Bartholinus anatomy made from the precepts of his father, and from the observations of all modern anatomists, together with his own ... / published by Nich. Culpeper and Abdiah Cole.

THE Fourth and last Manual OF THE BONES And also of the Gristles and Ligaments Answering the FOURTH BOOK Of the Limbs. (Book 4)

IN the last place, I shall briefly (as I* 1.1 have done other things) explain the Doctrine of the Bones.

In the last place, I say, because when all things else are removed and separated, then only the Bones come in view, and are subject to examination. The most dili∣gent Riolanus treats in two places of his Enchiridion, of the Bones, once as they appear in the dead Carkas, when the Mūscles are cut off, and again as they are dried in a Skeleton. But this Ostentation is superfluous in a compen∣dium. For by the same reason we should make a new A∣natomical discourse, of the Veins, Arteries, Nerves, Guts, Stomach, Womb, and other Parts taken out, and dried, and commonly hung up for shew in the Anatmoical Thea∣tres. There is no use of the latter Doctrine of the Bones, unless to help the Memory, nor is it perfectly understood without the former. And therefore other Anatomists, with the parts demonstrate the Bones lying beneath them, in the dead body. I shal therefore only busie my self with the first, and therewith.

Joyn the Doctrine of Gristles and Ligaments.

1. Because of the similitude of their substance: for these three similar* 1.2 parts are very neer of kin, A Bone, a Gristle, and a Ligament, so that they seem to differ only gradually in respect of more and less one from another. For a Bone is the hardest, a Gristle, a little softer, yet so as that it may turn to a Bone, as we see in the tender Bones of Infants, which at first were gristy. A Ligament is yet softer than a Gristle, which also it self somtimes turns to a Bone, as in decrepit Persons. Hence many attribute the same matter to a Bone, a Gristle, a Ligament, yea and a Tendon.

2. Because of the Nearness of Place; for a Bone, a Gristle, and a Ligament do for the most part accompany one another, and are found joyned together. For the Bones are tied with the Ligaments, and where they are ti∣ed, they are covered about their Heads, with a Gristly Crust or Cover.

CHAP. I. Of the Bones in General.

THe Nature of the Bones is easily known, if we shal but orderly propound their Causes and Accident•• or Adjuncts.

The Ma•••••• out of which the Bones are bred in the Womb, according to Hippocrates, is an earthy Excrement, with Fat and Moisture added thereto. Aristotle also calls it Excrementum seminale, an excrement of the Seed. Ga∣len saies it is the thicker and harder part of the Seed dri∣ed.

Now some Bones are perfectly generated in the Womb, as those in the Ear which serve the Sense of Hearing, being the smallest in the whole body; others imperfectly, as the Teeth and all the rest of the Bones, in which at first som∣what is wanting▪ either a process, o•• an Appendix, &c.▪

Moreover, all other Bones save the Teeth have a cer∣tain determination of their growth: but the Teeth grow continually, for if one Tooth be removed, that just against it grows longer: which Nature therefore ordained, be∣cause they are alwaies wearing through grinding and chewing the Meat.

Their remote nutritive Matter, is thought to be the thicker and more earthy part of* 1.3 the Blood, and that which is as it were excrementitious, flowing in through the Veins into the Marrow, where in the Ca∣verns of the Bones it may be digested, for Platerus denies that the Bones have Arteries, wherein Spigelius contradicts him: if there be Veins, there will doubtless be Arteries, which are as inconspicuous to the sight as the Veins are. Hence it is, that in the Cavities of the Bones of Animals newly brought forth, the Mar∣row is as yet bloody.

The Immediate nutritive Matter of the hollowed Bones, according to Hippocrates and Galen, is the Marrow con∣tained in the said Bones (who are contradicted by Ari∣stotle and other Peripetaticks, who will have the Marrow to be rather the excrement of the Bones) as in Gristles that same snotty matter which lies round about them, is their immediate nutritive Matter; and in Ligaments, Membranes and Nerves, that same clammy humor shed in amongst them.

Of the solid Bones not hollowed, the immediate Nutri∣tive matter, is thick Blood sent in through the pores; because 1. Being broken they are joyned with a Callus, bred of the Remainders of the alimentary Blood. 2. They are liable to Imposthumation in their Substance, the su∣perfluities of the nourishment putrifying in the pores. Hofman allows that they are nourished with Blood con∣tained in the Marrow, and that the Marrow serves the Blood, by carrying the solid part.

The Efficient is the Vis o••••ifica, or Bone-making faculty, or the innate faculty, acting by the Assistance of Heat.

The Form of a Bone is the Soul, as of the whole, and in the next place the ratiō formalis whereby a Bone is a Bone and no other thing, 2. de Gen. Anim. cap. 1. And therefore the Bones of dead persons are not properly but equivocally Bones. The Accidents or Adjuncts of Bones, are their sundry Figures, Solidity, Strength, &c. of which hereafter.

The End or Use of the Bones, is,

• 1. To be the Foundations and Supporters of the whole Body, like Pillars or Foundations in Houses.
• 2. To be as a Safeguard for some parts, as the Skull saveguards the Brain.
• 3. To serve for going, as is apparent in the Thighes and Legs. and therefore Ser∣pents,* 1.4 Worms and other Creepers, which have no Legs, cannot go, but are forced to crawl.
• 4. There are some private uses of divers Bones, of which in the special History of Bones.
• 5. Certain Medicinal Uses there are of Bones. Their Pouder cures a Cancer, Fevers, any Fluxes. Their Oyl is good for the Gout, the Magistery of a Mans Skull is good against the Falling-sickness, as also the triangular Bones of the Occiput, &c.

The Situation of the Bones is deep, because they are the Foundations and Upholders of the Body.

They vary in Magnitude according to the variety of their Utilities. Great are the Bones of the Leg, Thigh, Arm, Shoulder, &c. Small those of the Ear serving for Hearing, the Sesamoidean Bones, the Teeth, the Wrist∣bones, &c.

They are many in number and not one only, because of the variety* 1.5 of motions; and lest that one being hurt, all should be hurt.

Now a monstrous thing it is for a Child to be born without Bones, such an one as Hippocrates speaks of, be∣ing a Boy, four fingers big, but not long-liv'd the like to which Forestus also saw.

The Number of all the Bones of the Body, is not the same in all Persons. For in Children they are more, which by degrees grow together and become fewer. O∣thers may number the Epiphysis by themselves as distinct Bones, and so make a mighty number. Others may omit the Sesamoidean and other small Bones, or such as are seldom found, as in the Carotick Arteries: and so doth Archangelus who reckons but two hundred forty nine: others make commonly three hundred and four. Others as many as there are daies in the year.

They vary in Figure some are round, others flat, some sharp, others blunt, &c. as shal be shewed when we come to speak severally of the particulars.

The Colour in such as are naturally constituted, is white, mixt with a very little red.

They are all of them externally inclosed (not internal∣ly) with the Periostium, excepting the Teeth, sesamoi∣dean Bones, and the sides of the other Bones where they are mutually joyned one to another. And the Periostium is exquisitely sensi∣ble:* 1.6 but the Bones themselves want the sense of Feeling, excepting the Teeth, to whom we may attribute some Sense, seeing they feel exceeding cold Air or Water, yea with their Ends: especially when the Teeth are on Edge, before it reach to the little Membranes and Nerves, by help wherof they are thought to Feel.

The Connexion of the Bones is various. But the mutu∣al and artificial hanging together of all the Bones is by the Greeks cal'd Skeleton, as if you would say a dried Carcass from Skellein to drie. Being compacted partly with the natural Ligaments dried with the Bones, & partly with artificial ones, somtimes bolt upright, otherwhiles in the posture of sitting; which doth not properly belong to Anatomy, but the other Natural Osteology, framed by Nature, and adorned with its own moist Ligaments.

And this natural Cohaerence or Connexion, according to Galen, is made either Cat' árthron by way of Joynting; or catà sumphusin, by way of growing together.

He makes Arthron a Joynt to be double; viz. Diar∣throsis or by way of Diarticulation or joynting, such as are Enárthrosis, Arthrodia and Gigglumos: or Sunarthro∣sis, such as he reckons Suture, Harmonie and Gomphosis

Moreover Symphysis or growing together, is said to be with or without a Medium.

But I shall thus divide the Connexions of the Bones.

The Bones are fastned together either by Articulation or Joynting; or by Symphysis or growing together.

Articulation or Joynting is with motion, and that either obscure (which others cal neuter or doubtful Articulati∣on) as that of the Ribs with the Vertebrae, also of the Bones of the Wrist and Pedium; or evident loose and manifest, and it is called

Diarthrosis, of which there are three sorts:

• I. Enarthrosis Inarticulation, which is when there is a great quantity both of the Cavity of the Bone receiving, and of the Head of the Bone which is received: as in the Articulation of the Thigh with the Huckle-bone.
• II. Arthrodia, is where the Cavity receiving is superfi∣cial, and the Head received flat: as is that of the lower Jaw with the Bone of the Temples.
• III. Gigglumos, when the same Bone both receives, so that contiguous bones do mutually enter one into ano∣ther. And it is done three manner of waies:
  • 1. When the same bone is received by one bone which receives the same again mutually; as we see in the Arti∣culation of the Shoulder-bone with the Cubit.
  • 2. When one bone receives and is received of another, as in the Vertebrae. For the Vertebra being placed in the middle, receives the upper and is received by the lower.
  • ...

• ...
  • 3. In manner of a wheel, as that of the second Verte∣bra of the Neck with the first; where upon the Axel-tree as it were of one Vertebra, another is turned and wheeled about,

By Sumphusis or growing together, Bones are fastned, when the Connexion is without motion, and two Bones do only touch one another, or approach mutually one to another, as in the former.

And this growing together is either without a medium or with it.

Without a Medium:

• 1. Rhaphé a Suture as in the Skul.
• 2. Harmonia, which is a joyning of Bones by a single Line, streight, oblique, or circular: as in bones of the upper Jaw and the Nose. And so all Epiphyses in a man∣ner are joyned.
• 3. Gomphosis that is to say Nailing, when one Bone is fastned into another as a Nail in a Post, as the Teeth in the Jaw-bones.

These three sorts Galen and others following him, have comprehended under Synarthrosis as the Genus or kind. But they are out: because Bones thus joyned have no motion▪ yet peradventure they may some waies pertain to Synarthrosis, because of the firmness they afford to the parts of the body.

With a Medium there is also a threefold growing toge∣ther of the Bones, by reason of a threefold body coming between as the Medium:

• 1. A Gristle and the conjunction is called Sunchondro∣sis. as in the Bones of the lower Jaw, and the Share∣bones.
• 2. A Ligament and it is termed Sunneurosis, as is seen in the Union of the Huckle-bone with the Thigh bone.
• 3. Flesh or a Muscle, and it is called Sussarcosis, as in the Os hyoides with the Scapula.

The Substance of the Bones is hard, but not with dri∣ness in an healthy State, but with a shining fattiness. to which others joyn an acid or sharp spirit and a vola∣til Salt, in which regard they easily take fire and are burnt instead of Wood, as the Rogus of the Romans or their Fu∣neral-fires did witness [and our English Bonefires, for anciently (and yet in the* 1.7 North) they kept their Bones of Beef &c. til an occasion of Triumph, and then brought them out for joy to make Bone-fires] other∣wise they would easily be broken, as we see in calcined Bones, and in that old Woman, whose Members would break at the least touch, as Nic. Fontanus relates in his Observations. And Galen tels of some bones that would turn to Sand and Dust, like rotten wood, which is the effect of driness.

The Less this Hardness of the Bones is, the better do broken bones grow together and unite.

But in Persons that are come to years, they do not truly grow together, nor are regenerated, but are as it were glewed together, by the coming between of another substance like Glue, which they term Callus. Galen cals it Porus. Now a Callus somtimes happens beside the In∣tent of Nature, through overgreat plenty of Aliment and bad Nutrition: viz. when by a boney callus, the three upper Vertebra's of the Neck are so glewed together as they seem to be but one bone: or when the first Vetebra is glewed to the Skul; and such persons cannot express their consent or dissent, by moving their Head forwards or backwards as the manner is.

There is a greater hardness in some Bones than in o∣thers, as the Thigh, &c. But other Bones are softer, as of the Os Spongiosum, the last bones of the Fingers &c. Fer∣nelius, Ruellius, Hollerius have found all the bones so pre∣ternaturally soft, that they might be bowed like Wax, and that chiefly by the venereal Pox, witness M. Donatus. The Cartilago insiformis proves somtimes so soft and flag∣gie, that it falls, of which see Codronchius.

The parts of the Bones are solid or Hollow, yet Plinie tels us, that there were some that lived whose bones were solid, without any hollowness, who are by him called Cor∣nei, and that such persons are known, in that they never sweat nor thirst. which Salinus avouches of one Lyddanus a Syracusian. But both these Authors can somtimes drop leasings.

The Cavities are either within where the Marrow is, which cavities nevertheless are not every where conspicu∣ous; or without at the joyntings; which hollownesses if they are deep, they are called Cotúlai or Cotulides (not co••ul••dones) also Acetabula, Sawcers. Cotyle was among the Ancients, a measure of Liquors, containing as much as their Hemina; also a kind of Drinking Cup, as some suppose If the Cavities are shallow, they are called Glê∣nai and Glenoeideîs from the form of the Eyes hollowness when the Eye-lids are shut.

The solid parts of the Bones are three.

The first and principal is called Os, and is the hardest part, seated commonly in the middle.

The second is by the Greeks called Apophysis, also they term it Probolen and Ecph••se••in &c. the Latines call it Processus, Productio, Projectura, Extuberantia &c. It is a part of a bone, not only touching as Epiphusis, but continued bunching out beyond the plain surface of the Bone: such as many are in the Vertebra's of the Back, also in the lower Jaw-bone.

Its chief Use is for the original and Insertion of parts, as Muscles.

The third is Epiphusis, or Appendix, Adnascentia, Ad∣ditamentum; being a bone growing upon a bone, by a simple and immediate Contact, though not with so very plain a Surface, but a little mutual Ingress of Heads and Hollows, like Ginglumus, though without motion.

The Substance of the Epiphyses is rare and loose, being at first for the most part gristly; but in persons grown to years, it is hardned, and turns to a bone: yea in elderly persons, the Epiphysis is so united to the bone, as if they were but one contined bone,

At the Ends of the Epiphysis a Gristle is placed.

But all Bones have not these Epiphuses growing to them: yet there are divers of them; as in the Scapula, on the Bones of the Tibia and the Fibula, viz. on each side, at the Tree and Foot &c. Also the Tooth of the se∣cond Vertebra, the Rotator magnus, the Appendices Styloy∣des, are Epiphyses.

The Use of Eppiphyses.

• 1. In soft bones they are instead of covers, that the Marrow may not run out.
• 2. They serve for firmness, for that Basis is most firm which is broadest and largest.
• 3. That from them Ligaments may arise.
• 4. According to Pavius, that they might be as it were an intermediate matter, to be inserted betwixt a bone and Ligaments, as the Membranes betwixt the Brain and Skull.

The Apophysis are in some places called Capita Heads; in other places, Cervices Necks; in other places Tuber∣cula bunches; in some place Spina thorns; in other places Mucrones sharp points. But the parts which at the round of the Cavities, stick out and hang over like Lips, are called Supercilia Brows, and Labra Lips.

Chap. II. Of Gristles in General.

GRistles next to Bones are the hardest similar parts▪ and almost just of the same Nature with Bones, for such Beasts as have no Bones, have Gristles instead of Bones according to Aristotle.

But they differ, because they are softer than Bones, though harder than Ligaments: and though very many Gristles are in process of time turn'd into Bones [as Car∣dan▪

shews by the example of a Thief of Milaine, whose we∣sand was become boney. Also many Sceletons of my Kinsman Henry Fuirenus declare, that the Cartilago scu∣tiformis, or sheid-fashion'd Gristle, is changed into the hard substance of a Bone, which I also have observed in Dissections] yet all Gristles are not so, as the Ensiformis, that of the Share, of the Spines of the Back, of the No∣strils and Ears: which nevertheless somtime, in aged persons are turned into Bones. Moreover a Gristle hath no Marrow, no Cavities nor Caverns.

The Efficient is the Gristl-making power or faculty.

The Matter according to Aristotle is the same with that of the Bones, from wich he wil have them to differ only gradually. According to Galen it is an earthy but withall moist part of the Seed, partly clammy and glew∣ish, partly fat: but more clammy than fat.

Its Use

• 1. Is principally to render motion more easie and lasting in the Joynts, whiles it anoynts the parts of the Bones, least by mutual rubbing one against another, they should wear and fret. Hence in some Joynts are found Gristles which crustover two bones joyned toge∣ther.
• 2. To defend the parts from external injuries. For they are not easily bruised and broken, because they are hard and not friable, nor are they easily cut and squeezed as the soft and fleshy parts. Hence the extream parts of the Nose are gristly. Hence Gristles are joyned to the Breast∣bone and Ribs, to defend the Heart and Lungs, and the Gristle Ensiformis, to defend the Midriff and the mouth of the Stomach.
• 3. To make such a Connexion of the Bones as is term∣ed Sunchondrosis.
• 4. To shape parts prominent or hollow; as appears in the Ears, Larynx and Wesand.
• 5. To fill up hollownesses, especially in the Joynts, as is seen in the Knee.
• 6. To serve for a cover, as in the Epiglottis.
• 7. To be as an underpropper to sustain somwhat, as the Gristles of the Eyelids bear the Hairs.

Their Situation is various, for Gristles are found in sun∣dry parts, in the Eye-lids, Nose, Ear, Larynx, Wezand, Spine, Chest, Ear-lets, of all and every of which in their places.

Their Magnitude also varies: so also

Their Figure is divers, as ring-fashion'd, Sheild-shap'd, Sword-like, &c.

As to their Connexion. Some Gristles constitute parts of themselves, as that of the Nose, Xyphoidis, the Coccyx: others grow to bones, which knit them together, either without any other medium, as in the Share and Breast∣bones, or by common Ligaments coming between, as in the Connexion by Diárthrosis.

In Substance, some are harder, as those which in time become boney; others are softer, fastning the Joynts, and resembling the Nature in a manner of Ligaments, and are therefore called Chondro-syndusmoi, Gristly Liga∣ments.

Now though their Substance be hard, yet it is flexible and tough because less cold and dry than a bone, and be∣cause compassed with a snotty matter.

And this Substance of theirs is void of sense; because it hath no acquaintance with Nerves nor Membranes. Nor was it requisite that it should feel, least in motion when the Gristles rub and strike one against another, pain should be caused.

In other things they agree with Bones.

Chap. III. Of Ligaments in General.

LIgamentum a Band or Tie, is by the Greeks called Súndesmos. The Ancients, as Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen somwhere, call it Nervum and Nervum colliga∣tum a Nerve, and a twisted Nerve or Nerve tied together; because in shape and colour it counterfets a Nerve: and otherwise the term Ligament, may in a large signification be applied to any part, which fastens divers parts together. Also Galen calls the beginning of a Muscle Ligamentum, part whereof is thought to turn to a Tendon. All these are improper acceptations. I shall now decipher a Ligament properly so called.

Its Efficient is the Ligament-making Power.

Its Matter is a clammy roaping part of the Seed.

Its Use is, like a cord to bind together the parts of the body, especially the Bones, and so to keep them together, in the Head, Chest, Back, and Limbs, that they may not be dislocated or dispointed.

Because of its most strong cleaving thereunto, a Liga∣gament is said to arise (though it be indeed made of the Seed) from the Bone primarily, somtimes from a Gristle, gristly bone or Membrane: and its said to be inserted into a Bone, Gristle, Muscle, or some part. Or if you would rather have it so; Ligaments grow among the Bones, of in the Bones.

Their Situation. Some are without among the Bones, as the grisly Ligaments so called, which are thick and commonly round: others are wound externally about the bones which are thin and membranous.

As to Figure: some are broader which Anatomists term membranous Ligaments, as hath been said; others are longer, which are called Nervous Ligaments. And they call them so because of their resemblance, not as if a Ligament were truly membranous or nervous. So they are called membranous, which being broad and thin do compass the Joynts, also which are wrapt about Tendons and Muscles.

Its Substance is solid, white, bloodless, softer than a Gristle, harder than Nerves and Membranes: for it is as it were of a middle Nature betwixt a Gristle and a Nerve.

It is without Cavity, Sense or Motion. It was to be without Sense, least it should be alwaies pained in Moti∣ons; when as the Ligaments are made somtimes longer and shorter, that is to say, are contracted and extended. Some nevertheless wil have membranous Ligaments to feel, but they must grant it to be so, by means of mem∣branes and not of their own proper substance.

For this substance of theirs is as Galen tels us divisible into fibres visible to the sight, which experience also con∣firms.

Now this Substance is in some places softer and more membranous than in others, as in all Ligaments wel-neer, which go round about the Joynts; and among these, it is softer about the Joynt of the Shoulder, than about that of the Hip; and yet softer where it goes about the inter∣joyntings of the fingers. But in other places the sub∣stance is harder▪ and as it were in part gristly, and there∣fore they are in such places termed gristly Ligaments; and they are such as lie concealed among the Bones, as that which goes from the Head of the Thigh, into the Hip-joynt.

Chap. IV. Of the Skull in General.

WE divide all the Bones of the Skele∣ton* 1.8 into the HEAD, TRUNK, and LIMBS; and them into the Arms & Legs.

The whole structure of the Bones of the Head is term∣ed CRANIUM the Skul, because it is as it were Crános an Helmet; some term it Calva and Calvaria.

Its Situation and Magnitude follow the Brain and cor∣respond thereunto.

Its Figure is natural or non-natural and depraved.

Its natural figure is round, that it may hold the more, yet a little longish towards the fore and hindparts, where it branches forth, that it may contain the Brain and Brain∣let;

on the sides it is flatted, but more towards the fore∣parts; and therefore the hind-part of the Head is of greater capacity than the forepart: of which Albovi∣nus King of the Longbeards or Lombards made a Drink∣ing Cup for Festival daies, as Diaconus relates in his Hi∣story.

The depraved and non-natural Fi∣gure thereof is manifold.* 1.9

• 1. When the foremore protube∣rancie of the Head is wanting; and such persons are counted foolish and mad, for want of Brain, which ought to be most plenti∣ful in the forepart of the Head.
• 2. When the Hinder Protuberancy or bunching forth is wanting.
• 3. When both are wantings so that the Head is round as a Ball, such as the Heads of the Turks and Greenland∣ers are thought to be. And these three depraved figures Hippocrates doth acknowledg.
• 4. The fourth Figure Galen adds, which he conceives may be imagined but not really found, when the length is changed into breadth. But Vesalius saies he saw such an one at Venice, and at Bononia.
• ...

  5. The fift way may be added also out of Hippocrates, an acuminated or oval Figure, when the Head rises up like a Sugar-loaf: which shape in some Nations Hippocrates tels us had a great reputation of Gentility, and may be formed by Midwives, when they swathe the Childs Head into such a shape and so preserve it; and at last Nature transfers such kind of Heads from Parents to Children. The same Hippocrates in his Epidemicks, brings in two kinds of thus shap'd Heads, one with the strength of the parts, the other with weakness of the said parts. And such a figure of Heads, is at this day more frequent in some Countries than in others.

  But now I wil add other figures which I have observed in many Skuls, especially in Italy.

• 6. When the right side branches out.* 1.10
• 7. When the left side sticks out.
• 8. When the right part of that bun∣chiness which naturally should be be∣fore is wanting, and the left sticks out very much, in some more. others less.
• 9. When the left side of the said Protuberancy is want∣ing, and the right sticks out more than ordinary.
• 10. When the right part of the Hinder Prominency is away.
• 11. When the left part of the said hinder Protuberancy is away.

And thus I make twelve shapes of the Head in all, one natural and eleven depraved,

The Substance of the Skul is boney, to secure the soft Brain. But in Children new born it is softer then ordi∣nary, and in some places cartilaginous and membranous, especially about the Sutures, and most of all in the mid∣dle and upper region of the Head: and all these for the making the Birth more easie, that it might give a little way when it is pressed. But the Substance of the Skul is.

• 1. Thick, not thin, that it may more strongly resist ex∣ternal injuries.
• 2. Rare not compact. 1. Least it should weigh too much. 2. That it might contain Juyce for nourishment,
• 3. That vapors may exhale.

Now this Substance of the Skul doth consist as it were of a double boord or plate. It is seldom simple and sin∣gle without a Meditullium or middle matter, as I found it in the Dissection of a certain person, and seldomer hath it three boords, But for the most part two as hath been said. some call them Diploas, the outer whereof being unhurt, the inner may be hurt. And each of these plates is commonly polished within and without, smooth and thick. Hence it appears how thick the Skul is, seeing it is every where in a manner double.

I say in a manner or wel-neer, which others do not ob∣serve: for in some places the Skul is single, thin and transparent. without any distance of plates. And therefore some Chirurgeons* 1.11 are deceived, who in taking away the first Plate do think they must so long cut and prick, til blood comes out. The external Plate is somtimes eaten off by the Venereal Disease, and somtimes it sprouts forth Gums by force of the said Disease.

But the rarity or light composure of the Skul appears from that middle substance between each Plate, which they call meditullium. This Substance, I say, is rare or light, lax, and receives little Veins: which also Hippocrates knew, who therefore warns us that the Skul is very easily inflamed, and therefore when the Trepan is used, the I∣ron must divers times be dipt in Milk and Water.

The Surface of the Skul, is external or internal.

The upper External is smooth and even; the lower or Basis, is rough and uneven, by reason of sundry Appen∣dices and Processes.

The upper Internal is hollow, smooth; save that it hath the Marks of Veins, and certain Cavities, wherein the dura mater grows: the lower is very uneven by reason of divers protuberancies.

And every where there are frequent holes in the Skull, very small and placed without order, through which small Veins and Arteries pass, to the inner Cavity of the Bones, and the dura Menynx. But somtimes they are not to be found.

At length, that we may come to the parts of the Skull, we must know that the Skul doth not consist of one only Bone, least by one wound the whole Skul should be bro∣ken in pieces; but of divers: which are fastned together by the Sutures, of which in the following Chapter.

And some are Bones of the Skull, others of the Jaw.

The Bones of the Skull in persons grown to ripe years are eight. whereof two are common to the Skul, with the upper Jaw-bone, viz. the cundiforme and the spongiosum. But there are six proper bones, which make up the Skul it self: One of the Forehead (in new born Children two) two of the Forepart of the Head, one of the Hind-part (in an Infant four) two of the Temples. And there lie hid in the Auditory passages, other six bones, on each side three little ones: the Hammer, the Anvil, and the Stir∣rup, to which a fourth is added called Orbiculare.

And thus there are perpetually in the Skull fourteen or sixteen Bones.

The Use of the Skul:

• 1. To be the Mansion and Bulwork of the Brain, which of it self is soft.
• 2. That through it Vapors may pass.

To the former use, its thickness and hardness is sub∣servient; to the latter its rarity and Sutures.

On the Skul of a Man somtimes Horns grow, one whiles soft, another while hard like Rams Horns; some∣times fixed to the Skul, otherwhiles to the Skin, and they proceed from a thick, clammy and melancholick humor. There are examples hereof in Paraeus, Thuanus, Hildanus, Renodaeus, Zacutus, Severinus, and others; I also saw two horns, one at Padua in a Nunn, another at Purme∣raem in Holland in an old Woman, which was sufficiently long and hard: I have discoursed of these Horns in my new Observations de Unicornu, of the Unicorn.

Chap. V. Of the Sutures of the Skull.

A Suture is a sort of connexion resembling the putting together of two Saws, tooth within tooth, or the making up of a Garment of many torn patches.

Such Sutures there are many in a mans Head: for an Head is seldom found without any Suture, such as Ari∣stotle

saw, and at Helmstadt and the* 1.12 Monastery of Heilbrun in France such an one is shewed (as a Rarity) and is every where to be met with.

And such persons have not their Heads so liable to exter∣nal injuries, but very much to inward Infirmities, because transpiration is thereby made more difficult. By which distinction, Falopius and Columbus do reconcile Celsus and Robertus Constantinus, the former of whom wrote, that the Head which had no Sutures was most liable to sickness, the latter that the Head without Sutures was more sub∣ject.

Somtimes through Age and Driness, the Sutures do so grow together in aged persons, that they are scarce to be seen; whereas they are in the mean season, more visible in young persons. Somtimes the coronal suture is only seen obliterated; but the temporal do hardly vanish, ex∣cept all the other be first defaced.

The Number and Situation of the Sutures, is the same in a Woman and in a Man, contrary to what Aristotle thought; nor doth it vary in re∣spect* 1.13 of figures, as Hippocrates and Galen would have it, unless very rarely. For M. A. Severinus observed between the saggiteal and Lambda∣fashion'd suture, another over and above of a triangular shape, and neer the end of the said Sutures in another Skul, a new oval Suture.

Moreover, the Sutures of the Head of a certain Fool, did vary in figure, which all stuck up with one Hillock as it were. which I saw in three Epileptick Chil∣dren at Naples, especially in the coronal Suture, which did suggest a new Cause and Cure of the Epilepsie or Falling-sickness.

The Sutures which knit the Bones of the Skul, are some of them called true and proper, others false and Bastard Sutures.

They are termed true, which meet together like the teeth of Combs, or like Saws, put together, which I have somtimes seen after Contusion movable, which also in most Skuls that are over dried in the Earth is common. They are also loose in Children, and therefore they o∣pen in Hydrocephalic or Water-headed Children, as I saw in a Boy at Hafnia, like to that which Severinus pictures out in his Treatise of Imposthumes, and Donatus describes.

The bastard Sutures are joyned like Scales and Tiles on an house-top, and therefore they are termed Squamosae conglu••inationes, Scaley-conjunctions, and may rather be termed joynings, seeing they are more like to an Harmo∣nia then a Suture.

There are three true ones.

• 1. Is the foremore, and is called Coro∣nalis. 1. Because the Ancients wore* 1.14 Crowns on that part of their Heads.
• 2. Because it hath some resemblance to a Crown or Circle:

For from the Temples it ascends on both sides, athwart, to the top of the Head. The Arabians call this suture Ar∣cualis and Puppis.

Its Use is to joyn the Fore-head bone with the bones of the Hinder-head, and to distinguish them therefrom. The place of the coronal Suture is sound out in a living person, either by carrying the hand upwards from the Wrist along the Nose, or by drawing a Thred out from Ear to Ear, and another cross the same from the end of the Nose.

2. That which is opposite to this, is behind and in the Occiput or Hinder-head. 'Tis called Lamdoeidès the Lam∣da-shap'd, from the Greek letter A. some call it hupsiloï∣des from the letter upsilon, also prorae sutura.

This ascends obliquely, from the Base of the Hinder∣head, to each Ear, grows into an Angle. Somtimes when the Hinder-head is large or otherwise, 'tis divided by a transverse suture, simple, or double: somtimes there is a double triple Suture as if a greater triangle did contain one or two lesser Triangles within the same: where the Bones so comprehen∣ded,* 1.15 are termed ossicula triangularia, the little three-cornerd bones, commended, in the Falling-sickness.

Besides these triangular bones, Olaus Worm a rare man, found others in the Lambda-like Suture, which perfora∣ted both the Boards of the Skull, observed as yet by very sew. Three for the most part on the right, as many on the left side, differing in magnitude, figure and situation, which also are accurately discerned and distinguished in Infants. The lowest is seen at the Processus mammillares, the middlemost a little higher, scarce half a Fingers breadth, the third a little further distinct from the second. Pavius found only two like to these, circumscribed with their little Sutures or seams, which he doubts whether he should refer them to the Bones of the Occiput or the Bregma.

In Shape they are Various, Triangular, Oblong, Oval. somtimes in living persons I have observed them to grow so high, that I could Feel them with my Fingers, as if they had been Epiphysis or somewhat growing upon the Bone.

All are larger on the left side. but the greatest exceeds not the Nail of a Mans thumb.

They appear more distinct on the inner & Concave side of the Skul, than in the outward and convex, and there∣fore they are all more cleerly discern'd when the Skul is taken away,

We are nevertheless to observe that these bones of Worm do in divers Skuls vary, both in Number, Magnitude, Fi∣gure, Situation; so that somtimes there are four, som∣times two, and in a Right line only, somtimes in the very Juncture of the Sagittal with the Lambda-shap'd; some∣times also in the Scaley temporal Sutures.

Their Use, I believe, is 1. That the Sutures being in∣larged thereabouts, might afford a more free passage for Excrements.

2. That the Skul being made up of more bones, might be more safe in Blows and Contusions.

The Use of this Lambda-like Suture, is to distinguish the bone of the Occiput or Hinder-head, from the bones of the Temples, and the forepart of the Head.

3. In the middle betwixt these two is the Suture ter••r∣ed Sagittalis or Arrow-shap'd, because it runs in a streight line all along the Head, like an Arrow, betwixt the Co∣ronal and Lambda-shap'd Sutures.

Somtimes it proceeds through the middle of the Coro∣nal Suture and the middest of the Fore-head, as far as to the Nose, especially in Infants: in some also it cuts part of the Bone of the Occiput or Hinder-head. I remember it hath been somtimes wanting.

This Suture is termed Virgata and Recta.

Its Use is to distinguish and joyn together the two bones of the Sinciput or Fore-part of the Head.

Those two Suture are commonly called* 1.16 Nendosae or Bastard sutures, which are wont to be called Squamosae Scalie, Cor∣ticales and Temporales, because they cir∣cumscribe the Bones of the Temples. Now this Connexion like Scales was necessary, because the Temple-bones, be∣ing in the lower part very thick would have been to hea∣vy, if they had not been made by little and little thinner in their upper part, and joyned to the bones of the Sinci∣put atenuated by little and little like Scales.

Now there are many spurious Sutures* 1.17 every where in the Skul, also many har∣monies, where the bones are joyned to∣gether: in the Palate bone a peculiar Suture is seen.

The Use of the Sutures.

1. They serve for the free transpiration of fuliginous vapors. And therefore Hippocrates pronounces, that they have soundest Heads, who have most Sutures: and those that have their Heads without Sutures, are troubled with

[illustration]

[illustration]

TABLE I.

The FIGURE Ex∣plained.

• A. A Portion of the Sagittal Suture.
• B. The Lambda-like Suture.
• C. The Skull cut with a Saw.
• D. The first Bone of Worm, on the left quarter.
• E. The second.
• F. The third.
• G. The first of the right Quarter.
• H. The second.
• I. The third.
• K. The great hole of the Skull.
• LL. The mammillary productions.

page 341

an inveterate Head-ach. And Galen saw so great an Inflammation caused by over strait binding of the Head, whereby the Sutures were shut up, and the Excre∣ments kept in, that the Patients Eyes came out of their holes.

• II. That by them the Dura mater may be tied and held up, least it should squeez the inner parts of the Brain.
• III. That the said dura mater might by them send out fibres to constitute the Pericraneum and the Periosteum.
• IV. That Vessels may go in and out, to nourish and in∣••iven the parts; which Vessels are by Fallopius cal'd Venae puppis.
• V. That one Bone being broken the others might re∣main whole. And therfore Galen, Paulus, Guido and Fallo∣pius, denie that there can be any contra••issure or Counter∣cleft, save in a solid Head without Sutures: Hippocrates writes the Contrary, and cals it a Misfortune, as also Cel∣sus and others, and Fallopius himself, Paraeus and Pavius relate examples, and before them Soranus, taking a simili∣tude from a Glass Bottle, which oftentimes, being struck on the one side, is crakt on the opposite part.
• VI. That Topical Medicines being outwardly applied, may more easily penetrate.

Chap. 6. Of the proper Bones of the Skull in particular.

THe first Bone is the OS FRONTIS, the Forehead bone, which some call Coronale, Inverecundum, Os puppis: which hath

A Figure imperfectly circular; more perfect where it is circumscribed with the Coronal Suture, more imperfect neer the Eyes.

Its Substance is thinner than that of the Os occipitis or Hinder-head bone, and thicker than the Ossa sincipitis, or bones of the foremore part of the Head.

It is twofold in Children new-born, distinguished by the sagittal Suture: also framed of a twofold Plate, an external and internal.

At the top of the Nose above the Eye∣brows, there are large Cavities commonly* 1.18 two in number, between the two plates, somtimes cloathed with a green Membrane and separated, containing a certain soft and marrowish body. But these Cavities are not 1. In Children til they are a year old. 2. In such as have a flat and Saddle-face. 3. In such whose Fore-head is divided.

The said Cavities have holes which end into the wide spaces of the Nostrils: and another which ends into the Skul, above the Septum of the Os spongiosum to distinguish the Organs of Smelling.

The Use of these Cavities.

• 1. To make the Voyce Melod•••••••• and Sounding; be∣cause they are not in such who have a bad Speech.
• 2. Some conceive they serve for the Air to be elabora∣ted in, to generate animal spirits.
• 3. That they may contain the Air which is drawn into the Nostrils and brings the smels of things along with it, from whence it passes leisurely to the Organs of Smel∣ling, and to the Brain to alter the ••ame, and reduce it to its natural State, when it is disordered. And therefore it is that many times an whole day together a smel is per∣ceived in the top of the Nostrils.
• 4. Others suppose, they serve to collect Excrements, not only thick but watry, which being carried to the Glandula lachrymalis, do make Tears.
• 5. some conceive that the marrowy matter therein con∣tained, doth pass through the hole of the greater Corner of the Eye, and moisten the Eye make it glib and slippery, that it may move the Easier.

This Bone hath Processes: one at the greater Corner of the Eye, another at the lesser, to constitute the upper pare of the Eye-hole or Socket. There are also two cor∣nerd Eminencies or risings on each side o••e, towards the Temples, which are termed Horns; by Albucasis, Diony∣sisci the Author of the Definitions and Heliodorus the Physitian; and if that boney Tumor be only on one side Ingrassias calls it Dionysiscus.

It hath three holes; one more inward of which before, which ends into the Skul: two outward, at the middle of the Eye-brows, for the thorough-fare, of the Nerves of the third Conjugation to the Forehead.

The Second and Third are the two Bones of the Sincipu•• or Vertex, which some call Parietalia, others Arcualia, Nervalia, Rationis or Cogitationis, of reason or thought: the Greeks Brég••a••os o••••â, because the most moist and sofe Brain, is placed under them.

In Shape they are four square and unequal.

Their Substance is more rare and in∣firm* 1.19 then of other Bones, because the Head in this part, wants very much evaporation: and therefore the Wounds of the Sinciput are deadly.

[illustration]

TABLE. II.

The FIGURES Explained.

In this TABLE are presented the Bones and Su∣tures of the Skul, as also the parts of both the Jaw∣bones.

FIG. I.

• AA. The Coronal Suture.
• B. A part of the sagittal Suture.
• CC. The scalie Suture of the Bones of the Temples.
• D. The Os frontis, or Bone of the Fore-head.
• EE. Processes of the said Bone, to the grater cor∣ner of the Eye.
• F. Another process to the les∣ser corner.
• G. An hole for the passage of Nerves expressed on one side.
• H. Os Bregmatis.
• I. The Bone of the Temples.
• K. Its Appendix cal'd Sty∣loïdes.
• L. Its mamillary process.
• M. Another process thereof, which makes the Os ju∣gale.
• N. The first bone of the low∣er Jaw according to our Author.
• O. The second Bone.
• P. The hole of this Bone, neer which is the Ca∣runcula Lachrymalis.
• QQ. The third Bone of the upper Jaw.
• RR. The fourth Bone thereof.
• S. The Partition of the Nostrils.
• T. The lower Jaw-bone.
• u. Its outer and lesser hole, the greater is to be seen within.
• X. The process of that Jaw-bone, termed Corone.
• Z. The other blunted Process called Condilodes.
• 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉. The Dent••s Incisores or Cutting Teeth.
• 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉. The Dog-teeth.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Grinders or Grinding-teeth, Molares.

FIG. II.

• AAA. The Coronal Suture.
• BB. The Sagittal Suture.
• CC. The Lambdoidea.
• D. The Os frontis.
• EE. The Bone, of the Sinciput, Bregma, or ••or•…•… of •••••• Head.
• FF. A portion of Os Occipitis or Hinder-head 〈◊〉〈◊〉

page 342

In Infants, that part which is at the Conjunction of the coronal and Sagittal Sutures is found Membranous, and soft, and among all the Bones of the Head, it last receives a boney hardness, then when the Child begins to speak distinctly and intelligibly▪ while it remains Membranous and soft, it is not so thick as afterwards, but transparent. Hence in Children there is observed in that place a Gap or Chink, which some term Fontanella and ••ons pulsatilis; where also they are wont to make Issues in desparate Ca∣tarrhs. I have once observed this part in a person grown up, to have been not yet boney, but membranous as in Children, viz. in a man of years of Age. 〈…〉〈…〉 Woman of twenty six years old, found it re•…•… open.

There are within superficial Cavities, being the in •…•…∣sions of Veins, and without certain small holes.

The fourth Bone of the Occiput which some call 〈…〉〈…〉 Os prorae, Os memorioe, Os pixidis, the G•…•… doth constitute almost the whole hinde•…•… part of the Skul.

Which in grown persons is commonly b•…•… double or treble; in Children it con•…•… part of four seldom of five bones▪

Its Figure is of a Sphaetical triangle▪

Its Substance is the thickest and most compact of all the rest (because there the noble Ventricle is seated, and there the Nerves arise as from a Fountain) especially at the Basis of the Skul, save at the sides of the great hole, where it is most thin (and therefore in this respect Aristotle did well say, that this was the thinnest Bone of all, which Co∣lumbus taxes) and therefore for safeties sake, there is in the middle thereof a long Prominency.

It hath five holes, one which is the greatest neer the first Vertebra, through which the Medulla oblongata passeth forth; the rest are lesser serving for the going out of Nerves and the entrance of Veins and Arteries.

It hath nine Cavities, seven within and two with∣out.

It hath before two broad Processes at the Basis (in Children they are Epiphyses) covered with a Gristle, within more eminent, inserted into the Cavities of the first Vertebra, for the motion of the Head. There is a∣nother small Process behind, joyned to the first Verte∣bra.

In the Hinder-head of Dogs, there is another small bone between the Brain* 1.20 and the Brainlet, which is triangular: that it may as a Prop sustain their going with their heads downwards.

The fift and sixt, are the Temple Bones, by the Ears; some call them Lapidos••, Petrosa, Sa••ea, Squamiformia Mendofa, and others Parietalia and Aercualia.

Their Shape is uneven (but rather circular than three square) because of their manifold Substance, which is like Rocks and craggy Clifts; for which cause they are also called Ossa petrosa the rocky bones. But in their upper part they are attenuated, so as to be transparent, where they lie under the temporal Muscles, and are joyn∣ed to the bones of the Sinciput, like Scales.

They have six holes without, two within▪ the first ex∣ternal hole is large, viz. The Auditory passage; the rest are small, for Vessels to pass thorough.

They have two Cavities. The outer is covered with a Gristle▪, and receives the lower Jaw-bone. The inner is longish, common to the Os occipitis.

[illustration]

TABLE III.

The FIGURES Ex∣plained.

This TABLE demonstrates the inner structure of the Or∣gan of Hearing, with the little Auditory Bones.

FIG. I.

• AA. Os temporis, the Temple Bone.
• bbb. The scalie Suture of the said Bone.
• cc. The Os spongiosum, or Spungy-bone.
• D. The Cavity into which the Auditory Nerve is inserted.
• e. The boney Circle.
• ff. The greater winding of the Cochlea.
• ggg. Three boney half-circles, which form the La∣byrinth.
• h. The Malleus or Hammer in its situation.
• i. The Anvil or Incus.
• k. The Stapes or Stirrup.
• l. The external Muscle of the Ear.
• m. The internal Muscle of the Ear, of which see B. 3. chap. 9.

FIG. II.

• aaa. The Labyrinth.
• b. The Cochlea.
• c. The oval hole where the Stapes is seated.
• d. Fallopius his Aquae-ductus.
• e. The Fenestra Rotunda, round window.
• ff. Little holes to let out Veins and Arteries.

FIG. III.

• aa. The Cochlea dissected.
• bb. An intermediate space or thing dividing the Cochlea into two wreaths.
• c. A round hole, ending into the Cavity of Hearing, and the lower wreath of Cochlea.
• ddd. The wreathings or Circumvolutions of the Labyrinth opened.
• e. The Fenestra ovalis, or oval window.

FIG. IV.

• a. The round Head of the Malleus or Hammer.
• b. Its end whereby 'tis fastned to the Drum.
• c. The smaller process of the Malleus, Mallet or Hammer.
• d. The larger and more fine process thereof, first observed by Folius.
• e. The Incus or Anvil, whose upper part hath a Cavity to re∣ceive the Head of the Hammer.
• f. The longer process of the Anvil, to which the Stirrup is fastned.
• h. The Stapes or Stirrup.
• i. A fourth little bone fastned to the Stapes or Stirrup by a Ligament, first observed by Fr. Sylvius.

FIG. V.

• Shews the boney Circle in Infants, to which the Membrane of the Drum is fastened.

page 343

It hath a certain Appendix, sharp, long and small, and therefore called Styloīdes, Belenoïnes, Graphioïdes, Ple∣ctrum, &c. It is soon broke off, and therefore it is not in all Skuls, especially such as are dug out of the ground. In grown persons 'tis hony, in Infants Gristly. It is a lit∣tle crooked, like a Cocks Spur.

It hath three Processes.

• 1. Is external and obtuse, thick, short and cavernous, id est, having holes like a Spunge in it; its cal'd from its shape, Mammillaris, Dug like.
• 2. Is External also, and a portion of Os jugale.
• For the Os jugale or Lygomatis, seated under the Eye, is not a peculiar bone, but is made up of the Processes of two bones; the one is that newly mentioned, the other is that of the Jaw, joyned by an oblique Suture, making as it were a Bridg: whose use is to defend the Tendon of the temporal Muscle, the Skul being otherwise but thin in that place.
• 3. Is Internal with a long protuberancy, wherein there is a threefold Cavity: the Drum, the Labyrinth, the Co∣chlea, also the bones which serve the Hearing. But if the outer passage before the Membrane of the Tympanum be reckoned, there wil be four Cavities of the Auditory passage. The Ancients makes mention but of one Ca∣vern.

I. The first Cavity, which is the Tym∣panum or Concha, or as some call it Pel∣vis,* 1.21 and by Aristotle termed Cochlea, is situate presently after the little Mem∣brane of the Tympanum (about which goes a boney circle, easily separable in Infants, in elderly persons hardly) wherein is the Congenit or inbred Air, also four little bones, a Ligament and Muscles, little Windows and a water-passage; and from this Cavity a Channel goes in∣to the palate of the Mouth. It doth not transmit the Congenit Air, which Nature studies to retain.

The Fenestrae or Windows, are two little holes in this Cavity: the one oval, is in the middle of the Cavity, more towards the fore-part, and higher, upon which the Basis of the Stapes or Sti••rups rests, and in a great mea∣sure shuts the same: in the hinder part, it opens it self in∣to the Cochlea with a large overture, and joyns it self al∣so to the hinder hole which is lower in mankind, lesser and narrower? and this is divided into two channels, divided by a very thin bony Scale: with the one it goes, together with the oval window unto the Cochlea, with the other to the Labyrinth; and the hindermore channel is called Aquae-ductus, also Meatus cochlearis, Tortuosus, Caecus, Ca∣preolaris, by reason of the crooked winding passage, through which the greater part of the Auditory Nerve is carried with the Artery.

II. The second being round and less than the former, is called Cabyrinthus and fodina the Maze and Mettal-mine or Cole-mine, because of its crooked manyfold turnings: behind the Fenestra ovals, it joyns it self to the following Cavity. From this, many waies run out▪ which they call Semicirculos osse••s excavatos, hollowed boney Half-circles, or funiculos little Ropes, three for the most part, large at the beginning, and then by little and little growing nar∣rower, cloathed with a little thin Membrane, that the sounds may become more acute, and being by little and little broken may so ascend unto the Brain. It hath four holes besides the oval, and a fift which is terminated in∣to the Cochlea.

III. The third is termed Cochlea because of its wreathed turning, others call it Cavitas cochleata, Buccinata, An∣••rum buccinosum, &c. for it hath three or four windings (those who are thick of Hearing have only one or two) mutually receiving one another, and is cloathed with a very exceeding thin and most soft Membrane, and is ador∣ned with infinite little Veins, which being twined about the wreathings of the Cochlea, doth by many branches creep into the secret turnings of the Labyrinth.

Chap. 7. Of the Bones which serve the Sense of Hearing.

THere follow eight other Bones of the Head, which are least of all, on each side four, being the Bones subservient to the sense of Hearing, called from their shapes, Malleus the Mallet or Hammer, Incus the Anvil, Stapes the Stirrup, and the Orbicular bone: all which were unknown to the Ancients. The two first were found out by Jacobus Carpus, who was afterwards followed by Massa, Jacobus Sylvius, and Vesalius: and he being ad∣monished by Fallopius, at last made mention of the third, whose first finder out was Ingrassias; although Eustachius and Columbus do arrogate the Invention hereof unto themselves.

The fourth Auditory Bone, was found out and shewed to me by Franciscus Sylvius, being round and small, and by N. Fontanus likened to the Scale of a Pike: annexed by a small Ligament to the Stirrup side, where it is joyned to the Anvil; which you shall more easily find in the boyled Calves Heads, in which they are bigger than in the Heads of Men: howbeit in a Man it is visible enough. Pavius found in the Head of an Ox a year old, one like this, of a sesamoidean shape.

They are situate in the first Cavity or Concha.

They have a Substance hard and dense, hollow within, that they might be lighter, and might contain in them, Marrow for their nourishment, without any Periosteum about them: also that they might make the Ai•• drie••, and carry it along, like those Ropes which are fastened to doors to make them open and shut again of themselves. They are as perfect in new-born Children as in those that are grown up; though not so hard, but more moist, for which cause Infants are dull of Hearing.

The Connexion. The Hammer by its process sticks fast to the Membrane of the Drum, beyond the middle, like a tail turned back; the head whereof is articulated into the Cavity of of the Anvil, having a small Process, that the Tendon of the Musculus rotundus may be applied thereto; it hath also a longer Process, but smaller, first observed by Caecilius Folius, to which another Muscle is fastened, which belongs to the external Ear. It rests a∣thwart upon the bony circle, with which perhaps it grows together in persons that are of years, for commonly in Children it is only visible, in others it is easily broken be∣cause of its fineness, when the bones are taken out.

The Anvil resembling a grinding Tooth, lies under the Hammer, having beneath two processes; the one shorter resting upon the Os squamosum, the other longer, sustain∣ing the top of the Stirup or triangular bone, which rests upon the Cochlea, till it is sunk into the broad Basis of the Fenestra ovalis, or oval window, to which it is fastned by a loose Ligament, so that it may be lightly raised, but not moved upwards and downwards.

These three little bones, are joyned with a very fine Li∣gament, which is stretched over the whole Membrane, as the strings over the bottom of a Drum.

The Use of these little bones is not to make a sound, but that the species of sound being received, may pass to the lower parts, and that there may be a passage for the excrements of the Ears. For the Stirrup shutting the oval or upper window, is moved by the Anvil (whereupon the window is opened, that the species or representation of Sounds may pass into the Nerve, and the Anvil being smitten by the Hammer, and the Hammer by the Mem∣brane of the Drum, through the impulse of the external Air (which the Hammer hinders from being driven too far forwards) which while it is in doing, the membrane of the Drum is droven inwards▪ and becomes bunching out, whereby the inbred Air is affected, which wandring through the Cochlea causes, that the branches of the Au∣ditory

Nerve, do receive the species of sounds, brought in by the windows, and communicate the same to the Brain. And thus the Hammer is moved only inwards. But in the recourse, it is moved outwards, with the Membrane of the Drum, by that very little Muscle found out by Cas∣serius.

Chap. VIII. Of the Bones common to the Head and upper Jaw, viz. Os cuneiforme and Os spongiosum.

THe Os Sphaenoides or Cuneiforme, or Wedg-fashion'd Bone, so called because as they say, it hath the shape of a Wedg; was by the Ancients called Polumor∣phos or many-form'd, by reason of sundry processes with∣in and without whereby it is made rugged and uneven: others call it Os Paxillare, Os Colatorij, Os Palati, &c.

'Tis seated in the middle of the Basis of the Head, and is placed under the Brain as a foundation, so that it touches well-neer all the Bones of the Head and upper Jaw.

It is one Bone in grown persons: but it is at first made of four which are afterwards united.

The Processes are sundry.

Outwardly there are two remarkable ones, at the sides of the palate, cal'd Pterigoeides, aliformes, Wing-fashion'd, because they resemble the wings of Batts or Flittermice, and are furnished with a longish Cavity.

Inwardly there are four little ones, on each side two, having the shape of a Turkish Saddle. and therefore this process is termed Sella Sphaenoidis, the saddle of Os Sphae∣noïdes; in which process being square and broad, there is a Cavity to hold the Glandula pituitaria.

At the Saddle, there is a Cave full of little holes, that the inbreathed Air, may be elaborated to make Spirits, and that flegmatick excrements, may distill through the funnel, out of the Ventricles of the Brain.

It hath sundry holes for the passage of the Vessels this way and that.

OS SPONGOIDES, spongiosum or Spongiforme, the spunge∣like bone, being seated in the middle basis of the Fore∣head, and filling the Cavity of the Nostrils, is also called ethmoeïdes, Cribriforme or Cribrosum, the Seive-fashion'd bone: because

Its inner side, where it joyns to the Head, is pierced through with many holes like a Sieve, winding and turn∣ing, but not streight; and this part properly is, and ought to be called Cribros••, Sieve-fashion'd.

It hath in its middle a sharp Process, resembling a Cocks comb, by which as a Partition this bone is divided into two parts: And to this upper process another is opposed be∣low, distinguishing the Nostrils, where the outer part of this bone is, which is contained in the Cavity of the No∣strils without the Skul, being light and spungie, and therefore there properly so called.

It hath also another part thin, solid and smooth, where it is joyned to the socket of the Eye, a small portion whereof it constitutes, but it is not a part of the upper Jaw-bone, as Vesalius would have it.

The Use of the spongie part is, to alter the Air drawn in with Smels.

The chief Use of the Sieve-fashion'd part is,

• 1. To admit the Air for Animal spirits.
• 2. That the Species of odours may with the Air be carried to the mammillary processes, the Organs of smel∣ling, which end into these holes. And therefore in the Disease Co••yza, this bone being obstructed, the smelling is lost.

A secondary use, is the purging of the Brain▪ for flegm is not only voided by the Glandul•• pituitaria into the Pa∣late, but it drops down also into the Os cribrosum and the Nostrils, if the upper Ventricles of the Brain so called, do abound with too much Flegm. Howbeit, this Flux is preternatural.

Chap. IX. Of the Bones of the Jaw in General.

THe Jaw-Bones are the foundations of the whole Face, the upper above the mouth the lower beneath.

For the upper, which Celsus calls Mala, is the boney part of the Face, comprehending the lower and lateral parts of the Eye-socket, the Nostrils, the Cheeks, the Pa∣late, and the whole row of the upper Teeth.

And this Jaw-bone in Mankind, is shorter and round∣er than in Brutes, for Beauties sake, also it is immoveable as it is in Beasts, saving the Parrot, the Phaenicopterus, and the Crocodile as wel that which lives in the water, as the Land-Crocodile; yet do they not move the upper Jaw only, but their whole Head withall being straitly fasten'd thereto, as Vipers do, and the like is to be said of the Parrot.

But the lower Jaw-bone in Mankind and other Crea∣tures, is only movable, save in the Crocodile, which hath it so united to the Bones of the Temples, that it can no waies be stirred; but the Parrot moves both.

The Connexion is without motion in the upper Jaw, by a Suture or Harmonie whereby it is joyned with many bones of its own, of which it is composed, and other bones placed round about; in the lower by way of Sun∣chondrosis, which is in the middle of the Chin. But in grown persons, the Gristle is so turned into a Bone, that the lower Jaw seems to be one only bone, whereas before it consisted of two.

In the Brim or Circuit of each Jaw-bone, which place Galen calls Ph••••••••an, we meet with Cavities, wherein the Teeth are fasten'd, which Galen terms Bóthria, the Latines Alveolos, Loculos, Fossulas, Praesepiola, Morta∣riola.

These holes according to the nature of the teeth in them, are somtimes single, otherwhiles threfold: somtimes they are obliterated and shut up, the Teeth being fallen or pluckt out. Somtimes they breed anew, by fresh Teeth breaking out. In old Age, frequently these holes are obliterated, the Teeth being lost, and the Gums become sharper and harder, so that old folks chew their meat with them instead of Teeth.

Chap. X. Of the Bones proper to the upper Jaw.

THe Bones proper to the upper Jaw, are eleven on each side five, and one without a fellow.

The first being in a manner triangular, doth make up the lower part of the socket of the Eye, the lesser Eye-cor∣ner▪ and part of the Os jugale and of the Cheek-bone.

The second makes the greater Eye-corner where there is an hole which passes into the Nostrils, by which a Ca∣runcle is placed.

Here those Imposthumes are made which they call aegi∣lopas, which if they be unskilfully or negligently hand∣led, they pierce to the Bone, and cause the Fistula Lachry∣malis.

This is a little Bone, and the least among the upper Jaw-bones, Thin, Transparent, Loosly, Adhereing, so that it is easily broken and lost: and therefore 'tis seldom found in Skuls dug out of the Earth.

The third is a very great one, by which are constituted the large region of the Palate, and the great lower socket

containing the Teeth. It hath large Cavities (and holes through which vessels pass) on both sides remarkable, both for to make it lighter, and that it might contain Marrow to nourish the Bones and the upper Teeth. Others say to help to frame the Voyce. In Children they are not hollowed til after some years, and they are then cover'd with a very thin Membrane.

The fourth with its companion, doth constitute the up∣per and more eminent boney part of the Nose.

It is thin, hard, solid and quadrangular.

And these two external bones of the Nose are divided with a Suture. Within they are rough, that the Gristles of the Nose, may be the better fastened.

There is another inner bone (which is the third of the Nose) cleaving to the process of the Os spongiosum, which is called Septum narium because it distinguishes the No∣strils.

The fift is seated at the end of the Palate, where the holes of the Nostrils go into the Throat or Fauces. They

[illustration]

TABLE IV.

The FIGURES Explained.

This TABLE pre∣sents the lower part of the Skul, to be seen within and without.

FIG. I.

• AAAA. The two Boards of the Skull with the mar∣rowy substance between them.
• B. The Cavity in the Fore∣head bone, ending in∣to the wideness of the Nostrils.
• ...cc. The Os Cribrosum or Sieve-like bone full of little holes.
• D. Its acute process resem∣bling a Cocks combe.
• EE. The two inmore and fore∣more processes of the Os Sphaenoides or Cunei∣forme.
• FF. The two inner and hin∣dermore processes of the said Bone.
• GG. The holes of the said bone for the optick Nerves to pass out.
• H. The Cavity cut in the middle of the Saddle, wherein the Glandula pituitaria is contained.
• I. Another cavity where•••••••• the conjunction of the optick Nerves doth rest.
• KK. Shew the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the pas∣sage of the vessels,
• LL. Shew the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the pas∣sage of the vessels,
• MM. Shew the holes of the Os cuneiforme, for the pas∣sage of the vessels,
• NN. The Processus petrosus of the Temples-bone.
• ...oo. An hole in the said process, for the Auditory Nerve to pass through.
• ...pp. An Additament or Appendix of the Os Occipitis.
• Q. The greatest hole of the Os occipitis through which the spinal marrow passes.
• RR. The Cavities of the Os occipitis within the Skull, in which the Cerebellum or Brainlet rests.

FIG. II.

• AA. The fift bone of the upper Jaw, distinguished by a Su∣ture.
• BB. The Os jugale.
• CC. Holes opening into the wideness of the Nostrils.
• D. The partition of the Nostril.
• E. The eleventh bone of the upper Jaw, which Columbus cals Aratrum.
• FF. The external processes of Os cuneiforme, like Bats wings.
• ...gg. The Cavity of these Processes.
• HH. The Cavity of the Temple-bone, receiving the Head of the bower Jawbone.
• I. An Additament or Appendix to the Os occipitis.
• KK. The processes of the Temple-bones, cal'd Styloides proces∣sus.
• LL. The mammillary processes.
• MM. Two Heads or processes at the Basis of Os Occipitis, whereby it is articulated into the first Vertebra.
• N. The greatest hole of the said Bone.
• OO. The two sides of Os Occipitis, furnished with divers pro∣tuberancies.

are distinguished one from another by the middle Suture of the Palate, and make the hinder part of the Cavity of the Palate and Nostrils, they are thin, solid and broad.

To these ten Columbus ads the eleventh, like a Plough, the inmost and middlemost above the Palate, shutting the lower part of the Nostrils, like a partition wall.

Chap. XI. Of the lower Jaw-bone.

THe lower Jaw-bone in grown persons, consists of one Bone only, in Children till seven year old of two, which are joyned together by way of Sunchondrosis.

Its Figure is that of the Greek letter u or like a Bow.

Its Substance is exceeding hard and strong, that it may hold out in biting and chewing; within hollow, where Marrow is contained to nourish it and the teeth.

It hath two Holes on each side, which go quite through the Jaw-bone like a Pipe, so that a bristle put in at one hole will come out of the other.

The one is more inward, hindermore and greater, recei∣ving in a part of those Nerves which we reckon to be the fift pare, to the Roots of the teeth, with a little Vein and Artery.

The other is more outward, less round, by which a Branch of the foresaid Nerve received in, is sent out to the lower Lip.

It hath sundry Asperities and Cavities for the Risings and Insertions of Muscles.

Also on each side two Processes called Horns, carried up∣wards.

One goes out forwards broad and thin, whose point or sharp end is called Corone, into which the Tendon of the Temporal Muscle is implanted. And therefore Hippo∣crates counts the Luxation of the lower Jaw-bone dead∣ly.

The other hindermore, is carried backwards; repre∣senting a little bunch and is called condulodes, having a little Head coverd with a gristly crust, under which there is a longish Neck.

By this Process the Articulation is made with the Tem∣ple bones, where yet another Gristle is placed between the Cavity and the gristly head, to facilitate the motion. Also a common membranous Ligament doth cover this Articulation.

Chap. XII. Of the Teeth in General.

THe Teeth are called DENTES as if you would say Edentes, Eaters, and by the Greeks odontes as it were edôuntes Eaters; and they are Bones properly so cal∣led, hard and solid, smooth and white, like other Bones.

They have some things peculiar which other bones have not, which neverthe∣less* 1.22 doth not exclude them from the number of Bones.

• 1. They are harder than other Bones, that they may bite and chew hard things; and they are little less harder tha Stones, nor can they easily be burnt in the Fire, and whereas in the Sarcophagus or Flesh∣eating Stone, the whole body is consumed in forty daies, the Teeth remain unimpaired▪ and therefore Tertullian writes that in them is the Seed of our future Resurrection.
• 2. The Teeth are naked without any Periosteum, least they should pain us when we chew.
• 3. Yet they have a Sense, but more of the first than of the second Qualities, and especially rather of what is cold than what is hot contrary to the Nature of flesh, ac∣cording to Hippocrates. and hence they are so an•• to be set on edg.
• But the whole Tooth doth not feel of it self, but the inner, softer and more* 1.23 marrowy part; which is covered over with an hard external part, which is not pained, neither by Fire, nor Iron, as in a Sword under the most hard rind of the Steel, an Irony marrow less hard lies within, and the Skin through the sensless Skars-skin doth feel, so the inner part of the Tooth feels through the out∣most, into which inner part being hollow, little soft Nerves enter and little cloathing Membranes. Hereupon a certain Nun at Padua causing a very long Tooth shee had above all the rest to be cut off to avoid the Deformi∣ty thereof, shee presently fell down into a Convulsion and Epileptick fit. Now in the part of her Tooth which was cut off, there appeared the tokens of a Nerve.
• 4. Hence, they receive Nerves into their Cavity which other bones do not.
• 5. They grow longer than any other of the Bones, al∣most all a mans life, because they are dayly worn, by biting and grinding; as

  Gutta cavat lapidem non vi sed saepe cadendo.

  The hardest Stone a dropping House-Eve hollows, Cause drop upon drop, drop after drop still follows, But not by force.

And look how much they wear away, so much are they still augmented▪ which hence appears; in that if any Tooth fall out and grow not again, the opposite Tooth grows so much the longer, as the empty space of the for∣mer Tooth comes to.

Fallopius considering the praemises, and how new Teeth are thought to breed, he collects that the formative fa∣culty remains alive in the Teeth to extream old age.

Helmont counts the matter of the Bone not to be meer∣ly boney, but as it were of a middle nature betwixt Bone and Stone; because the Teeth turn to Stone whatever kind of food sticks long to them, be it Bread, Flesh, Herbs, Fish, Apples, Beans, or Pease, &c. But there is no petrifica∣tion or turning to Stone, unless the things eaten be of a tartareous Nature, but only a drying, the moisture being consumed by the Spittle; nor are the Teeth made bigger by that addition, which somtimes is scraped off, somtimes turne to clammy filth.

The Teeth are bred in the Womb, after* 1.24 the Generation of the Jaw-bones, twelve in each Jaw, or a few more, as I shall speak hereafter touching their number, four Cutters, two Dog-teeth, six Grinders: which lie somwhat imperfect and concealed within the Jaws (for it is rare for an Infant to be born toothed) least the child as it sucks should hurt the Nipple. And therefore in an Abortion, or a young Infant, small teeth may be pulled out

They break out of the Gums sooner in Brutes (though Varro be otherwise minded as touching Horses) because they are sooner capable of solid meat; in mankind at the seventh month or later, after the Child is a year old: and the upper sooner than the lower, yet in some the lowest first, and among the rest,

The fore-teeth in the first place, because

• 1. They are most sharp.
• 2. They are less then the rest.
• 3. Because the Jaw-bone is there thinnest.
• 4. Because there is most need of them both to speak with and to cut and bite the meat.

And at that time when the Teeth* 1.25 of Infants shoot forth, Hippocrates tels us that Feavers, Convulsions, Fluxes of the Belly arise, especially when the Dog-teeeth come forth: because when the Teeth make their way through the Gums, they torment more than pricks in the Flesh.

These Teeth have a Substance boney, hard, and hollow where they break out, but in their hinder part they have a soft substance, covered with a thin and transparent Mem∣brane.

And about the seventh and fourteenth yeer, other Teeth are wont to break out (the* 1.26 former falling away) in both the Jaws ten, four Cutters, two Dog-teeth, and four Grinders. And the former fall out in the fourth, fift, and sixt year. because the holes grow wider, and therefore the Teeth being at that time soft, do grow loose and fall out. Nicephorus in his Interpreta∣tion of Dreams saies, that for a man to dream he looses a Tooth another comes in the Rome, betokens gain and un∣expected Joy. If their Teeth do not shed, the latter Teeth come out at new holes, the upper commonly on the outside, the lower on the inside, as there were new ranks of Teeth. More frequently they spring out on the sides and augment the number.

But these Teeth are not bred anew without the Womb: for then likewise* 1.27 Membranes, Nerves, Vessels and Liga∣ments might be bred anew: but the seeds of them lie within the Jaws. For Eustachius and Riolanus have observed some smaller Teeth at the back of the rest which fall out, a very thin partiti∣on being removed which is found between the two sorts of Teeth. But a rare case it is for Teeth to breed again, after many years and in old age. As Thuanus relates of a man that was an hundred yeer old: in our Fionia a man of an hundred and forty years of age, had new Teeth. Helmont saw an old Man and Woman of sixty three yeers of age, whose Teeth grew again with such pains as Chil∣dren have when breed they teeth, which was no token of their long living, for both of them died that yeer. Sir Francis Bacon hath the like Example touching an old Man.

But now let us speak of the Teeth in grown persons.

The Teeth are seated in the Compass of the two Jaw∣bones, in Mankind, shut up within his mouth; in a Boar they stick out, as also in the Whale-fish cal'd Narhual in our Greenland; which sends out an exceeding long wreathed Tooth, ••ut of the left side of his upper Jaw, which is commonly taken for the Unicorns horn, and is yet of great value among Noble Men and Princes.

In Magnitude they come short of the Teeth of other Animals, because of the smallness of Mans mouth. And in Mankind some have greater, others less.

They vary in Figure. In Man they are of a threefold figure: Cutters, Dog-teeth, and Grinders, as shall be said in the following Chapter; save that Fontanus obser∣ved in a certain Man, that they were all Grinders which he had. In Creatures that chew the Cud they are double; Cutters and Grinders. In Fishes they are in a manner all perfectly sharp, excepting one kind of Whale, which the Islanders call Springwall, whose teeth are blunt, but broad.

The Surface is smooth and even.

The Colour white, and shining, unless negligence, Age, or sickness hinder.

The Number is not the same in all Men, for to let pass rarities, viz. that some men are born with one continued tooth in their upper Jaw-bone (which they relate of Pyr∣rhus, and a certain Groenlander brought hither in the Kings Ships) also of a double and tripple row of teeth, such as I have seen in some Fishes, and such as Lewis the thirteenth King of France had, and which Solinus writes of Mantichora, and is known of the Lamia, which hath five ranks, strangely ordered, and among them exceeding sharp teeth, resembling the stones called Glossopetrae, and there∣fore Columna took the teeth of a Lamian turned to stone, to be the Glossopetrae or precious Stones of Malta so cal∣led, of which I have spoke elswhere. In a Sea-wolf, I have observed a double rank, the former of sharp teeth, the in∣ner of grinders, close joyned together, which possess the lower part of the Palate. A man hath ordinarily but one rank in each Jaw-bone, and twenty eight in all, somtimes thirty, in the upper Jaw sixteen, in the lower fourteen; but for the most part thirty two, sixteen in each Jaw.

But this number is seldom changed, save in the grin∣ders, which somtimes are on each side five, somtimes sour; otherwhiles five above, four beneath, or five on the right, and four on the left side, or contrarily.

A great number of teeth argues length* 1.28 of life, few teeth a short life, according to Galen and Hippocrates. And rightly. For the rarity and fewness of teeth is bad as a Sign and a Cause: for it argues want of matter, and the weakness of the formative faculty. As a Cause: because few teeth can∣not well prepare the meat, and so the first digestion is hurt, and consequently the second. But we must understand that this prediction holds for the most part, but not al∣waies, as Scaliger well disputes against Cardan in his 271. Exercitation. For Augustus who lived seventy six years, is said to have had thin, few, and scalie teeth; and so like∣wise Forestus who lived above eighty years.

Their Connexion is by way of Gomphosis, for they seem to be fixed in their holes as nails in a post. Also they are tied by strong Bands unto their nests, which bands stick to their roots; and then the Gums compass them, of which before.

The outer Substance is more solid and hard, not feeling; the inner is a little more soft, endued with sense, by reason of the neighborhood of a Nerve and Membrane, and hath in it a Cavity, larger in Children then Elder persons, and compassed about till they be seven years old, with a thin Scale like the Combs of Bees, and full of snotty matter; in grown persons the humor being dried up, it is dimini∣shed.

This Cavity is cloathed with a little Mem∣brane* 1.29 of exquisite Sense, which if it imbibes some Humor flowing from the Brain, ex∣tream Tooth-ach follows. In this begin Erosions, Putrefactions, and most painful Rottenness; and herein somtimes grow the smallest sort of worms, which exceedingly torment men.

Vessels are carried to this Cavity, by the holes of the Roots of the Teeth.

As Veins to carry back the blood after nutrition and continual augmentation. Which are not seen so appa∣rently in Mankind (as neither the Veins of the adnata tu∣nica of the Eyes) but they are manifestly seen in Oxen, and are gathered from the sprinkling of blood in the Ca∣vity.

Little Arteries to afford Natural Heat and Blood for Nutrition and Alteration. And therefore upon an Infla∣mation, a pulsative pain of the teeth is somtimes caused▪ which Galen experimented in himself. Hence much light∣ful, shineing blood, comes somtimes from a tooth that has an hole made in it, and somtimes so as to cause death.

Little Nerves tender and fine, are carried to them from the first pare, according as we reckon, which go through the Roots into the Cavity, where they are spred abroad within, and by small twigs mingled with a certain muci∣laginous Substance sound in the middle of the teeth.

The Use of the Teeth

• In the first and chiefest place, is to chew and grinde the meat. And therefore such as have lost their teeth are fain to content themselves with suppings; and therefore Ni∣cephorus reckons that it is bad to dream of a mans teeth fal∣ling out, and saies it signifies the loss of a Friend.
• 2. They serve to form the voice (and therefore Chil∣dren do not speak, till their mouths are full of teeth) es∣pecially the fore teeth which help the framing of some cer∣tain Letters. Hence those that have lost their teeth, can∣not pronounce some Letters, as for Example T. and R. in the speaking whereof, the tongue* 1.30 being widened, ••ought to rest upon the fore∣teeth. Also the loss of the grinders hurts the Explicati∣on or plain Expression of the Words, according to Galen,

• so that the Speech becomes slower, and less clear and ea∣sie. Let therefore such as have lost their teeth, procure artificial ones to be set in, and with a golden wire to be firmly fastned.
• 3. For Ornament. For such as want their teeth are thereby deformed.
• 4. Homer conceives the teeth are an edg to the tongue and Speech, to keep in a mans words, and prevent pra∣ting.
• 5. In Brutes they serve to fight withal, in which case a man uses his hands.
• 6. In the said Brutes, also to shew their Age. For the Age of an Horse is known, by looking into his Mouth, where before he is four years old that tooth to be seen which they term Gnomon, when he is four year old, there is another tooth seen with an hole in it that will hold a Pease, which every year grows less and less, till at eight years the tooth is filled up, becomes smooth, and no hole to be seen therein.

Chap. XIII. Of the Teeth in Particular.

IN respect of their threefold Shape, their Situation, and Office, there are in Mankind three sort of Teeth: The Fore-teeth, the Dog-teeth, and the Grinders.

The Fore-teeth, from their Office which is to cut the meat, are termed Incisores and Incisorij Cutters, also Gelá∣sinoi the laughing teeth, because in laughing they are first discovered.

They are placed before, in the middle of the rest, in each Jaw four (some have only two in a Jaw, as large as four) broad and sharp like Swords, shorter then the Dog∣teeth, and fixed in their Sockets with single Roots; and therefore they fall the sooner out, especially the upper∣more. After these follow on either side

The Dog-teeth, so called, because of their sharpness, hardness, and use; for what the former cannot cut these do bruise and grind. They are commonly termed the Eye-teeth, not as some think, because they do almost touch the circumference of the Eye, seeing they hardly reach the lower part of the L••ps of the Nostrils, but be∣cause a portion of that Nerve which moves the Eye, is carried unto them, and they are deeply rooted, and there∣fore it is counted dangerous to draw them, also when they are pained, the Eye-lids do pant a little.

These teeth are two in each Jaw, on each side one, broad and thick in their basis, and* 1.31 sharp above. For a Man did not need ma∣ny of these kind of teeth, seeing he is a gentle Creature, and hath hands to defend and offend.

They are fastned with simple Roots as the Fore-teeth are, but they are more deeply and firmly rooted: for their Roots exceed all the other teeth in depth, and they are longer then the upper teeth.

The remaining hindermore teeth are called Molares, both from their shape resembling Mill-stones and their use, because they grind the meat after it is cut, they are rough and great, hard and broad. The Germans call them the Cheek-teeth.

In men they are more in number then the Cutters; but the contrary holds in fierce Beasts, which use their sharp also to fight with.

They are commonly twenty, on each hand in both the Jaws sive, although the number varies, as was said be∣or.

The two last of these are termed Dentes Sapientiae, the Teeth of Wisedom, also the teeth of Sense and Understan∣ding, because they do then first break out (somtimes with very great pains, and otherwailes without any pain) when men begin to be wise, about the twenty eighth or thirtieth year of their Age, and somtimes when they are very old; Aristotle saw them break out in some when they were fourscore, and Walaeus at the Age of eighty three years. Somtimes they hardly appear, and otherwhiles they are scarce created; the Latins call them Genuinos.

These Teeth are fastned by divers roots,* 1.32 either two and three, as the lower Jaw∣teeth, or with three and four, as the upper Jaw-teeth, which have more roots then the other: Because,

• 1. They hang of themselves, otherwise then the lower teeth which are fastned partly by their own heaviness.
• 2. Because the Substance of the upper Jaw is more rare and soft.

And so much for the first part of the* 1.33 Skeleton, viz. the Head: Now follows the second Part, or Trunk.

Chap. 14. Of the Back-bone and its Vertebra's in General.

IN the Trunk or other Part of the Skeleton, all the Ver∣tebrae of the Back-bone are to be examined, also the Ossa Ischij, the Ribs, the Breast-bone, the Chennel-bones, and the Shoulder-blades.

All that is termed the Spina or Back∣bone,* 1.34 which reaches from the first Verte∣bra of the Neck to the Os coccygis, or Crupper-bone. It is called Spina the Thorn, because the ••inder part therof is all along sharp-pointed like a thorn branch.

The Parts of the Spine or Back-bone are termed Spon∣duloi in Greek, in Latin Vertebrae Whirl-bones, or Turning∣bones, because by means of them the Body is turned seve∣ral waies.

And these Bones of the Spina are divided into seven Vertebrae of the Neck; twelve of the Back; five of the Loins, and five or fix of the Os sacrum; to which is added the Crupper-bone.

All the Vertebrae are hollowed, to contain the Spinal Marrow, they were to be many, not one, both for Motion which ought to be made forward and backward; also that the hurting of one might not draw the whole Spine into consent. The Father of Nic. Fontanus saw five Ver∣tebrae or Whirle-bones of the Spina in a cluster like a round ball, in the Body of a Porter that carried burthens. And Pavius hath observed that in decrepit old people these Vertebrae grow together into one, the moisture be∣ing dried up, and the intermediate Ligaments hardned, which he represents by a Picture. Tulpius saw the Back∣bone in a Boy divided into two parts, and Salmuth hath seen it broke asunder in persons that were hanged.

The Figure of the whole Back is, that somtimes it in∣clines inwards, as the Vertebrae of the Neck, to sustain the Gullet and aspera Arteria; and those of the Loins, for the Trunk of the Aorta and the Cava descending. Som∣times outwards, as of the Back, and a little of the Os sa∣crum; that there may be a larger space for the Heart, Lungs, Bladder, Fundament and Womb.

And these Parts do bend more outwards in Women, for the sake of the Child in the Womb.

The Figure of each Vertebra above and beneath, is plane and broad, that luxation may not easily be caused, round within, convex and bunching out; but in the neck broader and more even, by reason of the Wezand and Gullet resting thereupon. On the outer or Back-point, the Vertebrae are furnished with many prominencies.

For there are three kind of Processes in every Verte∣bra.

• I. Four oblique ones, two on the upper part ascending, two in the neither part descending.
• II. Two transverse, for the Original and Insertion of the Muscles. And they are in the Vertebrae of the Neck broad and bored through; in the Back thick, solid and round, excepting the eleventh and twelfth.
• III. One sharp one, in the hinder part, which is proper∣ly called the Spine or Thorn, and is wanting in the first Vertebra.

They have five Appendixes. Two above and beneath at their Body; as many at their transverse Processes, and one at the extremity of the Spine.

There is a most wide hole in the middest of each Ver∣tebra for to keep the Spinal Marrow in. Also there are other holes in the sides, which are lesser, to let the nerves out, which John Leonicenus affirm to go out only at the joyntings of the Vertebrae.

The Substance of each Vertebra, is thicker and more spungie in the inside: to which grow the Epiphyses and Gristles. For the extream Parts of the Vertebrae, excep∣ting the first of the Neck, are furnished with Appendixes, between which there come thick and soft Gristles, that they may be more easily moved; so that above and be∣neath, they have Gristles, which in the Os sacrum are harder and drier, because this Bone is immoveable.

The Vertebrae are knit together by Articulation in the hinder part, viz. by the way of Ginglumos, but in the fore part by way of Symphysis, and that by very strong Liga∣ments or Bands.

Now the Ligaments of the Vertebrae are twofold.

Some do knit the Vertebrae above and beneath, and are shaped like the half Moon, thick, strong, fibrous, and snottie.

Others arise from the Epiphyses, as well the transverse as the sharp ones, which are membranous, by which the Processes are more strongly tied.

Chap. XV. Of the Vertebroe or Whirl-bones of the Back in Particular

THe Vertebrae of the Neck are commonly seven. In Brutes for the most part six only, and Busbequius relates that the Hyena hath none, who is confuted by the Skeleton of that Beast in the custody of P. Castellus. These Vertebrae of the Neck, have some Peculiarities, whereby they differ from the rest.

• I. Some of them have their transverse Processes cleft in two.
• II. Also they have them bored, for the cervical Veins and Arteries, ascending into the Brain.
• III. They have a cloven Spine or thorny Point.

The two first are joyned by Ligaments to the hinder∣part of the Head, that they may stick most close to the Head, and have somwhat peculiar to themselves, which the other five have not.

I. Is termed Atlas, because it seems to bear the Head up, which rests upon the* 1.35 two hollows thereof. Some call it Epi∣stropheus, though more give that Name to the second. It hath no Spine or sharp Point, least the two small Muscles of the Head which arise from the second Vertebra, should be hurt when the Head is stretched out.

It hath a thinner, but more compact Substance. It re∣ceives, and is not received: and therefore it hath its Ca∣vity covered with a Cartilage, to receive the tooth of the following Vertebra.

II. Is called Epistropheus from turning: for out of the middle of its Body, there rises an Appendix (others call it a Process) round and oblong, like a Dogs tooth, about which the Head with the first Vertebra is turned.

Hence that Appendix is called a tooth; yea and the whole Vertebra is by Hippo∣erates* 1.36 so called, by the Luxation whereof, he conceives an incurable Squinzie, is of∣ten caused.

The Surface of the Tooth is in some sort rough, because thence proceeds the Ligament, wher∣by it is bound to the Occiput or hind-part of the Head, a∣bout which also is wound a solid and round Ligament, like a Nerve in shape, wonderous artificially twisted, that the Marrow may not be compressed and hurt.

Now this second Vertebra is joyned with the first, by a broad Ligament, turned round.

The last does more agree with the Vertebra's of the Chest, and hath its last Process not alwaies cloven.

The Vertebrae of the Back are commonly twelve in num∣ber; to which so many Ribs on each side are articulated: seldom one is wanting; and there is seldomer one more.

They are thicker then those of the Neck; less solid, and full of little holes, for the passage of the nourishing Vessels.

• I. Is by the Ancients called Liphiá, because it is high∣er, and sticks out more then the rest.
• II. Is termed Maschalister Axillaris the Arm-pit Ver∣tebra.

The rest are called Costales the Rib-vertebrae.

The eleventh is termed Arrhep••s, because the Spine or sharp point thereof is straight.

The twelfth is called Diazostér the Girder.

The five of the Loins are the thickest and greatest, being full of little holes, whose motion is looser then that of the Back, that we may more easily stoop to the ground.

The transverse Processes are longer, but thinner, ex∣cepting the first and fift; but the Spines are thicker and broader, to which the Muscles and Ligaments of the Back are fastned.

1. Is termed Nephrites, from the Kidneys which re•• thereupon.

The last, is by some called Asphalites, the stablisher or underpropper.

The rest agree with the others aforesaid.

The Os sacrum or holy Bone follows, so* 1.37 called, because it is the biggest of the Spine or Back-bone, for the Ancients termed that which was great, Sacred. Or because it lieth under the obscaene or privy Parts, which Nature herself covers and hides: For Sacrum did also signifie execrable, as Servius shews from Petronius, commenting upon that Expression of Virgil; Auri sacra fames: the cursed thirst of Gold.

It is broad and immoveable, being the Basis or Foun∣dation of the Back.

Its Figure is commonly triangular. It is in its fore-part hollow, smooth and even; behind it is bunching and rough.

Its Vertebrae so called, not in regard* 1.38 of use but similitude, are five, somtimes six, in young Children easily separable, in grown persons so glewed together, that they seem to be but one Bone. Solomon Albertus and Pa∣vius have somtimes observed them to be seven in Num∣ber.

Galen makes the Os sacrum to consist of three Bones; because he comprehends the other Bones of Os sacrum under the Crupper-bone, and calls that an Epiphysis, which others call Os Coccygis.

The Holes are not in its sides, as those of the former, but in the fore-part (which are greater, because there are greater Nerves) and the hinder-part: because at the sides in the Os Ilion or Flank-bone.

In the three upper Cavities are engraven, where the Ossa Ilij cleave ••o it.

OS COCCYGIS the Cockow-bone, so called from the Shape it hath of a Cuckows-bill, is under the former, consisting of three or four Bones, and two Gristles. But I conceive there was a greater number of Bones and Gri∣stles in that Danish Boy, who had a Tail growing out at his Rump.

Their Connexion is loose, and in Women looser then in Men, that they* 1.39 may give way.

1. In the Voidance of large Excre∣ments.

2. In the time of Womens Travel, that the cavity may be more wide. And therefore some conceive that this Bone only gives way in the Birth, though Pinaeus be against it, and that the Pains of Women in Travel depend upon the Concourse of little Nerves in that place. After∣wards in sitting it comes forwards, and of its own accord returns into its place.

This Bone in Men bends more inward to sustain the Intestinum rectum; in Women outwards, because of the Neck of the Womb, and that the Cavity might be wi∣der.

This Bone being hurt or broken, exceeding great, pains are raised, as the Stories related by Amatus and Donatus, do witness. Hofman believes it is of no use, but is only the mark of a tail, as the Nipples in Men are only the signs or marks of Duggs. But the constant Doctrine of Galen is, that all Parts of the Body are made for some Use.

Chap. 16. Of the Nameless Bone, or Os Innominatum.

THe OS INNOMINATUM or NAMELESS BONE, which some term OS COXAE or ILIUM, the Flank-bone, consists of three Bones, Ilium, Pubis, and Ischium joyned together by Gristles, till the seventh year it appears di∣stinguished by a threefold Line, but in grown persons tis one.

The Os Ilion so called, because it contains the Gut Ili∣um, is the first part, which is the uppermore and broadest, knit to the Os sacrum, by a common membranous and most strong Ligament, although a Gristle also comes be∣tween.

Its semicircular and uneven Circumference, is termed Spina Ossis Ilij, whose inner part hollow and broad, is termed Costa, the Rib; the outer part formed with une∣qual Lines, is termed Dorsum, the Back.

This Bone is larger in Women, and its Spine is drawn more out sidewaies, that* 1.40 the Womb of a Woman with Child may better rest upon it. And therefore wo∣men with Child do a little complain of this Part, as if it were pulled asunder from the Os sacrum and other neighbouring Parts to which it cleaves.

Os pubis or Pectinis, the Share-bone, is the second middlemore and fore∣more* 1.41 Part; which Bone is joyned to the Bone of the other side, by way of Sunchondrosis, that is to say, by a gri∣stle coming between; which in Women is twice as thick and loose or wide as in Men, that these Bones in Child∣birth may be (not dislocated or disjoynted, but) loosned and made to gape, when the Child strives to come forth. But now and then when the Childs greatness, or the nar∣rowness of the place requires, the Share-bones are pulled asunder, as, besides the Authority of the Ancients, Paraeus and Riolanus have observed in the Dissections of Child∣ing-women, &c. and it is largely proved in the Anato∣mical Controversies of my Father Bartholinus: But this is not alwaies so, namely when the Child is soft and apt to bend it self and comply with the straitness of the place when the way is slippery, the Bones much widened, &c. for then the loosning of the Gristle does suffice.

But whether the Share-bones are moved is another question. Joh. Cajus affirms they are moved by help of the right Muscle of the Belly. Spigelius also saies they are moved after a peculiar manner upwards, whiles the Body roules in the bed, the Legs being lifted upwards Ri∣olanus proves that the Share-bones are moved, not alone, but with the Hip-bone, by help of the same Muscles, this I say he proves by the Venereal Embracements, in which these Parts are moved; by the going of such whose Legs are cut off, and lastly by dancing.

But some doubts do as yet make me scruple this Mo∣tion.

• 1. Because Cajus himself confesses, that the Share-bones (I add the rest) are not moved of their own Nature, but by the bending of the Back-bone.
• 2. These Bones being joyned together by Symphysis, can have no motion, which Riolanus himself confesses.
• 3. I have assigned another Use for the right Muscles, above in Book the first.
• 4. These seeming Motions of the Bones, are not pro∣per to them, but are motions of the Thigh or Back, whose motion they follow. For in the Examples alleadged, any man may experiment in himself, that both his Thighs and Back are moved; also he may by his hand perceive, that both the Muscles of the Thigh called Glutaei, and the o∣ther adjacent Muscles are moved.
• 5. They ought to be immoveable, because the upper Parts rest upon them as on a Foundation, and we rest by sitting upon this Part.

In Women that have been lately delivered, these bones may be separated with the back of a thin knife, which they cannot be in others. Moreover, though the Share-bones are joyned by a Gristle, yet they have likewise two

Ligaments 1. compasses them about circularly. 2. Is membranous, which possesses the hole.

They are thin, and for highness sake* 1.42 furnished with very great Holes, which in women are more large and capacious, be∣cause of the Womb and Child, for the inner and lower Processes do bunch more outwards.

With the Os sacrum they constitute that Cavity which is termed Pelvis the* 1.43 Basin or Bowl, wherein are seated the Bladder, the Womb, and Part of the Guts.

OS ISCHION or the Hip-bone is the third part, which is lower and more outward, wherein is a large and deep Cavity, (they call it Acerabulum, the Saucer, and Pix∣is the Box) to receive the large Head of the Thigh-bone, which if it fall out, either by reason of some internal hu∣more, or outward chance, a Luxation or Semiluxation is thereby caused. The gristley Process of this Cavity, is termed Supercilium, the Brow.

The lowest Parts of this Bone are more distant in wo∣men then in men, and therefore their Pelvis or Basin is larger then that in men.

This Bone is knit to the Os sacrum, with a double Li∣gament, growing out of the Os sacrum: The one is inser∣ted into the sharp Process of the Hip, the other behind, in∣to its Appendix, that the Intestinum rectum and its Mus∣cles may be thereby sustained.

Chap. 17 Of the Ribs.

AS the Os Innominatum or Nameless Bone, is at the sides of the Os sacrum, so at the sides of the Ver∣tebrae of the Back, are the RIBS. And therefore, ascen∣ding in the Explication of the Skeleton, these are now to be explained, as being the lateral Parts of the Chest.

[illustration]

TABLE V.

The FIGURES Explained.

This TABLE presents some of the Verte∣brae, the Os sacrum, Os innominatum, the Ribs and Shoul∣der-blade peculiar∣ly, and their Parti∣cles.

FIG. I.

• AAA. The foreside of the first Ver∣tebra of the Neck termed Atlas.
• B. The hole through which the Spinal Marrow descends.
• CC. The transverse or lateral Processes.
• dd. The lateral Holes through which the Arteries ascend to the Brain.
• EE. Two Cavities receiving the Occiput.

FIG. II.

• AA. The back-side of the second Vertebra of the Nick.
• B. Its Appendix or Process, like a Tooth.
• C. Its forked Spine.

FIG. III.

• AA. The hinderside of the Back∣vertebra.
• B. Its upper Surface, less solid and full of small Holes.
• CC. Its transversal Processes.
• D. Its hinder Process or Spina.

FIG. IV.

• AA. The foreside of the Vertebra of the Loins.
• B. Its lower Surface, for the most part covered with a Gristle.
• C. An Hole for the Marrow to pass through.
• DD. The transverse or Literal Processes.
• E. The latter Process or the Spina.
• II. Its oblique Processes.

FIG. V.

• AAAA. The hinder-side of Os sacrum, conspicuous by reason of its Knobs and Roughness.
• B. The Hole for the descent of the Spinal Marrow.
• CC. Its oblique Processes.
• ...ddd. Its hindermore Processes.
• ...eeee. Its Holes for the going out of the Nerves.
• ...ffff. Its hinder Process which is forked.

FIG. VI. Shews the Os coccygis or Crupper-bone, consisting of four little Bones or Gristles.

FIG. VII. Shews the Os Innominatum or Nameless Bone.

• AA. Os Ilium one part of the Nameless Bone.
• ...bbb. The Spine thereof.
• C. Its Back.
• DDD Os Pubis the Share-bone, another part of Os Innomi∣natum.
• E. Its large Hole.
• FFF. The Os Ischion or Huckle-bone, a third part of the Nameless 〈◊〉〈◊〉.
• GG. The large Cavity or Saucer
• ...hh. The Brim thereof.
• I. The Knob.
• K. The Appendix of the Huckle-bone.

FIG. VIII.

• AAA. The Vertebrae of the Back.
• BBB. The Ribs.
• CCCC. The Cavity ingraven in the lower part of the Ribs.
• DD. The two Knobs of the Ribs, by help whereof they are joyned to.
• E. Transverse Process of the Vertebrae.The Hollowness of the Vertebrae, and to the
• F.
• G. The lowest Rib, having a simple Knob.

FIG. IX.

• A. The Clavicula or Channel-bone.
• ...b. Its small Head whereby tis joyned to the Breast-bone.
• ...c. Its other end whereby tis joyned to the Shoulder-blade.
• D. The Scapula or Shoulder-blade.
• E. Its first Process, called acromion.
• F. Its lesser, lower, and sharp Process called coracoeides.
• G. Its shortest Process called Cervix the Neck.
• ...hh. The Basis of the Shoulder-blade.
• ...i. Its upper Corner.
• ...k. Its lower Corner.

page 352

The Situation of the Ribs in the Sides, and the Greeks call them pleurai, because they form the Sides.

In Shape they resemble a bow, or the lesser Segment of a Circle, that the Chest might be the larger. Johan. Fonta∣nus found a forked Rib; and my self at Hafnia shewed the third Rib of the leftside, as thick as two Ribs, joyned to the Breast-bone with two shanks.

At their rise they are narrower and rounder, but the nearer they come to the Breast, the broader they grow. In their upper part they are thicker. And the upper Ribs are more crooked, and also shorter; the middlemore are longer and broader; the lower are cut again short∣er.

The external Surface is rough, where they are fastned to the Vertebrae, because the Ligaments which tie them do thence proceed: And there they are furnished with two little knobs: 1. Is articulated to the hollow of the Verte∣bra. 2. Is joyned to the transverse Process of the Vertebra. But the five lower are joyned by a simple knob.

The inner side is smooth, because of the Membrane Pleura.

In the lowest part there are Cavities according to the length of the Ribs, for the Vein, Artery, and Nerve; which appears the more, by how much they are nearer the Vertebra's.

Where let Chirurgeons observe in the o∣pening of the Chest, which is made be∣tween* 1.44 the fift and sixt Rib, the Section must be made from the top towards the bottome, but not contrariwaies▪ least these Vessels should be hurt.

The Ribs have Connexions; one with the Vertebrae of the Back, another with the Gristles of the Breast-bone.

The Substance of the Ribs, is partly bo∣ny, and partly gristly.* 1.45

1 That the Chest may more easily be contracted and distended.

2 That a Fracture may not easily happen.

'Tis bony in the part near the Back, and the lateral part.

Its gristly near the Breast-bone to which they are joyn∣ed.

For all the Ribs in the forepart, have Gristles like Epi∣physes, which in women (not in men unless very old) through tract of time, do grow hard as bones, that they may more strongly sustain the Bulk of the Dugs resting up∣on them.

The Gristles of the upper Ribs are harder, because they are coupled with the bones of the Sternon or Brest-bone; those of the lower are softer, because they are joyned to Gristles. Moreover in its hinder part each hath a Gristle, which is articulated with a Vertebra.

The Ribs are many in Number, that the Chest may be more easily moved. Pa••∣samas* 1.46 in his Relations of Athens, tell us, that Protophanes Magnesius, had his Ribs fastned one to anothers from his shoulders to his bastard Ribs. Nicholas Fa••tanus saw three united and unseparable. For the most part they are on each fide twelve, both in men and women. Seldome thirteen, more rarely eleven. But often there is only one super∣fluous. Tis therefore likely that in one side* 1.47 of Adam there were thirteen ribs, one of which Jehovah took out with the muscu∣lous flesh growing thereto and turned into Eve; or he had twelve ribs on one side, and eleven on the other.

The Ribs are divided into true, genuine and legitimate; and bastard, adulterate and illegitimate ribs.

The true are the seven upper ones, so called, because they do more perfect the* 1.48 Circle, and touch the Brest-bone, where∣with they have a perfect Articulation; and with the Vertebrae by a double knob as was said be∣fore.

The two uppermore are called antistrophoi, retortae, turn∣ed backwards.

The two following are termed stertai, solidae, the solid Ribs.

The remaining three are cal'd sternitides, the Pectoral Ribs.

The five lowest are called bastard Ribs, be∣cause* 1.49 they are lesser, softer, shorter, not do they reach to the Breast-bone (that dilata∣tion may be there better made, at the beginning of the low∣er Belly) nor have they a perfect Articulation therewith, but being knit only to the Vertebrae, as if some part of them were cut off, they end into longer Gristles than the true ones: Which being turned back upwards, do stick one to the other, as if they were glewed together, the last excep∣ted, which is the least, and sticks to none, and therefore tis truly spurious, that a larger space may be for the Liv∣er, Spleen, and upper Guts being distended. Howbeit, the eleventh sometimes and the twelfth, are tied to the Septum tranversum: Sometimes, the last grows to the oblique des∣cendent Muscle of the Belly, without the Midriff; some∣times it hath the Circumscription of its proper Muscle, which pulls it from.

The Use of the Ribs is:

• 1. [Especially of the true ones] to defend the Breast and Bowels therein contained, as the Heart, &c.
• 2. To sustain the Muscles that serve for Respiration, and some others of the Belly.
• [3. Of the bastard one,] to serve the Natural parts con∣tained in the Belly.

CHAP. XVIII. Of the Sternon or Breast-bone.

THe Bone of the Breast, which in the fore-part of the Chest rests upon the Ribs, and is spread thereupon (whence they suppose tis call'd Sternum) is by Hypocra∣tes termed Stethos: which Word nevertheless sometimes signifies.

• 1 The whole forepart of the Chest.
• 2 Its Pain.
• 3 The Breast-bone as in this place.
• 4 The Orifice of the Stomach.
• 5 The Sword-fashion'd Gristle.

Others call this bone Os Gladiale or Ensisorme the Sword∣bone or Sword-fashion'd bone, because of the shape of a Sword or rather such a Dagger as was used by the Ancients: for it is convex, long and broad.

Its Substance is partly bony, but fungous and red, partly Gristly.

It consists of divers bones, not of one, as is commonly seen in old Men, the diversity of its bones appears, when you remove its Membrances. In Infants it is wholly grist∣ly, excepting its first bone. Moreover, the upper bones are sooner made than the lower, and the middle parts, than the outmost: so that in conclusion, eight bones are found in the Breast of a Child, which after seven years grow together, and become fewer, so that in grown per∣sons there are sometimes three, sometimes four, sometimes more bones. But the first and last remain in grown per∣sons as in Children; but the middle ones growing to∣gether, the number of bones comes to vary in that place.

These Bones are distinguished by transverse lines, and are knit together by Sanchondrosis; for the Gristles are in∣terposed like Ligaments.

The first and uppermost bone, is large and thick, plain and uneven, of an Halfmoon fashion above, representing the joyning of a Dagger blade into the haft, some term it Ju∣gulum the Throat-pit, others call it Furculam the little fork.

It hath on each side an hollowness in the upper part, to

receive the Heads of the Claviculae or Channel-bones, in which copulation Gristles come between.

And another Hollowness within engraven in the middle, that it may give way to the descending Trachea or We∣sand.

The second is more narrow and hath many hollownesses on each side to receive the Gristles of the Ribs.

The third is yet less, but broader than the second, and ends into the Gristle* 1.50 which is termed Kup••o idès Sword-fashi∣on'd, and Mucronata pointed, because to∣wards the end it is sharp like the point of a Sword. The Arabians term it, the Pomegranate; Avicen calls it Epi∣glottalis, and the common name is Scutiformis Shield-fashi∣oned.

This Gristle is triangular and oblong, sometimes round at the End, and sometimes broad, otherwhiles cloven, whence some call it Furc••lla the little fork; 'tis seldome double.

Sometimes 'tis perforated, for the Dug-veins and Arte∣ries, which are accompanied by a Nerve. Sometimes in aged persons, it attains a bony Substance, Vestingus hath found it a Fingers length not without great hurt to the Stomach, and trouble when a man bows himself. Pa∣vius also saw here a bony Substance, in a person troubled with extream shortness of breath.

This if it be too much pressed and bowed inwards, the parts beneath it are hurt, viz. the Liver and Stomach, and the Infants perish for want of Nutriment: of which see Condronchius and Septalius, Zacutus, Wilhelmus Piso. This Disease is by some Women cal'd, the Hearts compres∣sion.

Folius hath observed two Muscles placed on the side hereof, by which this Gristle is lightly moved downwards and inwards.

The Cavity appearing outwardly in this place, is called Fovea, or Scrobiculus Cordis.

The Use of the Sternum or Breast-bone,

• 1. Like a shield to defend the Heart from external dangers.
• 2. To sustain the Mediastinum.
• 3. To collect the Ribs and fasten themselves one to ano∣ther.

CHAP. XIX. Of the Channel-bones and Shoulder-blades.

THe Channel-bones are called Claviculae, Cle••des in Greek, that is the Keyes; because they shut up the Chest, and like Keyes do lock the Shoulder-blade to the Breast-bone, or because they resemble the Keyes used by the Ancients, which Spigelius saw in an old house at Padua. Celsus calls them Jugula a jungendo from joyn∣ing, others call them Ligulas, Os furcale, Furcalem superi∣••rem.

They are seated athwart under the lower part of the Neck, on the top of the Breast, on each side one.

They have the Shape of a long Latine S, that is to say, of two Semicircles, set one to another contrariwise, at the Throat externally they are convex, in¦wardly a little hollowed, that the vel∣sels* 1.51 carried that way may not be com∣pressed. But in Men they are more crooked, that the motion of their Arms may be less hindred, in Women less, for beauties sake, see∣ing the hollows in that place are not so visible in Women as in Men, and therefore Women are not so nimble to throw Stones as Men are.

Their Substance is thick, but fistulous and fungous; and therefore they are often broken.

Their Surface is rough and uneven.

They are knit to the upper process of the Shoulder∣blade (by a Gristle, which nevertheless grows not there∣to, that it may give way a little in the motions of the Shoulder-blade and Arm, only it is detained by Liga∣ments embracing the Joynt) by a broad and longish head, and with the Sternon or Breast-bone, it is joyned, by ano∣ther little head, as was said before.

Its Use is to serve the sundry motions of the Arm, which because it rests upon this bone as on a prop, there∣fore it is more easily moved upwards and backwards. And therefore it is that Brutes have no channel-bones, excepting the Ape, Squiril, Mouse, and Hedge-hog or Ur∣chin.

Os Scapulae the Shoulder-blade is by the Greeks termed Omoplá••ē▪ because it makes* 1.52 the breadth of the Shoulder, those that speak barbarously calls it Spatula. It is a bone broad and thin, especially in the middest, but in its processes thick, on each side one, resting upon the upper Ribs, behind, like a Shield.

Its Figure is in a manner triangular.

Its Parts are sundry. The Internal is hollow, the other part (which hath both a corner and an upper and lower Rib) is gibbous, which is termed Testudo the Tortoise, also the Back of the Shoulder-blade. There is also a certain Spine or sharp-point, looking above and beneath the cavi∣ties which are termed Interscapulia.

It hath three Processes.

• I. Is the extream part of the Spine lately spoke of, and is called Aorōmiom the Shoulder-tip, or Summus Hu∣merus, whereby 'tis joyned to the Clavicula or Channel∣bone.
• II. Is lesser, lower and sharp, and from its likeness to a Crows bill, 'cis cal'd Coracoeid••s; also A••churod••s from the likeness it hath to one part of an Anchor, also Sigmo••i∣dés and by this process, the Shoulder bone is contained in its place.
• III. The shortest is termed Auchè cervix, the Neck; in the end whereof there is a superficial cavity, whereun∣to the Head of the Shoulder is inserted, which that it may not easily slip cut, the deepness of the Cavity is encreased by a thick Gristle, compassing the Lips. And by this pro∣cess and Cavity, the Shoulder-blade is joyned with the Arm.

It hath five Epiphyses, three at the inside, and at the Ba∣sis near the carriage of the Spina. Two of them produce Ligaments, which joyn its head to the Shoulder, and the Shoulder-tip to the Clavicula. But common Ligaments thin and Membranous, do compass the Joynt of the Shoul∣der-blade and Arm.

Use of the Scapula or Shoulder-blade.

• 1. It serves to strengthen the Ribs.
• 2. For the Articulation of the Shoulder and Channel∣bones, and for their security. And therefore the Shoulder is seldome (without very great violence) dislocated or dis∣joynted upwards, or to one side, but for the most part downwards, where no Shoulder-blade hinders.
• 3. For the implantation of Muscles.
• 4. Primarily for the action of laying hold according to Hofman, to which they are subservient, by inarticulation partly, and partly by the explanation of certain Muscles of the Arm.
• 5. Secondarily to cover the Heart.

CHAP. XX. Of the Bones of the whole Arm and Hand.

THe Bones of the Arm and Hand, are divided into the Brachium or Arm peculiarly so called, Cubitus the Cu∣bit, and Extrema manus the Hand.

The Os Brachii or Arm-bone, is a single Bone, great and strong, long, round, and uneven. In its upper part it hath an Appendix or great Head, growing to it, which is round, covered with a Gristle, and articulated with the Scapula by Diárthrosis.

[illustration]

[illustration]

[illustration]

[illustration]

[illustration]

The FIGURE Explained.

This TABLE shews the Skeleton of a grown Body, that the contexture of the Bones may be seen one with another.

• A. The Bone of the Forehead.
• ...bb. The Coronal Suture.
• C. The Temple Bones.
• ...d. The Teat-like production or Processus mammillaris.
• E. The Os jugula.
• F. The upper Jaw-bone.
• GG. The lower Jaw-bone.
• ...hhh. The Vertebrae of the Neck,
• ...iiiiii. The Ribs.
• KK. The Sternum or Breast-bone.
• LL. The Claviculae.
• MM. The inner-side of each Shoulder-blade.
• NN. The Arm-bone or Os humeri.
• OO. The Head thereof joynting into the Shoulder.
• PP. Its lower part articulated with the Cubitus and Radius' where is
• ...qq. The inward knob thereof.
• ...rr. The outer knob.
• SS. The Cubit bone called Ulna.
• TT. The other Cubit bone called Radius.
• uu. The Process of the Ulna, crooked backwards, which Galen calls olecranum.
• ...xx. The lesser process of the Ulna.
• YY. The Wrist consisting of eight little Bones.
• ZZ. The M••tacarpus consisting of four Bones.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Finger rows.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Thumb compounded of three bones.

These following Characters, do point to the lower Bones of the Skleleton.

• ...Aaaaa. The five Vertebrae of the Loyns.
• BB. The innerside of Os Sacrum with its holes.
• CC. The Cavity of Os Ilii, constituting a great part of the Pelvis or Basin.
• DD. The Os Coxendicis with its Acetabulum or Sawcer.
• EE. The Share-bones with their Holes.
• F. A line knitting the Share-bones by help of a Gristle.
• GG. The Thigh-bone.
• ...hh. The round head of the said bone.
• ...ii. The Neck thereof.
• ...kk. The external process of the Neck, or the great Tro∣chanter.
• ...ll. The other process or less Trochanter.
• ...mmmm. The lower heads of the Thigh-bone.
• NN. The Mola ••••atella or Knee pan.
• OO. The Tibia right and left, in which
• ...pppp. Shews the two upper Hollownesses,
• ...rr. Shews the Spina,
• ...ss. The lower Process of the Ankle-bone.
• TT. The Fibula or other Leg-bone so called, or the Pe••one.
• ...uu. Its lower part constituting the external Ankle.
• XX. Seven Bones of the Tarsus.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Astragalus.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Calx, Calcantum or Heel-bone.
• ...〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 The Os cubiforme, Die-fashioned-bone.
• YY. The bones of the Metatarsus.
• ZZ. The bones of the Toes, of which two are reckoned to the Great Toe and to the other Toes three a piece.

Place in here, The Skeleton of a grown body.

The lower part is articulated to the Cubitus and Radius, where there are two processes; the External which is less and crusted with a Gristle; the Internal having two Hollows; representing a Pulley, whereby the Cubit being joyned by way of Ginglymos, may be bent to a most acute angle, but not extended beyond a right line.

The Boats of the Cubit are two, shorter than the Shoul∣der, and having Appendixes on either side, resting mutu∣ally one upon another, and joyned one to another by a Membranous Ligament.

The first being lower, greater and longer than the other, is termed Ulna, Cubitus, by the barbarous Writers focile ma∣jus; the other being upper and lesser, is termed Radius, or focile minus.

The Ulna or Ell, so called for some resemblance it hath to the Drapers Metwand termed an Ell, in its upper part is ar∣ticulated with the Shoulder by Ginglymos, and therefore it hath there Processes, and Hollows.

The Processes are two, longwise shaped, and as it were tri∣angular, rough, that the Ligaments might strongly close upon the Joynt and compass the same fast. They are term∣ed Co••d••ai, that is Beaks, Bills or Acorns. The foremore and uppermore is less, and goes into the hollow of the Shoulder: the later is thicker and larger and ends in an ob∣tuse angle, and goes into the hinder hollow of the Shoulder. Galen calls it Olecranum, Hippocrates Ancona, the Latines Gibberum.

In the middest of these is a great Cavity or Hollow, like an half Circle, whence 'tis called Sigmocides from the let∣ter Sigma so shap'd of old by the Greeks. It hath as yet another smooth external lateral Cavity, for the head of the Radius.

In the lower part it is articulated with the Wrist, both by a Gristle going between, as also by an acute process there∣fore termed Styloides, Bodkin-like; whence a Ligament a∣rises, which fastens the Cubit to the Wrist-joynt.

The other Bone cal'd Radius is more oblique or crooked, and is a little distant from the other in the middle, where a thin Ligament comes between: but above, the Ulna re∣ceives the Radius; beneath, the Radius receives it.

The upper part thereof is articulated with the outward part of the Brachium, by way of Diarthrosis, whence pro∣ceeds the forward and backward motion.

The lower is articulated with an Appendix with the Wrist-bone, at the greatest Finger.

The upper part of this, is thinner, the lower thicker; con∣trary to what is in the former.

The Hand hath four sorts of Bones: those of the Carpus, Brachiale or Wrist; those of the Matacarpus or post brachiale, the After-wrist; those of the Fingers and the Sesamus-seed∣bones.

The Carpus or Wrist, which the Arabians call Rasetta, hath eight distinct nameless Bones, very unequal, differing in Shape and Magnitude.

At their first original they are Gristles, afterwards they become Spungie Bones.

They are covered with very strong Gristly Ligaments and withall so fastned together, as if they were but one Bone.

And these Ligaments arising from the lower processes of the Radius and Cubitus, do serve for Articulation.

But there are other Ligaments, which are transverse and shaped like rings, for to strengthen and safely to carry a∣long the Tendons, the internal, containing the tendons of the Muscles which bend the Fingers; and the external, con∣taining the Tendons of the Muscles which extend the Fin∣gers, which Ligaments or Bands, though they seem to be one, may be divided into many.

The bones of the Wrist are dispersed in a certain order: for above, there are four, articulated with the Radius and the Cubitus: beneath as many, knit to the four bones of the Metacarpus or After-wrist.

The Metacarpium, After-wrist, or Palm, hath four bones (others say five, reckoning the first of the Thumb amongst them) shaped longwise and small.

They are joyned to the Wrist by a Connexion of obscure motion, and by Gristly Ligaments: with the Fingers by way of Ginglymos.

These Bones are fistulous containing Marrow, hollow within, bossie without.

They have Appendixes on each side, which neer the fin∣gers are round and longish heads, going into the hollow∣ness of the Fingers. In the middle they gape one from another, where the Muscles cal'd Inner••••ss••i do lye con∣ceal'd.

The bones of the Fingers are fiftee••, in each Finger three. For the first of the Thumb is reckon'd in this number, because it hath a looser articulation than the post-brachi∣alia.

The row of Fingers on a hand the Greeks call Phalan∣gas▪ because they resemble a rank of Souldiers in battle array.

Each of the Fingers have Ligaments on their insides, according to their length like Channels, whereby they are fastned one to another.

The bones of the Finger differ in Magnitude. For in every Finger, the first is greates than the second, the second than the third: and they are all thicker at the Joynt, where their knobs are termed •…•…duloi, ••odi, kno••.

Without they are bunching, within hollow and plain the better to lay hold.

They have Processes above and beneath, besides the bones of the third Interjuncture, which they did not need above where they are joyned to the Nails.

CHAP. XXI. Of the Bones of the whole Leg, Foot and Thigh.

THe Pes or Leg (taking the word in a large sence) is divided into three pa••ts, as the Arm was: viz. into Femur the Thigh, Tibiam the Shank, and E•• tr••mum pedem the Foot.

••emur (the Thigh) is so termed a ferendo from bearing, because it bears and holds the Creature up, it consists of one only Bone, but the greatest and longest in the whole body, whose fore and external part is more bunching, the inner and hinder, more Saddle-shap'd.

For it descends obliquely inwards unto the Knee; which Chirurgeons are to ob∣serve,* 1.53 lest in the Fracture thereof they come to disorder this situation.

The upper part hath three Processes, which are rather Epi∣physes, and are easily sepaarated in young Children.

I. Is a most great and round Head, made of an Appendix, which is inserted into the Acetabulum or hollow Sawcer of the Coxendix, and is by a double Ligament fastned to the said Coxendix or Hip-bone: the o••e common, broad, mem∣branous, but thick enough, compassing the Joynt round a∣bout; the other, round, as it were a Gristle (as if it were a Gristly Nerve) betwixt the head of the Thigh and the Depth of the Cavity, least the head of the Thigh fall out.

The Neck hereof hath a double process furnished with an Appendix, which Appendixes are easily pluckt asunder in Infants, but not in grown persons.

II. Is external, which is called Magnus Trochanter or Ro∣tator, the great whirler or wheeler about, having hollows, Impressions, and Lines.

III. Is internal, cal'd parvus Rotator.

Whose Use is, for the original and Insertion of those Muscles by which the motions are caused •••• and therefore also it is, that they are called Trochanteres, Wheelers of Whirlers about.

The lower part is articulated or joynted with the shank by way of Ginglymos. For at the Knees, with a double head, the inner more thick, the outer more broad and flat, it en∣ters the Cavity of the Tibia; between which heads there is a large space, of a Thumbs-breadth, through which the vessels do pass unto the Thighs with a Nerve of the fourth pare; and wounds in this part are dangerous, by reason of Convulsions.

Mola so called from its likeness to a mill-stone; is a round and broad Bone; it is in this place put upon the joynting of the Thigh and Shank, where the Knee is compas'd with a membranous Ligament, all save the Mola; others call it Rotula, Patella, Mola, Scutum, Os scutiforme, &c. the Knee∣pan, because it constitutes the Knee.

Its Substance for some months in young Children, is Gristly, in grown persons it becomes bony.

Its shap'd like a Buckler, for in the middle, one part thick∣er than the rest, bunches out.

It growe to, and is fastned by certain thick Tendons, of some Muscles of the Thigh.

It is movable, and for to make the motion more easie, in∣wardly at the Thigh-bone, 'tis cover'd with a slippery Gristle.

Its Use is: I. To strengthen the joynt in that part, lest the Thigh should slip and be dislocated inwards, and so a man shall fall, especially walking downwards, and much bending his Knee. 'Tis reported, that in Nova Zembla, Men bend their Knees as well backwarde as for∣wards.

II. To defend the Tendons of the Muscles.

Tibia the shank, being that part which is between the Kne•• and the Ankle, consists of two Bones, as the Cubitus or lower half of the Arm.

The one being inner and greater, is called by the name of the whole, Tibia, C••••me; by some focile majus, canna ma∣jor, &c. In an Elephant alone of all Creatures (as Bonitus informs us) there is a bending or joynting in the middle of the Shanks, besides the other ordinary bendings com∣mon to all Creatures.

In the upper part it hath a Process in the middle received by the Cavity of the Thigh-bone, and two cavities fra∣med long-wise, for the Heads of the Thigh-bone; the depth of whose Hollows is encreased by a Gristle, fastned thereto by Ligaments, which is movable, soft, slippery, and smeared with an Oyly moisture, thick in its circuit, th•••• towards it Centre, and therefore termed Lunata, Moon∣shap'd.

A knob growing there, doth separate the two Cavities, from the top whereof a strong Ligament proceeding, it is fastned into the hollow of the Thigh-bone.

But from the fore and rough side come two Ligaments, which encrease the Moon-fashion'd Gristles.

Its foremore part which is sharp and long, is termed Spi∣na, where the shape of the Bone is as it were triangular, and so acute that it is like the edge of a Knife, and therefore if the Bone of the Tibia or shank be strucken on this forepart, it causeth exceeding pain, because the neighbouring Skin and the Periosteum are cut by this sharp Bone as it were with a Knife.

In the lower part there is a Process void of flesh, sticking out with a bunch, near the Foot, and 'tis cal'd malleolus in∣ternus, the inner Ankle-bone; as the process of the Fibula▪ is termed malleolus externus, the outer Ankle-b••ne.

Fibula pe••••••e, the Button, because it seems to button to∣gether and joyn the Muscles of the shank; is also cal'd Sura the Calf, Canna minor, Focile minus, &c. and it is a smal∣ler and lanker bone, drawn along before the Tibia without, as the Radius before the Cubit.

In the Upper part, its round head doth not touch the Knee, but it subsists beneath: but with its lower ••••rt, it goes be∣neath the Tibia, and therefore 'tis as long a bone as the Ti∣bia is.

In the middle the Tibia and Fibula hold a gaping di∣stance one from another, by reason of the Muscles of the Feet there placed, in which space a thin broad Ligament joyns these Bones together, according to their longitude, 'tis joyned also to the Tibia, by a common Ligament, a∣bove and beneath.

Beneath, the Head becoming sharp, hath an Appendix, which growing thick, begets a process called Malleolus ex∣ternus the outer Ankle-bone which is lower than the inner Ankle-bone.

The Bones of the Foot are divided as the Bones of the Hand, into three parts: into the Tarsus, Metatarsus, and the Toes.

The Bones of the Tarsus are seven, though some number only the last four to be in the Tarsus, because the three first have no Bones in the Hand answering to them.

I. It's cal'd Astrágalos, in Latine Talus, and commonly Os Balistae the Sling-bone, also Quatrio, because of its four sides.

'Tis placed beneath the shank bones as a Basis or foun∣dation: for it is joyned with the Appendix of the Tibia by way of Ginglumos; wherefore they have upon a long Neck, on high, round, and smooth Head, covered over with a Gristle, in the middle whereof is a smooth Cavity: where∣upon it comes to have on each side a brim or brow, like a pully or little wheel on which a Rope runs.

At the sides it receives on each hand the Ankle-bones: it's also joyned with the Os naviculare; also below to the Heel, with a double joynt, where its lower part is uneven, twice hollowed, and thrice bunched. It receives the Head of the Heel-bone.

In the middest of these Joynts a Cavity is to be obser∣ved (to which the hollow of the Heel answers) where∣in is contained fat and a slimy substance, to moisten the gristly Ligaments, which knit the Talus to the Bone▪ least in their motion they should be dried. Hence I have ob∣served as often as there is scarsity of this moist and fat Substance or none at all, either by means of a wound in that place, or any other cause, that there is a noise in a mans Foot when he walks, by the knocking of the two bones one against another, yet without pain▪ because there is no sensitive part within, but only Bones, Gristles and Li∣gaments.

II. Is the greatest and thickest in the Foot, as being the chiefest stability thereof (as the Talus is chief for mo∣tion) and therefore 'tis joyned by many Ligaments to the Talus or Ankle, and other adjacent Bones

'Tis called P••er•••• ••alx; C••lcaneum, pedis cal••••••, the Spur of the Foot or Heel-bone▪ into which the greatest and strongest Chord or Tendon in the whole Body is fastned, be∣ing made up of the Tendons of three Muscles of the Foot.

Its lower part is somewhat broad, where it turns back∣wards, that the Foot may more firmly be setled and strengthned, otherwise a man would easily fall back∣wards.

In its upper part, it hath a large head, going into that shallow cavity which receives the knob of the Talus. But it is also joyned to the Os Cubiforme or Die-fashion'd bone with its flat head.

III. Is called Os naviculare, Scaphoeid••s from the simili∣tude of a Boat: 'tis knit to the Talus and the three hinder∣more bones

IV. From the form of a Die or four square solid body called a Cube, is termed Cubo-eides cube-fashion'd, also Os t••sserae, the Dice-bone, by the Arabians Gran li••••sum, by some others 〈◊〉〈◊〉 many shap'd or many-fac'd. Being greates than the rest, 'tis placed before the Heel, joyned by an uneven Surface; with its other side 'tis joyned to the fourth and fift bone of the Pedium; but within, to the se∣venth bone of the Tarsus.

The other three, anciently without names, cal'd by Fal∣lopius, Calcoide••, Cuneiformia, wedg-shion'd, are articulated to the Naviculare or Boat-fashion'd-bone: and they are a greater or middlesiz'd, and a lesser from a broad Basis grow∣ing by little and little smaller and smaller.

The Bones of the Metatarsus or Sole, are five knit to the Bones of the Tarsus; those of the Toes are fourteen; because the great Toe is made up only of two Bones, and the Inter∣junctures are shorter than in the Hand, but those of the great Toe, thicker than in the Hand.

The other are like the Bones in the Hand which answer to them; as the Ligaments also commonly answer.

But under the sole of the Foot, the Skin and Fat being removed, there is a Ligament broad and strong; and from the lowest Bone of the Heel Sesamoidean little bones are inserted into all the ranks of Toes, for the greater firmness of the whole Foot.

Chap. XXII. and last. Of the Sesamoidean Bones.

IN the Interjunctures of the Hands and Feet are found cer∣tain very little Bones called Sesaminis or Sesamoidea be∣cause they answer in likeness to Sesamus Seeds and also in their smallness.

They are round and a little flat.* 1.54

They are less in the Feet th•••••• in the Hands, excepting in the great Toe, because it is great∣er than the Thumb is. In ancient persons they are greater and a little plane.

They grow to the Tendons of the Muscles* 1.55 which move the Toes, under which they lie concealed wrapt up in the Ligaments, so that they come away with them in the clensing of the Bones unless great Care be used.

Sometimes they are gristly, as in Children, in which they are not very conspicuous; otherwhiles bony, covered with Gristles, and inwardly Spungy and porous.

They are commonly twelve in number in each Foot and Hand, but sometimes sixteen, nineteen, twenty and more: sometimes there are only ten. They are more in number, greater and harder, in the inside of the hand than without, in which Riolanus ••a••es there are none. Their number there∣fore is uncertain: for many are so small that they are not observed: and Nature herein as in a matter of small mo∣ment, sometimes abounds, and sometimes again comes short.

But those two are chiefly remarkable for their greatness which are joined to the first Joynt of the great Toe, at the Head of the Bone Metatarsus; one which is the greater, placed under the Nervous part of that Muscle, which bends the first Bone of the great Toe, and the form and Size there∣of, is like the half of a great Pease, the white skin being taken off: which little bone is by the Arabians called Alba∣dara. Some Ancient Philosophers held that a Man should grow up again at length from this bone, as from a Seed, which Corn. Agrippa from the tradition of the Hebrews calls Luz. But another much less, is placed under the second Joynt of the great Toe.

And though most commonly these same very small bones are found in the Interjunctures of the Fingers and Toes, yet are they to be seen also in other places.

As sometimes in the outside of the Hand, where the eighth Bone of the Wrist is fastned to the bone of the Me∣tatarsus which sustains the little Finger▪ there is one which fills ••n hollow place there: and after the sa••ie manner here is the like Bone in the Tarsus of the Foot, at the out∣side of the articulation of the ••i••t Bone of the Metacarpus which sustains the little Toe, with the Os cubiforme, or Die∣fashion'd bone: also two little bones in the Ham by the Os fem••ri••, which grow not in the Tendons, but in the Begin∣nings of the two first Feet-moving Muscles, which are found in old Men and in dry Creatures, as Deer, Dogs, and Hares. Hereunto they refer that bony part in aged people, which is placed against the 〈◊〉〈◊〉.

Their Use is.

• I. To defend the Tendons, and by their hardness to retain them in their motion, least they should fall from the Joynt when it bunches out.
• II. To strengthen the Joynt and preserve it from Luxa∣tion.
• III. To fill up empty spaces. And while these things are performed by the said little Bones, the Hands do there∣by lay firmer and safer hold upon any; and the Feet can stand and go more steadily, especially on rough ground.

To God our Creator be Praise, Honour and Glory, who hath form'd and fashion'd us so wonderfully.

FINIS.

Notes

• * 1.1

  The reason of the Authors Method. Why he treats last of the Bones.
• * 1.2

  Why he treats of the Gristles and Ligaments with the Bones.
• * 1.3

  Whether the▪ Marrow be the Nutriment of the Bones.
• * 1.4

  Why creeping things cannot go.
• * 1.5

  Why many Bones in a living Creature.
• * 1.6

  The Periostium feels, but not the Bones. The Sense of the Teeth.
• * 1.7

  A Bonefire pro∣perly what.
• * 1.8

  The division of the Skeleton.
• * 1.9

  Depraved shapes of the Head eleven in number.
• * 1.10

  Other shapes of the Head obser∣ved by the Au∣thor.
• * 1.11

  The Error of Chirurgeons
• * 1.12

  An Head with∣out Sutures.
• * 1.13

  The Error of Aristotle.
• * 1.14

  The coronal Su∣ture why so cal∣led.
• * 1.15

  The triangular Bones of the Skul.
• * 1.16

  Why some Su∣tures are like Scales.
• * 1.17

  A great num∣ber of Sutures.
• * 1.18

  See Tab. 4. Fig. 1.
• * 1.19

  Why the wounds of the Sinciput are deadly.
• * 1.20

  The triangular bone in Dogs.
• * 1.21

  The Cavities in the Ossa petrosa.
• * 1.22

  How the Teeth do differ from o∣ther Bones.
• * 1.23

  Which part of the Tooth feels.
• * 1.24

  The Teeth are bred in the Womb.
• * 1.25

  Why Children are sick of Teeth-bree∣ding.
• * 1.26

  Why and when young ones loose their Teeth.
• * 1.27

  Whether new Teeth are bred out of the womb?
• * 1.28

  Many teeth ar∣gue long life.
• * 1.29

  The Diseases and Pains of the Teeth, how caused?
• * 1.30

  Speech him.
• * 1.31

  Why Men have few dog teeth.
• * 1.32

  Why the up∣per Grinders have more roots then the lower?
• * 1.33

  A Transition.
• * 1.34

  What the Spi∣na is?
• * 1.35

  Why the first Vertebra has no Spine?
• * 1.36

  An incurable Squinzie by Luxation of the Tooth.
• * 1.37

  The Os sacrum why so called.
• * 1.38

  Os sacrum pro∣perly hath no Vertebrae.
• * 1.39

  The Os coccygis may be loosned.
• * 1.40

  Why the Os I∣lium is larger in Women?
• * 1.41

  The Share-bones are loosned in Child-birth.
• * 1.42

  Why there are great Holes in the Sharebones.
• * 1.43

  The Share-bones larger in women.
• * 1.44

  An Admonition for Chirurgeons.
• * 1.45

  The Gristles of the Ribs.
• * 1.46

  Why the Ribs are many is num∣ber?
• * 1.47

  How many Ribs Adam had.
• * 1.48

  How many true Ribs there are.
• * 1.49

  The bastard Ribs.
• * 1.50

  The Cartilago Ensiformis.
• * 1.51

  An ••••llow••e •• a∣bout the channel∣••••nt.
• * 1.52

  What the Sca∣pula is.
• * 1.53

  A Memento for Chyrurgions.
• * 1.54

  Their shape. Magnitude.
• * 1.55

  Situation.