no way hindered the generall uniting of their strength into one body. More may be said concerning this matter; but I only point at it, and leave the due consideration thereof to the judgement of our Commanders, and return to our history.

Notes

• A legion what it was.
• Lib. 4.
• De vita Ro∣muli.
• Liv. lib. 22.
• Taci••us ••. hist.
• Velites.
• Hastati.
• Principes.
• Triarii.
• Lib. 〈◊〉〈◊〉
• Lib. 1. de mil. Rom.
• The use of this divi∣sion.
• The distin∣ction of their com∣panies.
• Manipuli.
• Ordines.
• Cohors.
• Lib. 3. de re ••ust.
• A legion ranged in battell.
• The first or∣der.
• 3 De bello civili.
• Prima co∣hor••.
• The bene∣fit of this discipline.
• The benefit of small battalions, and the dis∣advantage of great squadrons.