The merchants mappe of commerce wherein, the universall manner and matter of trade, is compendiously handled. The standerd and currant coines of sundry princes, observed. The reall and imaginary coines of accompts and exchanges, expressed. The naturall and artificiall commodities of all countries for transportation declared. The weights and measures of all eminent cities and tovvnes of traffique, collected and reduced one into another; and all to the meridian of commerce practised in the famous citie of London. By Lewes Roberts, merchant. Necessary for all such as shall be imployed in the publique affaires of princes in forreigne parts; for all gentlemen and others that travell abroad for delight or pleasure, and for all merchants or their factors that exercise the art of merchandizing in any part of the habitable world.

THE MERCHANTS MAPPE OF COMMERCE

CHAP. 1.

The description of Countries conducible to the description of Cities and Townes of Traffique.

BEFORE I descend to the particular parts * 1.1 of this Treatise, and before I describe the Scituations of these Towns and Cities of Traf∣fique, which here I intend to handle, I must of necessity for Method-sake, first by a cour∣sory draught describe the Countries, King∣domes and Provinces; wherein the same are found to be scituated and placed, and to do the same orderly, and as the subject requireth, it is fit I should survey the meanes whereby the same is or may be performed, which according to the opinion of the Learned, is noted onely to be done by the knowledge of Geographie; which in it self is esteemed to be a knowledge so needfull and requisite for a Mer∣chant, Factor, or any other active person whose occasions may draw him to see or abide in forraigne parts, that it may not be neglected nor omitted. Neither is it held onely necessary to such as man∣nage private affaires by Merchandizing, as Merchants or Factors, who are led thereto by the Motive profit; but also to such persons as are more Eminent, and such as are of greater quality, whose motives are the publike affaires of Princes, as Ambassadors; or pleasure and delight, by Travelling, as Gentlemen, whose motive may be properly termed curiosity of mind and search of novelty; which last by observing the Fashions and Manners of divers Na∣tions,

and the government and Policies of those Kingdomes, do not onely very much benefit themselves, but better their understand∣ings thereby, making their knowledge more capable of either publike or private imployment, when they return to their native homes.

The like I conceive the ingenious Merchant or Factor may (if he please) do, for being in his younger yeares imployed abroad in merchandizing, he may by well husbanding his mercantile im∣ployment and time, joyn a future benefit of mind, to a present profit of estate; and by a provident judgement, and a judicious pro vidence, so manage his idle houres, and vacant time, that he fit his capacity, not onely wisely to undertake and discreetly to un∣dergo, but also skilfully to performe the greatest imployments that are incident to the service of a State or Kingdome, neither is it a rare or extraordinary thing to find those that have had their education thus, to have proved not onely good common-wealths men, but also excellent Statesmen: our own Country hath afforded some examples in all ages, but in other Countries many more are daily found, for it must be acknowledged, that from this Schoole those ripe and mature judgements have sprung up; that in many Countries abroad, have given sufficient testimony to the World of their excellent abilities this way: and that the Art of merchan∣dizing, together with the frequenting of forraigne Countries, at the first to that end, hath afterward rather furthered, then any way backwarded their abilities to undertake, and judiciously to perform the same.

The ancient policies and present flourishing continuance of the state of Venice, the politicke and rich estates of the Netherlands, * 1.2 the opulent and eminent quality of the Duke of Toscanie; the wealthy wellgoverned Hans-townes in Germany, (and many more which I could nominate,) make good this assertion, for in all these, merchandizing is found to be the School from whence they gather their first principles, and indeed the chief foundation upon which their fabricke of politicall government is raised: the scale by which their counsels are framed, and the pillars by which the same is seen to be supported and maintained.

How excellent is it then for a Merchant (that hath another proper and peculiar end of his travels,) so to imploy his time and spend his houres, as that he may at pleasure, without cost or char∣ges, reape that benefit to himselfe which others purposely come to learn and painfully labour for, with great expence of time and money; and yet for all this, are peradventure destitute of those helpes and furtherances, which Merchants and Factors by reason of their aboad or vocation doe continually injoy, and who return as ignorantly home (perchance) as they went out; or happily fur∣nished with some such cursory speculations, as reach not into the depth of such policies of government, as the reall intent of their

travell doth truly require; whereas the Merchant that comes thi∣ther, not purposely to that end, but to benefit himself as a Mer∣chant, may gather and lay up those his observations obtained as pastimes, and collected as recreations, which will further and furnish him afterward; either by discourse for pleasure, or by necessity for profit and commodity, when he shall please to pub∣lish his secret treasure and put the same in practise.

Geographie (by what hath bin said,) being then granted to be * 1.3 both a profit and a pleasure to all, and specially to the Merchant, it must necessarily be granted to be usefull also: for though we living in this Iland acknowledge none for Merchants but such as adventure their estates at Sea, and are by this meanes accoun∣ted for reall Merchants; yet those that are versed in this profession, and seen in this Art, know also that there be Merchants likewise that have their residencie in Continents, where neither Seas are known, nor yet navigable Rivers found, yet for all this, supply with land Carriages of Horses, Mules and Camels, by industry and la∣bour, what Nature and our habitation doth freely afford unto us; by the commodity of the incompassed Seas in shipping, and these are observed and found to travell by Land in Companies and Ca∣ravans with their Merchandize from one Countrey to another, (as we do by Sea in Ships and Fleets) paying their duties, customes, and toles upon the entrie, and confines of every severall Princes do∣minions.

How then shall this land-travelling Merchant know whose King∣dome he is in? what Prince commands, or who is lord of that * 1.4 ground he treads upon; but by a speculation herein? Whereby shall he know what way he hath rid and travelled, where neither Miles nor Leagues are accounted, or in use but by this? how shall he know which way his course lies, where neither pathes nor high-wayes are found to direct him, nor guide to informe him; or how farre he hath yet to go in that Princes dominion but by this? How shall he know what Rivers run in his way, what Straits or Mountaines he hath to passe over but by this? Nay hereby he is instructed whether those streames be great or small; and whether passable by Boat, Bridge or Foord; and by this also what Plaines, Woods and Hills, with their extent fertility, and confinement, the better to provide for his accommodation, and the necessaries of his Journey; as also what Cities & Townes of traffique stands in his Road; the limits & bounds of kingdoms, the disposition of the Inhabitants, the alteration of the Climates, the Laws of those severall Regions, the Commodities that those Countries do afford for merchandizing; the plenty & scarsity therof; and lastly, how they are supplied with forraign Wares & Merchandizes, either by Land, Seas or navigable Rivers; and all these (besides many other needfull lessons) may be hence learned and observed, which laid up in memory both in the course of his life & traffique, may in after times much profit and ad∣vantage

him. The benefit reaped thereby being thus briefly ex∣pressed, the thing it self challengeth in the next place to be hand∣led, which according to my skill and insight; I shall succinctly touch so farre as is needfull to my present purpose.

Geographie in brief then, is an Art that doth demonstrate by rules in a flat, levell or Plano; the whole Sea and Earth, and the division * 1.5 thereof, setting downe by a certaine method, the limits and extents of Countries, Provinces and dominions of Princes; the scituation of Cities, Townes, Hills, Rivers, Woods, &c. The bounds of Seas, Capes, Ilands, &c. All which is performed and expressed by apt lines, num∣bers and parts of the Heavens: and lastly, it giveth rules to know the distances of the said places, either in leagues or miles from one Coun∣trey, City or place to another; all which being also necessarie to be known by the Merchant, I will in few words declare the same.

First then to make the same more evident, the ground of this Art is ordinarily demonstrated and best expressed in Mappes and * 1.6 Cards, which doth comprize both the Earth and Waters, of which making one intire body, the Cosmographers do inviron with five Cir∣cles, the first is the equinoctiall, then the two tropicks, and lastly the two polar circles; thereby dividing the whole, which now we call the World into five Zones, two whereof are found to be cold, two temperate, and one extreme hot: all which in these our daies are found to be habitable, contrary to the opinion of some an∣cient Cosmographers, of which circles and their particular parts, divisions, demonstrations and descriptions, it will not be unpro∣per I should briefly handle, as an entrance into this worke, and for the better understanding of what is to follow hereafter.

Every Mappe or Carde then for the most part is commonly * 1.7 traced with two sorts of lines or circles, that is Meridians and Parallels; the Meridians are either right or Circular lines, passing through both the poles of the World, and are imagined to be drawn right up and down from the head to the foot of the Map, and called Meridians, because that when the Sun cometh to touch any of those lines, it is midday to those that dwell under the same.

And Parallels are either right or circular lines, imagined to be equally distant one from another, which doe crosse the aforesaid * 1.8 meridians with right angles; and in the very midst of these Uni∣versall Maps and Cards, are most commonly drawn, from head to foot a right line, which signifieth not onely the first Meridian, but also the axletree of the World; the upper end of which line is call'd the Poleartick, or the North Pole, and the nether end is cal∣led the Poleantartick, or the South Pole, and this line is crossed in * 1.9 the very midst betwixt the two Poles, with another great circle, or rather right line called the Equinoctiall; because, that when * 1.10 the Sun cometh to touch this line or circle, the day and night is equall throughout the whole World, the one halfe of which line towards the right hand, sheweth the East part, and the o∣ther

halfe towards the left hand, sheweth the West part of the World; so as these two lines, the first meridian and the equinoctiall, do point out the 4 quarters of the VVorld; East, West, North and South, from whence the 4. principall winds do blow, betweene which winds are set down in all generall Maps, and generally in all Sea-cards the other division of the winds, which as not much pertinent to my present purpose, I willingly omit.

Further, it is to be noted that both the Equinoctiall and the Meridian circles or lines are divided each of them into 360. de∣grees; so as every quarter of them containeth 90. degrees: and in the Equinoctiall are set down the degrees of longitude, which is the length of the VVorld, round about from West to East, and from East by West home againe. The first degree whereof begin∣neth where the first aforesaid Meridian crosseth the Equinoctiall, in the very midst of all Universall Maps in generall, and so pro∣ceedeth Eastward unto the number of 180. degrees; which is as farre as you can goe Eastward: for from thence by reason of the roundnesse of the Earth, you must needs turn back againe VVest∣ward, untill you come to the 360. degrees, which is the last degree of longitude, and endeth where the first degree beginneth.

Moreover, in the said first Meridian are set downe the degrees of latitude, that is, the breadth of the VVorld, both in Northern and Southern, for from the Equinoctiall to the North Pole, are contained in the aforesaid Meridian 90. degrees, and that is cal∣led the North Latitude; and from the Equinoctiall to the South Pole are contained in the said Meridian, other 90. degrees, which is called the South latitude; and in most Mappes the Equinoctiall Line is divided and crossed with 18. Meridians, on each side of the first Meridian, dividing the Equinoctiall into 36. severall di∣stances; every distance containing 10. degrees, and every degree containeth 60. Italian Miles of length.

Againe; betwixt the Equinoctiall and each of the Poles are * 1.11 drawn certaine Circles or lines, which as I said before, are called Parallèls, of which most commonly it is found that 4. are poin∣ted with red ink, signifying, the 4. lesser circles; the highest towards the North Pole, is called the Circlearticke, which is 23. ½ degrees distant from the Pole; and the lowest towards the South Pole is call'd the Circleantartick, which is also distant 23. ½ degrees from the Pole; and as touching the other two red Circles, the one lying betwixt the Circlearticke and the Equinoctiall, it is called the Tropique of Cancer; and the other lying betwixt * 1.12 the Equinoctiall and the Circleantarticke, that is called the tropique of Capricorne, and each of these two tropiques is di∣stant from the Equinoctiall 23. degrees, 2. 8. ½ which is the greatest declination of the Sunne; for betwixt these two tropiques the Sun continually maketh his course, and returneth, mounting never higher then the tropick of Cancer, nordescending never lower then

the tropique of Capricorne: for which cause some do set down in their Maps betwixt the said two tropiques an overthwart line, signifying the ecliptick line, under which the Sun continually wal∣keth.

Furthermore, by helpe of the said 4. circles, the Earth, (as I said before) is divided into 5. Zones, one hot, two temperat, and two cold: The hot is contained betwixt the two tropiques in the midst of * 1.13 which the equinoctiall line is placed; and of the two temperate Zones, the one lieth betwixt the tropique of Cancer, and the Circleartick, and the other betwixt the tropique of Capricorn and the Circleant∣artick; and of the cold Zones; the one lieth betwixt the north Pole and the Circleartick, and the other betwixt the south Pole and the Circleantartick.

Moreover, besides the 4. speciall Parallels, there be also divers other Parallels drawn on each side of the equinoctiall, both North∣ward, and Southward, which crossing in certaine points, the first me∣ridian marked with degrees, doe shew the true latitude of every place, and under what Clime or Parallel it is: and also how many houres the longest day of any place under every Parallel is, begin∣ning to account the same; either from the equinoctiall upward, to∣wards the north Pole, along the first meridian, marked with degrees of Northern Latitude, or else from the first Equinoctiall down∣wards towards the south Pole, marked with degrees of southern•…•… Latitude.

Also this World in all common Maps and Cards is divided into 4. parts, Europe, Africk, Asia and America, the bounds whereof * 1.14 will not be amisse here to be observed, and how many miles each particular division containeth, as well in longitude as in latitude, according to the opinion of Mercator, whom I willingly follow for my director in this point.

Europe then is bounded on the North with the North ocean Sea, and on the South with the Mediterranean Sea; on the East with the * 1.15 Flood Tanais, and on the West with the West ocean: and Europe in measuring with a right line from the farthest part of Ireland on the West unto the Flood Tanais, on the East, both places having 52. degrees of latitude, hath in longitude 2166. miles, and in measu∣ring * 1.16 with a right line, from the farthest part of Morea on the South, whose latitude is 35. degrees unto the North Sea side, hav∣ing 72. degrees of latitude, hath in longitude 2220. Miles, or there∣abouts.

Africa is bounded on the North with the straight Sea Gibalter, and with the Mediterranean Sea; and on the South with a Sea which * 1.17 divideth Africa from the South Land, not yet to us fully knowne; and on the East with the red Sea, and on the West with the great Atlantick Ocean: and in the measuring of Africa with a right line, from Gambra on the West, unto the cape de Gardaso on the East, both places having 10. degrees of North latitude, hath in lon∣gitude

4425. miles, and in measuring with a right line from the * 1.18 50. degree of the equinoctiall unto the Mediterranean Sea; it hath in North latitude 32. degrees, which multiplied by 60. maketh 1920. Miles, and in South latitude measuring with a right line from the 50. degree of the Equinoctiall unto the cape of bona Esperansa, it hath 35. degrees, which also multiplied by 60. makes 2100. Miles, which maketh the whole latitude of Africa to be 4020. Miles, or thereabonts.

Asia is bounded on the North, with the North ocean Sea, and on the South, partly with the red Sea, and partly with other Seas * 1.19 and gulphs adjoyning thereto; on the East, with the East Indian Ocean, and the straight Sea of Anian; and on the West with the Flood Tanais and Fennes of Moetis, with the Chimerian and Thra∣cian Bosphorus, the Euxine and Mediterranean Sea, and part of the Arabian gulf: and Asia then in measuring with a right line from the mouth of the Flood Tanais, to the Promontorie Tamos, both places having 50. degrees of latitude; hath in longitude 4284. Miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 150. degree of * 1.20 the equinoctiall, unto the Promontory Tabin; it hath in North lati∣tude 75. degrees, which being multiplied by 60. maketh 4500. Miles.

America is bounded on the North with the North Ocean Sea, * 1.21 and on the South with the Magellanick Sea; on the East with the Atlanticke Ocean, on the West with the West Indian Ocean, and the straights of Anian, and in measuring with a right line from the straights of Anian to the farthest part of Estotiland upon the 64. degree of latitude, hath in longitude 164. degrees which maketh * 1.22 4264. Miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 270. de∣gree of the Equinoctiall unto the North Sea: it hath in North lati∣tude 76. degrees, which makes 4560. Miles, and in measuring with a right line from the 305. degree of the Equinoctiall unto the Magel∣lanick Sea; it hath in South latitude 53. degrees, which makes at 60. Miles the degree, 3210. Miles.

Thus farre shall suffice to have spoken ingenerall of the Lines, Circles and divisions of the universall Maps, and Cards found to be made by our modern Cosmographers. That which cometh in the next place to be handled, as the more materiall and usefull part, belonging to my present worke, is the knowledge and scituation of every Kingdome, Region, City, Mountaine, Flood and Lake found in this circumference: also the knowledge of the Seas, together with the Ilands, Ports, Capes, Points and Bayes which do belong to e∣very one of the aforesaid parts and divisions of the World, and that are found therein comprised, which principally is manifested and learnd by the longitude and latitude thereof in it selfe, which teacheth these particulars: first, the very scituation of the place; secondly, the very distance from one place or Citie to another; thirdly how one place lieth from another; and lastly, with what

wind you may saile from one Point, Cape or Citie maritime to a∣nother: in which foure things the chiefe vse of Maps are found principally to consist. First then, the degrees of latitude or the * 1.23 elevation of the Pole (being both one thing) is accounted from the Equinoctiall to either Pole which is 90. degrees, and the degrees of longitude accounted vpon the said Equinoctiall from the Iles of Cape Verde towards the East, and so round about the Earth till you come to the number of 360. degrees: where it is to be noted that the Provinces and Townes scituated vnder one and the same degree of latitude, have at one selfe time like houres of the day; but those that are scituated vnder divers degrees of longitude doe differ in number of houres; and that is the cause that when it is in one towne noone-tide, it is in another towne distant thence 30. degrees towards the East two a clocke in the afternoone, and so conse∣quently for euery 15. degrees distance, it is then found to differ one houre in time.

Also those that dwell vnder one and the selfe same degree of * 1.24 latitude haue equall quantitie of dayes and nights; but yet so as they which dwel on the South side of the Equinoctiall have the shor∣test day, whenwe have the longest, and have their Winter when we have Summer: and those that are vnder divers degrees of latitude, have inequalitie of dayes and nights; for the nigher that any Place is scituated towards any of the Poles, the more houres the longest day of the yeare in that place hath; and those that dwell vnder the equinoctiall have alwaies their dayes and nights of like quantity: but I vnderstand heere by the day the space betweene Sun rising and Sun-setting; so that to those that have 30. degrees of latitude the longest day is almost 14. houres, and the nigher the Pole, the longer, insomuch as those that dwell vnder the Pole, and whose Zenith is the Pole, their yeare is but a day and a night, that is to say, they have sixe moneths day, and sixe moneths night.

It is also to be noted, that the Meridians are found to have ma∣ny necessary vses in the generall and common Maps, for thereby is learned that it is noon-tide or mid-day sooner in one place then in another, by observing that Meridian that is most towards the East, which the Sun toucheth alwaies sooner then that Meridian which is more towards the West.

By the Meridians is also known how the Eclipse of the Moone * 1.25 appeareth sooner to one place then to another, and sheweth what varietie of time; for they whose Meridian is toward the West, do see the Eclipse of the Moone sooner then they whose Meridian is more towards the East; whereas indeed the Eclipse of the Moone is seene to all places (where it can be seene) at one very instant of like greatnes, and yet seemeth to bee seene later or sooner by reason of the diversity of the time of the day, in places standing one East or West from another; and if the distance betwixt those * 1.26 two Meridians doe containe 15. degrees of the Equinoctiall, then

the Eclipse appeareth to bee sooner to the one then to the o∣ther by one whole houre, according to my former assertion, for every 15. degrees maketh an houre, and therefore observe how many 15. degrees you find betwixt the two meridians, so many houres are to be accounted, and if fewer degrees be found, then the time of the Eclipse is to bee shortned accordingly, attributing 4. minutes of an houre to one degree, &c.

As for the Eclipse of the Sun, it is seene neither generally nor fully at one selfe same time, nor yet of the same greatnes in all * 1.27 places: indeed it appeares sooner, to the Westerne Countries then to the Easterne; but the diversity of the time of appearance doth depend not onely of the number of Meridians betwixt the two places, but also of the swift or slow motion of the Moone, which comming betwixt vs and the Sun taketh the sight of the Sunne from vs.

The latitude and longitude of Cities and places may bee found * 1.28 out by the meridians also; but heere it is observeable that the de∣grees of latitude are in all places of like bignes, as making ever 60. miles, but the degrees of longitude proceeding from the Equi∣noctiall towards any of the two poles, are unequall, and every one shorter then the other, and containing 4. miles; so that if two Ships were under the Equinoctiall 150. degrees distant each from other, and being to saile towards the North pole, upon the same course when they come to the 60. degree of latitude, their distance shall bee but 75. leagues, and the farther they goe towards the Pole, the lesse distance they shall be one from the other, insomuch as when they are right vnder the Pole it selfe, they shall both meet: but this point doth more particularly concerne Navigation, which so farre forth as it is requisite to the knowledge of a Merchant, I have handled in my Booke of the Factors Aviso, which together with a collection of the Sea-lawes I intend (God willing) hereafter to publish.

Now forasmuch as the vse of these latitudes and longitudes is most necessary and needfull in this Art, it is proper I should set downe the waies whereby not onely these latitudes and lon∣gitudes, but also the distances of all Cities and places by all univer∣sall Maps and Sea-cards that are perfectly drawn and delineated, is learned and found out.

First then, to find out the longitude of any place, doe thus: Ex∣tend * 1.29 a thred so as it passe through the Pole and through the place whose longitude you seeke in any Map or Card, euen to the very Equinoctiall and somwhat beyond, holding the thred strait, and then the number of degrees written vpon the Equinoctiall or Pa∣rallel will shew the longitude;

Againe, by the Meridians likewise are knowne what longitude any place in the Map hath: as thus; Set the one foot of a paire of compasses in the place it selfe, and the other in some Meridian, that

is next unto it, whither on the right hand or onthe left it matters not; from thence draw downe your compasse, following still that Meridian untill you come to the Equinoctiall line, and there marke upon what degree of the Equinoctiall that foot of the com∣passe which you did first put in the place doth rest; then count how many degrees that is distant from the first Meridian, and that is the true longitude of the place; and note that that longitude ser∣veth to all the places that be vnder that Meridian, though they be never so farre distant one from another North and South.

Now for the latitude of that place or anyother, do thus: Set * 1.30 the one foot of your compasses in the very pole, extending the other to the place or Citie whose latitude you seeke, and keeping your compasse at that widenes, bring the movable foot to the first Me∣ridian whereon the degrees of latitude are marked, and there stay∣ing it, the number of the degrees counting from the Equinoctiall vpwards towards the Pole, will shew the latitude of the place sought, and note that the like latitude have all they that dwell un∣der that parallel, how farre soever they dwell asunder east and west, and by knowing the latitude of any place, you may quickly also find in some Maps under what clime or parallel such a place is sci∣tuated, and of how many houres the longest day is there.

Now to know how one place beareth from another and with what wind your Ship is to be directed from one Maritime port to another, is needles heere to bee handled, as not pertinent to my taske; but for what distance is betwixt two severall places, many Cosmographers have found, by severall waies taught the same, one only, the most common in use, I will pitch vpon, as the most facile and easie.

To find out then the distance betwixt any two places, doe thus: * 1.31 Set the one foot of your compasse on the one place, and the other foot on the other place, and apply that widenesse to the equino∣ctiall, and looke how many degrees of the equinoctiall that wide∣nesse comprehendeth, and allowing 60. Italian miles to every de∣gree you shall have the distance by a right line of those two places demanded.

But if the said two places have both either North or South lati∣tude, then substract the lesser latitude out of the greater, so shall you find the difference, which difference if you multiply by 60. the product will be the number of miles; and if to the whole de∣grees of difference there bee annexed any minutes, then you must adde to the product for every minute a mile.

But if one of the two places haue North latitude, and the other South latitude, then you shall find their difference by addition on∣ly, * 1.32 and not by substraction.

Now if you would find the distance of two places, differing only in longitude, both places having either east or west latitude; then substract the lesser out of the greater, so shal you have the true diffe∣rence,

which difference you must multiply by the number of miles belonging to their latitude, which commonly is found on the North-west side of the Maps, or by the table of miles answerable, of one degree of every latitude, and the product thereof will bee the number of miles; whereby the one place is distant from the other; but if the one place have East longitude, and the other West longi∣tude, then you must find the difference as well by addition as by substraction.

To conclude this point, I conceive it not much materiall to my purpose further to insist hereupon; for the diligent and ingenious will easily hereby comprehend the benefit that may redound to him by a generall inspection in this Art, referring what is here by me willingly omitted to his owne private search and studie, and to such Authors as have learnedly written of this subject more at large; and therefore from the universall knowledge of Maps that pointeth out the generall divisions of the World, I will come to the particulars comprised therein, and view the subdi∣visions thereof, as Potencie, Might and Soveraigntie have prescribed rules thereunto.

This World then, consisting as I noted before of foure princi∣pall parts, and every part consisting of severall Empires, King∣domes and Provinces in which many commodities both naturall and artificiall are found fit for Commerce, and traffique, and also wherein are noted to bee divers eminent Cities and Townes of great concourse, of Shipping, Merchants and Trade; which Trade is maintained and driven by the said Commodities and Wares, and by the naturall inclination of Mankind to inrich themselves by, Invention, and Time; hath devised the Art of Merchandi∣zing, and by meanes of Weights, Measures, Coines, Exchanges and Accompt-keeping, have drawne the same to certaine heads and principalls, which in this MAPPE OF COMMERCE I shall indeavour to demon∣strate: But before I fall to particulars, it is requisite I should first say somewhat of the same in generall.

CHAP. II.

Of the Art of Merchandizing and the generall parts thereof.

MERCHANDIZING (truly considered in it self, and rightly practised) may well be said to be an art * 1.33 or science invented by ingenious mankind, for the pub∣like good, commoditie and welfare of all Common∣wealths; for thereby some places and Kingdomes are supplyed and furnished with those necessary things, whereof Na∣ture her selfe hath proved deficient in, and which in some other places or Kingdomes hath abounded, tending either to the need, ornament, or commodity of humane life, and is performed by ex∣porting the superfluities, that are found in the one, to furnish the defects and wants that are found in the other: and the Arts-men that are seen thus to practise and exercise the same, and which doe thus transport these things from one place to another, are ge∣nerally known to us and commonly termed by the name of Mer∣chants, and the things themselves wherewith they negociate and traffique are termed merchandizes or commodities.

Merchandizing then of it self in effect is nothing else but a * 1.34 Commutation, bargaining, contracting or exchanging of one man with another, and by giving by one, so much of one thing or commodity, to have of the other, so much and the like value, of some one other differing com∣modity else; and the things themselves subject to this commutation, or exchanging, are principally observed in all places to be two; first wares or goods, and secondly moneys or coyne; which two are usually * 1.35 observed to be contracted and bargained for, in three severall distinct manners.

The first is goods for goods, and this is termed bartering. The second is goods for money, and this is termed bargaining, and the * 1.36 third is money for money, and this is properly amongst Merchants, (in these dayes termed) exchanging, from whence it proceedeth; and may be concluded, that all merchantile affaires and commercelike negotiations may be distinguished into three kinds or sorts, that is, into Bartering, commonly called Trucking; Bargaining, com∣monly called buying and selling; and into returning of moneyes from one place to another by bills, commonly called Exchanging.

The first of these was taught to mankind by necessity, who to provide himself of things that were needfull, gave in liew and in Trucke thereof and for the same, the things whereof he had store and plenty: The second kind was found out and invented to faci∣litate

the first; and the third and last to facilitate the second.

In the times of old amongst us, and yet in these dayes in many * 1.37 places of America, Asia and Africa; the first manner of Bartering was and is yet in use and practised, where though gold and silver and brasse was not known nor accounted as a stamped coine, yet it was then both here, and is still there held in greater estimation then was any other commodity or mettall; the which Homer in∣ferreth in his relation of the Trojan Warre, where he mentioneth that Achilles his golden Armour, was valued in barter at one hun∣dred Oxen, and that the brasse Armour of Diomedes was valued in barter but at nine: But Man in processe of time, finding it too too difficult a thing, and too too troublesome a busines, to carry about him, all things thus barter'd and trucked from one place to another, chose out one singular thing; which as a common standard or measure, should countervaile and be in Value as all other things, and which should be received and accounted of in payment, satisfaction, and equivalencie to all others, and the things thus cho∣sen and estimated, was gold, silver and brasse, the most excellent of Mettals, which being then and since, by the authority of Prin∣ces, divided into great and small peeces, and into severall and di∣stinct parts and denominations, was stamped and coyned with severall characters, to denote thereby the true weight and value of the same; the which was first done by Servius in Rome of brasse, whereon was imprinted the image of Sheep and Oxen, betoke∣ning the wealth and riches of those dayes, as moneys do now with us; and because that ten of those pieces was then called a denier, therefore it is, that universally all such moneys are still called by the Latines Denarij: this being then the originall of Moneys, afterward came to be coined both of silver, and gold; as I shall more at large have occasion to demonstrate in the Chapter of mo∣neys, in this following Treatise.

This first sort of Merchandizing or Commerce then, as I said * 1.38 before, termed Bartering or Trucking, of one commodity for another, begat consequently by the meanes of moneys, the second manner of negotiation, which is buying and selling, or bargaining; for all Merchants that would transport commodities from one Countrey or place to another, to effect the same, needed either other commodities, wherewith to barter and so to procure them, or money and so to buy them; and therefore to facilitate Merchan∣dizing, and to take away the incommodity and danger of the car∣riage of moneys, about a man, or from place to place, A meane was invented to have the same in what Countrey a man pleased, without trouble or danger of the transport, carridges or rigor thereof; and this was found to be best performed by exchange, * 1.39 which is the third sort of commutaetion; the which is noted to be no other then the giving of so much moneys in one place to one, who should cause it to be againe repaid in another place by another

for him; as for example, Edward hath here in London one thou∣sand pounds, and desireth to remit the same, or have it in the hands of Ioseph, who resideth in Venice; and Lodowicke hath one thousand pounds in Venice, in the custody and hands of Thomas, which he would get, receive, and recover out and have them here: it happeneth that Edward meeteth with Lodowicke, to whom he delivereth and payeth the said one thousand pounds; and there∣upon Lodowicke writeth to Thomas, that he pay the said thousand pounds to Ioseph, and thus each party come to be both satisfied and accommodated; by which it may be discerned, that in all ex∣changes, there is concluded two payments, two places, and fouro distinct persons; as he who payeth in the one place, and he who receiveth in the other; and he who receiveth in the one place, and he who payeth in the other; and from hence it consequently followeth, that no man can remit, except there be another to draw; nor no man can in the second place receive, except there be another authorized to pay.

In this manner then came in use the originall of exchanges, pur∣posely * 1.40 invented to accommodate Trade and Commerce, the which at first was practised without either benefit or losse, or any other consideration; and to render againe the self same summe and par∣cell as was received: but in processe of time it came to be consi∣dered, that the giver or deliverer of the money came both to lose a certain space in time ere the same was repayd, and did also run a certain risgoe in the payment thereof, which the re∣ceiver or drawer injoyed, and profited by; and therefore it was held reasonable that the deliverer should have some fruit and benefit, in requitall and satisfaction thereof, which afterward occasioned that the second payment came to be somewhat grea∣ter then the former; and that in consideration thereof there should be restored, more then was received: The indeavour of this gaine then hath converted exchanges since into an art or my∣sterie; from whence it proceedeth, that many are found at this day to remit and deliver moneys, to the intent, to have the same retur∣ned with benefit, and not for a need or necessity to have it more in one place then in another; and many againe are found to be takers and drawers, not with intent to withdraw or recover their money, from another person, or place; but to serve themselves and their occasions with that of others, for a certaine time, pay∣ing and allowing for the same, that consideration and interest as is agreed upon, and covenanted between them; which really and in effect is nothing else but a certaine kind of permitted Usury, and therefore by some accounted as a thing unlawfull, though by many, and by the common and received practise of the World, it is upheld and maintained with many solid reasons and substan∣tiall arguments; besides which, it is considerable, and peradven∣ture it may well be granted, that if it were not, that there is by

this art and mysterie, againe and profit made therof, very few ex∣changes would present; because that draughts and remittances would in this nature but seldome happen, that would or might any way be available to Traffique and Commerce, and lesse be∣nefit would consequently redound to the publike and universall Commerce of Kingdomes; and therefore though the intention of particular exchanges, be not alwaies found good herein, yet the generall good effect which it produceth, and that proceedeth therefrom, is in it self and in the true use and custome thereof both approved and laudable.

Now in the first sort of commutation, which I terme bartering, * 1.41 many things do happen considerable and necessary in the art of Merchandizing; the first is the knowledge as well in the commodity, thus to be delivered, as in the commodity so to be received: next a knowledge in respect of the value and present request and esti∣mation of both; then in respect of the quality, whether it be lasting and durable, or impairing and perishable; and lastly in respect of the property, whether it be of it selfe naturall and growing, or Ar∣tificiall, and made by the hand and industrie of man; and lastly in respect of the quantity, whether plentifull and in aboundance, or scarce and in few hands.

In the second sort of commutation, which I terme bargayning, or * 1.42 buying and selling, are likewise besides the above mentioned, these particulars to be well known and considered; first a know∣ledge how the commodity is either bought or sold, as either by weight, as are ponderous commodities, or as by Concave or long measures, as are commodities of length, or commodities solid or liquid; the knowledge of which weights and measures, is in like man∣ner perfectly to be known, and really to be understood; and then the finenesse, goodnes and currant valuation of the money of the place, is also to be known, and perfectly and rightly to be found out and distinguished, that the bargaine may appeare to be made the more justly, equally, and conscionablie between both parties; and for the needfull circumstances observed in bargaining, these foure things are considerable, as having necessary dependances upon.

First, a Merchant must know what to bargaine for, and under * 1.43 this the knowledge of the commodity it selfe is comprehended. Secondly, how to bargaine, and under this the knowledge of the weights and measures in the generall is comprised. Thirdly, when to bargaine, and under this the fit and proper seasons of bargai∣ning are generally included. Fourthly, with whom to bargaine, and under this point is comprehended, the person and party in∣teressed, that requires the accomplishment or credit in the bargain.

Now in the third sort of commutation, which is here termed Ex∣changing, the things necessary to be knowne and considerable by * 1.44 the said Art of Merchandizing are these: First a knowledge of

the finenesse, goodnesse and currant value of the Princes Coine, both where the partie Remitter abideth, and whither the said moneys are remitted; then a knowledge of the currant rate of the Exchanging of the Par or Value for Value, both according to the Standard of the Countrey, and according to the valuation of the currant Coine there passable; then of the Vsance of the Place; and lastly and principally, to avoid all prejudice and losse, a know∣ledge is to bee had of the partie who is the Drawer and Receiver of the same; and in default made of currant satisfaction and pay∣ment accordingly, knowledge is to bee had of the due and true manner and forme of making of all legall intimations, protests, and other such needfull instruments, circumstances and observations as are requisite thereto, according to the strict and solemne rules required in a Bill of Exchange, which in its due place I shall more at large declare.

Now forasmuch as many of these afore mentioned points may as well be included within the mystery of some subordinate trades∣men, as comprehended within the bounds of the Art of Merchan∣dizing; I shall not need to insist farther thereupon, onely heere insert some other principall parts and points more aptly com∣prised within the particular limits of this Science, which in briefe I will only nominate, as fitly serving for an Induction to this pre∣sent MAP OF COMMERCE, and as being the proper in∣struments, wherewith also this Art of Merchandizing is practised.

I have noted before that Merchandizing principally consisteth of Adventures made abroad into severall Regions, and that for the most part Merchants are found to traffique and negociate into divers parts and Countries of the World by the helpe and benefit of the Seas and Navigation, and have to that end their Factors, ser∣vants and agents resident in forraigne parts to performe those their Mercantile Occasions, and that Ships and Vessels of all bur∣thens are dayly seene to be by them so imployed and set on worke through all the parts of the habitable World, therefore the next point needfull their knowledge, and comprised in the Art of Mer∣chandizing, I may intitle under the name of Shipping; which pro∣perly consisting of sundry portions may bee fitly distinguished within the duties of foure severall distinct persons.

The first Person is represented in the building of a Shippe, where∣in * 1.45 the whole materials are to be considered; next the Art of the framing, forming and making thereof, is to bee observed, the due rules of length, bredth, depth, stowage, offence, defence and commodiousnes in generall is to bee noted with all other circum∣stances thereunto appertaining: and this I hold to be the proper dutie of the Ship-wright, and the knowledge consequently not un∣proper to the Merchant, and fitly comprehended within the Art of Merchandizing.

The second is represented in the setting forth of this Ship, where∣in

her tackle, apparell, victuall and munition and all her needfull * 1.46 and dependent furniture is to bee considered, her provision and store is to be observed: and this I hold to be the proper dutie of the Owners and letters out of Ships to fraight, and the knowledge most proper for the Merchant, and comprehended also in the Art of Merchandizing.

The third is represented in the sailing of this Shippe, wherein * 1.47 the Art of Navigation is generally to be considered, with all cir∣cumstances thereunto of right appertaining, which I hold to be the dutie of the Master and Pilot, and how farre this knowledge may be necessary to the Merchant, I have mentioned in a Booke intituled The Factors Avizo, which I may, if occasion serve, pub∣lish to the use and benefit of Merchants and Factors that frequent the Seas, and take pleasure therein.

The last is represented in the imployment of this Ship, wherein is * 1.48 considerable these sixe things. First the lading of the goods a∣board, by which this Ship comes to bee imployed, which must be done in faire and dry weather and at fit seasons: secondly the stowage thereof aboard, which must be done without prejudice or hurt of one commodity to another, by building of bulke heads and providing of desnege and the like whereon the said goods must beare or lie upon: thirdly in truely marking the said goods, that it may evidently appeare who is the right Owner and pro∣prieter thereof: fourthly in really paying and truely discharging of all customes, duties and charges thereupon, that neither the Ship nor goods may be subject to losse, confiscation or prejudice there∣by: fiftly in making assurance thereon, that the Imployer preven∣ting losses may not indanger his whole Adventure: and sixtly and lastly in a generall knowledge of all the Sea Lawes comprised either in the Role of Olcron or Consolato of Barcelona, that all contro∣versies betweene the Merchant and Mariner may bee avoided; that he may thereby the better right himselfe, and doe also that which is right to all others; and this I hold to bee the proper duety of the Merchant and his Factor.

In order to this I may heere nominate such other things as are * 1.49 needfull to his knowledge, and which have a necessary de∣pendance upon the Art of Merchandizing, as next to know all manner of specialties proper to his Place and Calling. And first the manner, forme, force, and vertue of a bill of Exchange, the termes, and proper method thereof, with all manner of obser∣vations required thereto by the solemne, and strict rules of the proceedings commonly used therein.

Secondly, the making of all Intimations, and protests, in all ca∣ses * 1.50 whatsoever incident to this Art.

Thirdly, the manner and making of all charter-parties for the fraightment of Ships; wherein all conditions and their circum∣stances must be truely and at large set downe and declared as the

time when the covenanted Ship is to depart, the Ports, where She is to unlade, the daies agreed vpon for her unlading, the summe agreed upon for fraight, and all other the particular conditions accorded upon, the better to avoid all inconveniences and con∣tentions in law that may happen thereupon.

Fourthly, the manner of making of bils of lading, wherein the goods laden and the condition thereof is to be truely set downe: * 1.51 also the Ship wherein the same is put, and the Master or Pilots name, and who taketh the charge thereof; the place of unlading the said goods, and lastly, the fraight to bee paid for the same, when delivered according to conditions specified.

Fiftly, the manner of making of policies of assurances; wherein * 1.52 the goods assured is to bee nominated, the Ship upon which the same is laden, and the Master thereof declared, the dangers and Adventure assured to bee specified, the places whence and whi∣ther bound noted, the rate or premio agreed upon observed; and lastly, the persons or Parties assurers subscribed, &c.

Sixtly, the manner of making of all manner of specialties and bils of debt, either as they are simply in use amongst us in Eng∣land, * 1.53 or obligatorie, as also to know the force and strength thereof in law, both heere and beyond the Seas, with transportations thereof, as is used in many forreigne Countries; wherein is to be set downe the name and profession of the partie debtor, the summe owing thereby, to whom the same is due, and the time when the same is payable, and the place where, and in bils obliga∣torie, the penaltie for non payment accordingly.

Seventhly, when the same is discharged, the forme and manner of an Acquittance and generall release in full discharge for the * 1.54 payment thereof.

Eighthly, the manner of drawing a Letter of Attourney or procura∣tion, with the strength thereof both heere and beyond the Seas: * 1.55 wherein is to be mentioned the power and authority given, the partie that giveth the same, and the partie who receiveth it, and the scope, end and determination thereof; and lastly, to con∣clude these necessarie appurtenances and dependances vpon the Art of Merchandizing, there must be added a right and perfect skill * 1.56 in Accompt-keeping, that thereby all his dayly Affaires, his Adven∣tures, Shipping, Sales, Buyings, Payments and Receipts, &c. may or∣derly and truely bee manifested, which is so farre forth to bee learned and knowne, that his Estate, Gains and Losses, and all passa∣ges that are else needfull happening in the course of his Negotia∣tions, Merchandizing or Commerce may appeare, and which may thereby be either yearely, or oftner reduced into a ballance, to his owne contentment, and to the commodity of his Estate and dayly Traffique.

And as a handmaid or Vsher to this Art of accompting, he must, to finish and make vp these helpes and furtherances, have the * 1.57

assistance of the Art of Numbring or Arithmetique, in which who∣soever is ignorant may not challenge to himselfe the Title of a Merchant, nor be said to have any judgement in the Art of Mer∣chandizing, nor hardly deserve the attribute of a rationall man.

These are now the principall parts of the Art of Merchandi∣zing, and the Basis whereupon the same is observed to have its foundation, as it is seene practised and exercised by all Merchants in generall in these our dayes throughout the habitable World, the most part whereof I have more particularly handled in the fol∣lowing succinct Chapters, and some others I have willingly omit∣ted, as being such as are so inherent to the Art it selfe, that eve∣ry knowing Merchant must not bee ignorant therein, having in all other respects indeavoured to make this MAPPE OF COMMERCE so perfect, absolute and compleat, that it may stand the Merchant (especially the Learner) in stead, both at home and abroad beyond the Seas, and serve him as a guid and Tutor to direct and instruct him in all the parts of the Art of Merchandizing.

And having thus run over the ground of this Art it selfe in the generall, I will in the next place begin with the Cities and Townes, where at this day it is found, that for the most part this Art of Merchandizing is seene to be practised and used.

CHAP. III.

Of Cities and Townes of trade in generall, mentioned in this MAPPE of COMMERCE.

MY purpose is not here to shew the antiquitie of * 1.58 Cities and Townes, according to their first ori∣ginall, nor the manners and custome used in their first foundation; neither yet speake of the divers kinds thereof, as at this day they are in them∣selves observed to be: But my intention is, in this following Map of irade, (having briefly shewed the common di∣vision of the 4. parts of the World,) to nominate and quote out, the chiefe and principall therof as they are knowne to be to Mer∣chants, and as they are found the most eminent and absolute in the trade of Merchandizing; and therewith distinguish the diversities that are observed to be therein.

An absolute and compleat City or Town, as some learned have * 1.59 set down and expressed, cannot subsist of it self without sixe prin∣cipall parts and helpes, for the supportation thereof; and without

which no City or Town can properly be said to be, or to have a being: First, it must have Victualls to feed and nourish it; and this is the proper taske and duety of the Husbandman and Shep∣heard. Secondly, it must have Armes and Armour to defend it, and offend its Enemies; and this is the proper taske and duety of the Souldier. Thirdly, it must have wealth and riches, as sinewes for its imployment, in private and publike affaires; and this is the pro∣per taske and duety of the rich and eminent inhabitants of this Ci∣ty. Fourthly, it must have Justice for criminall and civill causes, to punish the bad and reward the good; and this is the proper taske and duetie of Counsellors and Senators of State. Fiftly, it must have Religion and the worship of GOD duely and reverently perfor∣med in it, and this is the proper task and duety of the Priesthood: And Sixtly, to make it a compleate, able and absolute Citie, it must have Trade and Arts, practised therein, and this is the proper taske and duetie of the Merchant and artificer that inhabit it. Now though many Cities are seen sometimes defective, in some of these parts, and are not so well furnished as this rule and the ex∣actnes of a compleate Citie requireth; yet it is daily manifested to the judicious and learned in policies of State, and government of commonwealths, that Merchants, and such as exercise the trade of Merchandizing in Cities, do supply by their indeavours and abilities by traffique, most of those other parts and helpes here before specified; and which are or may be found deficient and wanting therein. For setting aside the worship and service of God, which is onely fit and proper to Divines and Church-men: The person and purse of the Merchant supplies in a faire measure, all the other parts beforementioned; for first the Merchants Navi∣gation and traffique, is seen to supply the City with corne, graine, * 1.60 cloth, &c. and all manner of provision, both for back and belly, delight and ornament, tending either to pleasure or need; and this way he performes the part of the Husbandman and Shepheard; His traffique is seen to supply the City with armes, armour, and all manner of amunition, either offensive or defensive; and thus farre he perfomes the part of a Souldier: His traffique likewise is seen to bring Riches into the common purse by customes, imposts, and such duties; and thereby may be said to perform the part of the wealthy and most eminent thereof. He is seen by his wisedome, tra∣vell, and experience abroad, to be able oftentimes to sit at the stern of the Cities government, punishing the vicious, rewarding the vertuous; and herein be performes the part of a Senator and Counsellor: neither yet is he wanting in many other particulars, to perform the duety of a good patriote and citizen, (not compri∣zed within any of these aforesaid limits;) for his traffique is seen to improve the Countries commodities, to set the poore and needy on worke, to invent new fabriques, stuffes and the like; to plant forraigne colonies, to settle peace and amity amongst Prin∣ces,

to build warlike Ships, to traine up Seamen; and to make the City and place of his abode famous and eminent by sundry other meanes, which I could exemplifie if need were in this place, and which at present I willingly omit.

Now then if the Merchant and the art of merchandizing be so excellent, and consequently necessary in a City, and bringeth with it so many benefits and commodities: how happy then is that City, where many notable and well govern'd Merchants are found to reside, and where their care of their own profit is so necessarily interwoven with the care of the commonwealths, and its good, that to themselves and to their Countrey; their labours and adventures do bring in thus mutually, not onely a commo∣dity, but also an honour: but to the matter, All Cities and Townes * 1.61 are not found in themselves proper for commerce and traffique, nor yet all of them fit residences for Merchants; therfore it is seen by experience, that trade hath setled it self principally in two sorts of Cities and Townes, and in such first the Inhabitants by inclina∣tion; and then Forraigners and Strangers by conversation, are ob∣served and noted to have planted themselves and established a trade therein.

Traffique then residing and abiding principally in two severall * 1.62 sorts of Cities and Townes, by daily observation are found to be such as these; the first is the Maritime, and these are they that have their scituation on the Sea shore or coast, or upon navigable Rivers and streames; and the second are they that have their scitua∣tion within some continent, and may be called land Townes and Cities, distant both from Sea and River. And though that in both these, trade and commerce is observable to be setled and dri∣ven; yet the manner and common form of this trade is found to differ much, as being both of them proper to two severall sorts of traffique and Negotiation. * 1.63

The trade observed then to be driven in Sea Townes or Cities, seated on navigable Rivers, is noted to subsist principally by na∣vigation, and by the easie transportation of merchandize by that commodiousnes, from one place to another; which is indeed the most proper and customarie way, whereby traffique is in these dayes seen to be maintained and preserved; for in many places thus scituated, it is noted that eminent Merchants do reside, who by reason of this neighbourhood of the Sea, and consequently of navigation, do hold a respondencie and trade from one fit place to another, over all the known parts of the habitable World, impor∣ting the commodities of all other Countries, and exporting the native commodities of the place it self; and of this sort is Marsilia, Amsterdam, Genoa, Venetia, Sivil, Lisborne, London, and many o∣thers, &c. But the trade observed to be driven in inland Townes and * 1.64 Cities, subsists by carriage of commodities by land, which in some places is done by Carts, in some by Camels, Caravans,

Mules, Horse, &c. as is at this day seen practised in many great Cities of the World; as at Aleppo in Turkey, at Spahan in Persia, at Agra in the Moguls Countrey, and such other, who injoy neither the benefit of Rivers, not yet the commoditie of the Sea it self by many miles distance; yet therein are oftentimes found residing many Merchants of great eminencie and a nample trade is discer∣ned therein, as may be seen in this following tract. And some∣times to adde some furtherance to this their want: some of these have a Sea port or haven, as the neerest whereto ships from other parts do come in; and do there both land and relade as occasion requireth, in which nature is Alexandria to Aleppo, Combrone to Spahan, and Sindy to Agra.

Besides which, I might here adde a third sort of Cities, where yet trade is noted to be setled, differing from both the former, and * 1.65 which cannot be comprised within either of the limits; and these are such as subsist by some excellent or curious manuall Arts or fabriques, as is Norimberg and others in Germanie, Roven in Nor∣mandie, Florence in Italy, and Norwich in England; and some others, whose trade subsists by the benefit of nature, producing of it self, speciall or needfull commodities for traffique, as doth Bordeux by Gascoine Wines, Zante by Corrants, Smirna by Cottens, Gilan in Persia by raw Silke, Ivisa by Salt, and the like: and where these are joyned by scituation proper for traffique to the former, they are found to be farre more absolute, eminent and compleat, as shall be discerned also in this following tract.

These are then the Cities and Townes which generally in this * 1.66 Mappe I handle, relating as neere as my observation and reading will permit me, the commodities that the place doth naturally afford for Merchandize, and the commodities the same is noted properly to vent; together with the time when the same is ei∣ther sent out or brought in, the quantity, how much; with all other such circumstances as are thereunto belonging.

Moreover it is to be noted, that in all Cities and Townes of * 1.67 traffique, there are alwaies found five particular places, that onely have a being and dependencie upon the trade thereof.

The first place is it where Merchants and tradesmen do assemble and meet at certain houres, and limited times of the day, to con∣ferre * 1.68 and treat together, concerning Merchandizing, shipping, buy∣ing or selling, and the like; as is seen to be the Royall Exchange of LONDON, the Burse in Antwerpe, the Piazze in Venetia, and the like in other places.

The second place is it where the Princes, customes, and dueties * 1.69 upon all Wares, either imported or exported by way of Merchan∣dize is seen to be paid and collected, where officers are appointed to attend the same; and where all Writs, as Cockets, bills of entrie, Certificates; and the like are granted, both to loade and land goods, either going out or coming in, and these are called by se∣verall

names, as in most places Custome-houses, Dattio, Commercios, and the like.

The third place is it where Merchants do keep their goods and * 1.70 wares in, where weighers, porters, car-men and labourers do hourely attend to be set on worke; where Brokers and Contracters are daily imployed in making of bargaines, shewing of Wares, transporting of bils of dept, and such like, as is seen in the Besistons and Basars in Turkey, Alfond•…•…ces in Barbary, pack-houses in the netherlands; and as was accustomed to be done in the stillard in London.

The next place is it where the publique beame is set up, by the authority of the Magistrate, to weigh all ponderous commodities * 1.71 bought or sold; to decide differences and controversies arising by weights and weighing, and where a sworn weigher, with labou∣rers at all houres attendeth upon Merchants occasions, and who by his place is to keep a Register of all commodities weighed, to serve if need shall so require; and in this nature is the weight-house called the Kings beame in London, the Domme at Amsterdam, the Viconte in Roven, the Romano in Marsilia, and such like in other places of trade.

The next and last place is it where the publike measures, both * 1.72 of length, of dry, and of liquid commodities, in every City are kept and set up by the authority of the Magistrate, to measure all measureable commodities bought or sold; to decide all differences and controversies arising thereabout; and where a sworn measurer is to give attendance with other necessary helpers at all houres to dispatch Merchants occasions, of which he is to keep a Regi∣ster to serve in time of need, as was seen of old to be the standard of Cheap in London, and as is found the like in other places.

And thus much shall serve to have said of Cities and Townes in generall, of trade, and of the principall places found therein, which have a dependence thereupon; which few Cities in the World, of traffique do want or are found to be defective in.

CHAP. IIII.

Of Customes, Impositions, and other duties in generall payd by Merchants upon commodities in all Cities of trade.

TRADE in its selfe, hath ever been found to be, not * 1.73 onely beneficiall to the City and Countrey where the same is exercised and preserved; but also to the Prin∣ces and Soveraignes who command the same; and though the commodities and benefits that it brings with it, be many and great, yet the principall are such as accru∣ing

to the Princes coffers, comes to them by the payments of certain customes, imposts and dueties, that are by them imposed up∣on all commodities and wares, which by the way of Merchandize is either imported out, or exported into their dominions, and for the better raising and collecting of which, there is seated as is be∣fore remembred, by the said Princes and their authority in every such Citie and Towne (where any trade and concourse of Merchants is found to bee) certaine publique houses, as offices by the name * 1.74 of Custome-houses where these duties are collected, and where the Traders and Merchants doe accordingly pay and satisfie the same.

The duety then of Custome, though in all Countries it bee gene∣rally * 1.75 paid, yet it is not alwaies found to be paid alike in all places, for it is sometimes found to bee more and sometimes lesse, and oft times in some Countries it is paid according to the will of the Prince who imposeth the same, as being partly a Prerogative in∣herent to their Scepters, and partly as they are absolute Com∣manders in those Cities, Ports and Havens where this Traffique is so exercis'd, and is found to bee payable as I said before, upon all * 1.76 manner of commodities used by way of Merchandize, either exported or imported out or into their Dominions, Countries and Citties.

This duetie then thus called Custome, is conceived by some to * 1.77 have its first originall from a safegard given by those Princes at Sea, to their Subjects and Merchants from all Rovers, Pirats and Enemies, and a protection for free trading from all such dangers from one Port or Citie of trade to another: but we see that in these dayes the payment of the duetie is still continued, and is day∣ly paid by all Merchants; but the first institution and ground thereof (if so it was) is by many Princes either totally omitted, or at least wise forgotten, and therefore it may now be more pro∣perly called a Custome then heretofore, and the places where the same is paid and collected called thence Custome-houses.

The Merchant then who intendeth to negociate and traffique * 1.78 into any Citie or Kingdome (seeing there is a necessity in the pay∣ment and discharge thereof) ought first diligently and carefully learne and observe the summe and quantity payable upon all com∣modities whatsoever; and then truely and honestly satisfie the same according to the ordinances and proceedings used respe∣ctively in those Countries, partly to avoid the danger of the losse of the commodity (the nonpayment being in many places the forfeiture) and partly the better thereby to make his calculation either to buy or sell to profit, and that before he make entry of any goods in the said Custome-houses or office (thus appointed for the collecting of this duty) and that he take notice what the true and right custome in it selfe is; to further which knowledge it is often seene that a setled rate by Booke or particular Teriffe either in print or writing may easily in every such Citie of trade be had * 1.79

and obtained: But if (as it is sometimes seene) in some places that the same cannot be had, then the Trader must learne in this case from others what the duety and Custome of the place is; wherein much care and circumspection is to be used, for the fraud and poling deceit, that is practised in sundry Custome-houses by many officers where no such Bookes are publique, is excessive, when either they collect the same to the immediate use of the Prince, or when they collect the same to their owne use, being let out to farme by contract and yearely rent unto them by his authority; many Merchants being deceived by their devices and slights, ma∣ny under officers and new offices being dayly hatched up and maintained by the chiefe Customers and Farmers, not onely to the detriment of Merchants and of all Trade in particular, but also to the prejudice of the Soveraigne and all Traffique and Commerce in the generall.

These Customes then, as I said before, are noted not to be paid * 1.80 in all Countries alike, for they are found to differ in divers re∣gards; the principall whereof I have observed to be these.

First, they are found to differ in regard of places and kingdomes, * 1.81 as a far greater Custome is paid in Spaine, and generally through∣out the King of Spaines Dominions, then in France, Italie, Turkie, and in some other places.

Secondly, some difference is also found in regard of times, as in * 1.82 priviledged Townes, inioying free Faires, Marts and Markets, as is seene observed by custome and long use in Roven, Beaucaire, Franckford, Mesina, and other places where the Customes are then and at that time little or else nothing, or far lesse then at all o∣ther times of the yeare besides.

Thirdly, somewhat againe in respect of Cities, inioying a more * 1.83 peculiar priviledge and continued freedome in Trade in sundry Kingdomes, where little or no Custome is paid upon any commo∣dity whatsoever, either during a yeare after the importing of the goods, or for certaine limited time or moneths, as it is seene in Ligorne, Marsolia, and in many other free Cities and hanse Townes, &c.

Fourthly, somewhat againe in regard of commodities, as is seene in * 1.84 England, and many other places elsewhere, where some commo∣dities are higher rated in the custome than other some; some paying after the rate of 5 per Cent. some 10, some 15, and some 20 per Cent. and some yet more, and some lesse.

Fiftly, somewhat againe in respect of the weight, as is seene in * 1.85 Roven by the Viconte, in Lions by the Kings beame, in Stockholme by the Merchants weight; and so in other places where there is used a large weight in favor of the Merchants to pay their Custome by, and another lesser to buy and sell withall.

All these things and many others, as necessary to this Commerce, * 1.86 must be truely learned; for ignorance herein is not pardonable,

and is ever a prejudice to him that is found to exercise Trade; for the rigor and strictnesse practised in sundry Countries herein a∣gainst Merchants is extreame, whereas these Customes are not duely and truely to the utmost satisfied and paid.

As first in Russia, Denmarke and Sweden, the law is, that if a * 1.87 Merchant doe not declare all his goods in the Customehouse which hee either importeth or exporteth, but concealeth some part thereof; all the rest of that commoditie being of the same kind, are forfeited to the Prince without favour or redemption.

In Spaine, and generally throughout all the King of Spaines do∣minions, * 1.88 the commodities concealed are onely forfeited, vnlesse they bee prohibited, or as they terme it Contrabanda goods, and then all is lost.

In England, Scotland and Ireland the like; for there the goods * 1.89 concealed are onely forfeited; but yet they may bee had againe upon composition, for the Officer that maketh the seisure hath power by a License sued forth to compound for the one halfe, which is his part: and if no int•…•…tion to defraud the King ap∣peare in the fact, the Barons of the Exchequer will deale favoura∣bly with the Merchant for the other halfe, which is the Kings, and if a Merchant cannot for want of a factorie make a direct or perfect entry, hee may declare his goods in the Custome house, at sight; and taking up the same, it may be either weighed or mea∣sured, opened and perused by an officer, and then afterward the Custome may be satisfied accordingly without further danger.

And if the Merchant would againe ship out those goods, so brought in by him, hee may doe it by certificate free of Custome for 13. moneths, and have the impost thereof returned to him againe, provided the propertie hath not beene during that time altered.

There is also by way of tares granted to the Merchant in the Custome house 5. per cent. upon all commodities, either weighed or measured, and allowances upon Wines and Oyles for leakage, and upon Clothes, Kersies and such like one in ten for wrapers, with ma∣ny other limited observations, which are found published in his Majesties declaration, before the printed Booke of rates for Customes in England, &c.

In France, Germany, and many places of Italy and in the low Coun∣tries, * 1.90 the goods concealed are onely forfeited; but the same may be afterwards compounded for, wherein the circumstances will in some places bee considered, and the manner how the error grew, and whether it appeare to be done with a set purpose or not.

In Constantinople, Smyrna, and many places of Turkie the goods * 1.91 concealed are not at all forfeited, but are to pay double the im∣posed custome if taken, and then to be againe restored.

I have noted that the rates of the customes is found to alter in sundry countries, as in Spaine and Portugall is paid upon divers

goods, 10. per cent. upon some 20. and 25. per cent. In Turkie is paid by the English onely 3. per cent. but by all other Christian na∣tions 5. per cent. and the same is not there paid nor satisfied in mo∣neys, as in other Countries, but in species and in kind, except com∣pounded for before hand, and so by a value reduced into monies: so also it is in some Countries more and in some lesse, sometimes setled upon the hundred in value, and sometimes upon the peece; and in China and some places of India it is noted that in favour of this duety the vessell and Ship is measured in length, and bredth, and depth; and so by a certaine rule and summe the custome is le∣vied accordingly, upon all sorts of goods abord her without di∣stinction alike in bulke.

Besides this duetie of Custome paid in most Cities by Merchants, * 1.92 as I have shewed, there is another duety like to this, which is cal∣led by the name of impositions, because the same is imposed upon some certaine and particular commodities, and not in generall (as customes are) upon all; the which also is not alike rated upon all wares: for though they be found now to bee much of the same nature as customes are, yet originally they are conceived to bee no∣thing but custome strained beyond a faire proportion, and are im∣posed oftentimes more for the inriching of some private courtier then for the profit or benefit of the Soveraigne, and which in themselves are found to be, very heavy excessive and burthensome upon some particular commodities; and therefore, as there is a necessity in the payment thereof; so is there likewise a necessity that the same be truely learned and knowne, and also the com∣modity upon which the same is so imposed; lest otherwise the Tra∣der make a short reckoning in his accounts, and find this impost to deceive him of his expected and hoped for gaine.

To conclude, neither are these duties thus to be onely learned * 1.93 and duely satisfied according to the customes and usance of euery Citie and Countrey, but also all such appurtenances, as belong ther∣unto, in the passing of all goods in the said offices and Custome houses, as in bils of Entries, Cockets, Certificates, passing of Bonds, and all fees thereunto appertaining and thereupon depending, as to Waiters, Searchers, Clerkes, Visitors, and such like, be also knowne and satisfied, the better to avoid the dangers and inconveniences that may happen by the default thereof to the goods whereupon the same is liable.

These Customes then and Impositions thus varying by time, pla∣ces and circumstances, and imposed, altered and changed often∣times at the will of the Prince, are not by the industry of any one hand, to be punctually knowne in all places; therefore it suffi∣ceth me to have given here these generall rules and observations conducing both to the knowledge and the necessity of the dis∣charge and payment thereof, for the better Reiglement of Commerce in this particular; therefore I may bee held excusable,

if I be found in this point to be defective in this MAPPE, and so concluding herewith, proceed to the next point, which is of the Monyes and Coines of sundry Kingdomes used in the traffique of Merchandizing.

CHAP. V.

Of the Monies and Coynes of sundry Countryes, used in generall in the traffique of Merchandize.

AMongst all the diversitie of Mettals which GOD * 1.94 the Creator hath shutup in the closet and concavitie of the earth, none is accounted more singular and excellent than silver and gold, of which the commu∣nication and Commerce of mankind, have framed and invented the use of money and coine, which mo∣ney and coine, may be properly termed to be the universall measure of all things in the world, and though that thus naturally and ori∣ginally they be but mettals, and so to be in themselves accounted, yet in value and estimation, the monyes and coines made thereof are to us (as all things) for they are to us, (converted once to this use) as meate, cloth, house, horse, and generally what other thing soever man hath els need of; and thereby it is evident and manifested that all things are obedient and in subjection to monyes; and that by this devise, a meane was found out and invented, whereby one thing should be to Merchants as all, and therefore men thrust forward by * 1.95 naturall inclination and worldly judgement, chose to this end and use at first, the thing that was found most durable, proper, and ma∣niable, which they onely observed best to be mettall; and amongst all mettals gave silver & gold the preheminence in the invention of monyes, which of their owne nature was thus observed to be most durable, and incorruptible, and of which wee find as well in these our times as in times past, most Princes of the world to make their currant coines of, between man and man in trade of Merchandize. I denie not but in the innocency of those golden times of old, when * 1.96 neither silver nor gold was put to this use, there was yet a traffique found, and a Commerce practis'd amongst mankinde, which may be imagined did not then extend it selfe to buying and selling in that same nature, as now it is in use since the invention of Monyes, but onely to a trucking, exchanging, and bartering, and that onely for things necessary to back and belly, to feed and cloth, and so to pre∣serve life; but these times worn out by a more acute age, and men laying to themselves a foundation of soveraigntie and greatnesse, the stronger still depriving the weaker, and riches thereby becoming

desirable, this mysterie crept up, and was admitted, and therefore from these two mineralls was found out a bodie, which once autho∣rized by power of the Magistrate, had a predominancie over all earthly things, and by which was squared out and leveld (as by an indifferent measure) all things appertaining to mankinde, the a∣bundance thereof brought with it the abundance of honour, atten∣dants, necessaries, and superfluities, so that he that had most in his possession, was accounted of, as being the most eminent and grea∣test personage in the eye, rule, and esteeme of the world.

But to come to the present times, though in the general through∣out all Europe, it is now found that Coines and Monies, of silver and gold (as is afore observed) is onely in use, and that all Commerce and traffique is principally drawne and maintained thereby; yet is it noted in this Map, that all Nations have not yet submitted their judgement to the prerogative of these two mineralls, but retaine still in use some other things serving in their stead and place; for first in the Ilands of Porto Ricco, Saint Dominico, and in many pla∣ces * 1.97 of America, they have in use small peeces of Lether, currant for Coines amongst them, not that they want silver and gold, for they injoy it in greatest abundance, but want the use and invention thereof; as of late dayes it is found to be established there by the * 1.98 Spanyard, as with us in Europe. Neither was this onely the custome of these parts alone; for it is observable, that in Peru, and else∣where, where the greatest plentie of silver and gold was found out and digged, it was never put to this use by the Inhabitants them∣selves.

Diverse yet in this kind to this day is the custome of Coines and Monies that are used and goeth currant throughout the world; for beside the aforesaid use whereto these mettals have beene put, as to be thus imployed, the common Standard to rule all trade and commerce, and the estates as well of the Prince as subject in Europe and many other parts of the world: those Nations that have beene de∣fective in this poynt, and that have not valued these mettals as the Europeans doe, have yet found out some particular thing or mat∣ter, whereto they have by a nationall and unanimous consent, (as it were) attributed this power to have a maine stroake in their ne∣gotiation and traffique, and wherein their wealth is found princi∣pally to consist.

In sundry parts of Africa, they use for their small coines a kinde * 1.99 of shells as currant amongst them, though their greatest payments be made either in sand of gold, which they terme Tiburin, or in In∣got. The same is the use this day also in the kingdome of Tombuto, and other adjoyning Countryes.

In other places of that Continent, they use Iron for their coine, * 1.100 their smallest peeces being an ounce waight; and this is seene pra∣ctised in Massa, and other kingdomes also thereabouts.

In the kingdome of Congo is taken up along the Sea-shoare, great

store of shell-fishes, differing from the former used in Tombuto, cal∣led * 1.101 Lumaches, which they distinguish male and female, the shell whereof is there accounted a coine, and wherewith they use to buy both silver and gold, but with silver or gold either in masse or coine, can they not buy any other thing needfull whatsoever.

In Melinda, they have little balles of glasse, in manner of our red beads, which come to them from Cambaia, and other places, * 1.102 and these are their coines and monies; and with them gold is neither found to be of account nor esteeme.

In some places of Cathaie, their money is a kind of paper stamped, * 1.103 and in some other Salt baked into small cakes, for the excellent use and scarcitie thereof, passeth currant as coines amongst them.

In Pegu their money is called Ganza, and is made of copper and leade, which every man may at his pleasure both coine and siampe * 1.104 that is able; for gold and silver is accounted as a Merchandize a∣mongst them.

In Bengala their small money is a fruit resembling the Almond, * 1.105 which passeth currant from man to man in traffique. And in the Iland Sumatra, it hath been observed, that the sculls of their slaine * 1.106 enemies was accounted their greatest treasure, with which they buy and barter; and he is the richest man that hath the greatest number thereof in his house. And lastly, in many places of India they use pepper and Cocos nuts in liew of money; and the same pas∣seth * 1.107 currant for coine in many places of India: and to conclude, it may be observed throughout this MAP of COMMERCE, that though silver and gold is not the mettall generally in use for the coining and stamping of money throughout all the world; yet these other things specified, cary with them in matter of commerce in these places the like efficacie and power.

To proceed then, Budelius, Varro and sundry Authors writing * 1.108 upon the originall of moneys, and upon the excellencie of this predominant pointe of traffique; affirme that all coines in the ge∣nerall have been nominated by their severall and distinct names. 1. Moneta, 2. Nummus, 3. Pecunia; the reasons given thereof are * 1.109 these: First, Moneta is said to have taken that name, and is deri∣ved a Monendo, which is to admonish and warne the people of the name of the prince, vel Nummi nota, and of such a signe or marke impressed thereupon, thereby alluding to the saying of CHRIST, Matthew 22. Where the Pharises brought him a penny, he thereupon demanding whose image and superscription that was? and they answered Caesars; then said he unto them, give therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesars, and unto GOD the things that are GODS.

Secondly, Nummus is said to take its name as some will have it à Numerando vel Nomine, of the name of the Prince stamped upon * 1.110 it, as a Duccat is said from Ducatus, or as some say from Numa Pompilius the Romane King, who is said to be the first that 1900.

yeares past, commanded moneys to be made, whereof ever since after his name every piece of money is called Nummus; or againe, as some hold, it is derived from Nomos, which signifieth a Law, and implyeth as much as such a Prince, or such a common wealth hath ordained money, from whom it hath taken a certaine price and valew.

Thirdly, Pecunia is derived à Pecude. of cattle, sheep, and Oxen; * 1.111 wherein was said to consist the wealth of the ancients, and where∣on the figure thereof was stamped; and is construed to be all manner of living Creatures, wanting the forme of Man: and some hold that the name of money signifieth, not onely money numbred or told, but also all things that are contained in the World; aswell moveable as immoveable, liquid as solid; and in generall all things whatsoever men have upon the earth.

From these three names and kinds grew first amongst the Ro∣manes a particular distinction, and nomination of the quality of the species, as they were currant in worth and esteeme amongst them: for they had then in use certaine moneys of copper, aswell as the others of silver and gold: and because every piece of the silver was in valew ten pieces of the copper, it was called Denarius; * 1.112 and because every piece of gold was worth 10. pieces of silver, the same was also called Denarius; and thus for distinction sake, other Nations in their coines in after ages followed their example; and our English moneys came to have the apellation of starling, and to be distinguished into pounds, shillings and pence, as some say from the esterlins that were in times past the masters of our minte, and the refiners of our coines, which yet holdeth this name, and by * 1.113 which the same is knowne throughout all Europe. But to con∣clude this Chapter, however coines and moneys came at first to have their originall and names, and however the same came to be distinguished, and of what mettall soever the same is in these dayes found to be made of and framed; yet when once the same is allowed by the publike authority of the Prince and So∣veraigne Magistrate, it is held a capitall crime in all * 1.114 Countries, either todeface, mend, alter, or any waies to debase the same; and therefore most justly (the circumstances considered) doe the coines of Princes currant in all their Countries challenge a principall part and interest in the Universall commerce of the World.

CHAP. VI.

Of weights in generall used in Merchandizing, and mentio∣ned in this MAP of COMMERCE.

THE next principall point handled in this MAP of COMMERCE, is the Weights in generall of all * 1.115 Kingdomes, and knowne Cities of trade, by the inven∣tion whereof (as by measures) a true meane was found out, to give every man his own; for all worldly things are found to be governd by it and measure; but most especially the same hath a great prerogative in all contracts and bargaines, where either buying or selling is either used or practised, which indeed is the fundamentall part of the Worlds Commerce and traf∣fique; for thereby are all commutations regulated, all accounts framed; and all profit and losse in trade found out and distingui∣shed: It is also one of the standard of all Kingdomes, Cities and Provinces, and therefore aswell as measures carries with it the approbation and authority of the soveraigne Magistrate, and there∣fore either to falsifie, adde or detract therefrom, is accounted a capitall crime, and worthy severest punishment.

Now for their sorts; These weights are observed to vary and dif∣fer * 1.116 in all Countries, aswell as in sundry Mart and principall Ci∣ties; though otherwise oftentimes neighbours yet are herein dis∣crepant, and not seldome it is seen, (as in this Map shalbe made evident) that severall sorts of weights are found to weigh severall sorts of commodities, in one and the selfe same place, City and Countrey; as in England where it is observed, that raw silke is weighed by the pound of 24. ounces, and other commodities by the pound of 16. ounces: and in Aleppo some commodities is weigh∣ed by the Rotolo of 680. drams, some by a ℞ of 700. drams; and some by ℞. of 720. drams. And as these weights are found to vary in respect of their greatnes, so are they found to differ in respect of * 1.117 their denomination; for some Countries use to weigh their com∣modities by hundreds, some by quintalls, some by centiners, talents, thousands, weighes, shipponds, chargos, lisponds, roves, stones, bahars, mands, candils, peculls, and the like.

A second denomination is againe produced out of this, as a * 1.118 lesser weight, whereof the former is composed; and is also found in use for weighing in sundry places, as pounds, mans, batmans, ro∣tolos, minas, lodoros, oakes, cattees, barotes, seares, wesnoes and the like.

A third sort againe are found to be in use, whereof these latter are composed and in use, in the custome of weighing; and which

are of another denomination, and lesser in quantity, as Ownces, * 1.119 whereof sometimes 12 14 16 20 24 and 30. doe make according to the custome of the place the pound weight, and then againe have a subdivision into drams, scruples, obolos, carats and graines; so that the greater containes the lesser in parts, which also is obser∣ved * 1.120 to differ according to the proportion of the first and greatest; for the Cantar, which commonly is observed to bee the greatest weight, is so termed, as being the hundred of hundreds, and consi∣steth * 1.121 sometimes of 100 li. just, though sometimes of hundreds, of 112 l. of 120 l. of 125 l. 128 l. and 132 l.

The Weigh and Cargo are in like manner found likewise to va∣rie * 1.122 in many places, and to consist sometimes of 163 l. of 181 l. of 200. and 300 l. to a weigh, and Cargo or charge.

The Shipond also consists sometimes of 300 l. sometimes againe * 1.123 of 320. 340. and 400 l. the Shipond.

The Lispond also is found to consist sometimes of 15 l. of 16 l. * 1.124 and 20 l. to the Lispond.

Roves are noted likewise to bee in some places 10 l. 20 l, 25 l. * 1.125 and 30 l. and sometimes 40 l. to the Rove.

Stones are noted also to consist of 6 l. 8 l. 10 l. 14 l. 16 l. 20 l. * 1.126 21 l. 24 l. 32 l. and 40 l. to the Stone, still altering according to the custome of the place.

Rotolos are also noted to vary and to consist sometimes of 400. * 1.127 drams, sometime of 600 dr. 680 dr. 700 dr, and 720 drams, accor∣ding to the custome of the place, and according to the custome in use of the commoditie.

In all which the Merchant must not be ignorant, that intends to * 1.128 make either an use, or reape a benefit by this MAPPE OF COMMERCE: for all weights must bee to him (in regard of his skill and judgement) as one weight; knowing readily how to make his calculations in all contracts; how the one weight doth advance of the other, or what the one may want of the other, ma∣king his accompt of concordancie allowing or deducting, where hee finds the discrepancie arising by an overplus or by a want ei∣ther in the one or in the other.

Now for the manner of weighing in generall (so farre forth as * 1.129 ever I have observed) hath beene noted to have beene done by two severall wayes; that is, either by a Beame, or by a Romano or stalier: the weight by Beame I hold the best and justest perfor∣med * 1.130 with leaden, brasse or iron weights, provided the said Beame be good and even both emptie and laden with one equall weight; and this is seene to bee the common custome of weighing in England, Netherlands, and in many other places and Countries.

The weight by stalier which is used in Turkey, Barbary and Italy and sundry other Countries, I hold not so sure; for thereupon is * 1.131 marked all the number of weights that may be weighed thereby, which by the helpe of a small counterpoise removed to severall

stations, supplies sometimes the place of a pound, and sometimes the place of 100 pound, wherein is oftentimes found great deceit, which by the buyer and seller is carefully and heedfully in those places to be both prevented and avoided.

Now if with a Beame one would abbreviate a long labour with * 1.132 small time and paines, and weigh much with few weights, his weights must be made by an augmentation doubled, as by peeces of 1 lib. 2 lib. 4 lib. 8 lib. 16 lib. 32 lib. and 64 lib. making in all 127 lib. with which all summes under that number may be com∣prehended and weighed, and some exercised in great affaires, by single weights tripled have gone further and procured 1 l. 3 l. 9 l. 27 l. 81 l. &c. and thereby with little labour have performed very weighty and great businesse: but I leave this to the ingeni∣ous, and to him that shall fancie this method and manner of weighing.

In all Cities then and places of traffique there is found a weight * 1.133 (as I said) authorised by the Magistrate, which to alter or dimi∣nish is ever held a capitall crime: this weight thus setled in every place and Citie of trade, is reputed the Standerd of the place, by which as well the inhabitants as strangers doe make their bar∣gaines and contracts, and without which many bargaines cannot be made and perfited, and therefore partly to avoid scruple and doubt, and partly to doe justice to all men, and partly to decide all controversies incident in weighing, there is in the most emi∣nent Cities a publique Weigh-house set up and appointed, where * 1.134 every man may repaire unto either for necessity of weighing, or tryall of his weights, and which is authorised by the Prince as a rule for all men that shall have occasion to make use thereof in the said places, serving sometimes as the beame whereby his cu∣stomes and dueties are paid him; the Master, Overseer or Weigher being ever sworne and deputed to doe justice and right in his * 1.135 weighing, not onely betweene man and man, but (if need be) be∣tweene the Prince and the Subject.

This Weight accounted thus the common and received Standerd * 1.136 of Cities and Countries, is it, upon which (as neere as I could possi∣ble) I have in all these following places made my observations, and from thence raised not onely the agreement thereof, with o∣ther neighbouring places and Cities, but also with that which we call our haberdebois weight of England, wherein with all industry I have laboured to finde out the truth and certainty thereof, which (as subject to error by reason of the diversity) I must re∣ferre to the future triall of the better experienc'd, concluding this point with a way and method invented by unequall weights to accord the weights of any two knowne places or Cities, which * 1.137 briefly is thus performed.

Prepare a ballance as exactly made as is possible, that a very little thing may cause them to incline one way or other; likewise pre∣pare

of the one place, the just pound, the halfe pound, the ¼ the ⅛ the 1/16 the 1/32 the 1/64 the 1/128 and the 1/125 part of that pound, if it be possible, untill you judge it to be sufficient; then take the just pound waight of the other place, and put it into one of the Scales of the Ballance, and in the other Scale, put such waights as may justly counterpoise the pound waight of that place; as for ex∣ample:

Say that the halfe the ¼ the ⅛ and the 1/256 part of the pound of the first place doe justly counterpoise the pound waight of the o∣ther place; then by consequence it followeth, that 128 li. 64 li. 32 li. and 1 li. that is in all 255 li. of the first place, doe justly waigh 256 li. of the other place. Againe, say that the 1 li. the ⅛ 1/226 1/512 of the first place, doe justly counterpoise the pound waight of the o∣ther; then I inferre thereby that 512. 64. 2. and 1. that is in all 579 li. of the first place doe justly waigh 512 li. of the other place; by which the calculation may be made both to the hundred and to the pound, therefore the further search and consideration thereof, I willingly here omit, and referre the same to the curio∣fitie of the more ingenuous.

CHAP. VII.

Of Accounts and Account-keeping in generall, observed in this MAP of COMMERCE.

ALL rationall negotiators, and traders in generall will * 1.138 grant, that this Mappe of Commerce would appeare to be very imperfect, if it should want the due rules and observations whereby accounts are in all Cities of commerce ordered and kept, which though found in themselves to varie in severall Kingdomes, and places, as having of∣tentimes a dependency, and sometimes concurrency with the coines and moneys of each kingdome; yet in all places they are not found to have the like agreement together. Some Countries be∣ing observed to keep their accounts, and the denomination there∣of in imaginary coines, such as neither that Countrey nor place hath either proper coine or money, that hath any affinitie there∣with, * 1.139 as by daily practise is seene used in Venice by the duccat of lire 6⅕; in Florence by the Crowne of gold of lire 7½; and as in Eng∣land it is used in those ancient accounts, kept in some offices for the revenews of the Crowne by the name of Markes, of which wee finde not at this day any proper coine or money in use. Againe, it is seene by experience, that one and the selfe same place, affoordeth severall denominations in their accounts, and divers wayes are used in one and the selfe same Citie and Countrey therein; as in some

Cities of Italie, some are observed to keepe their accounts in lire, soldi, and denari; and some againe in the same place in Crownes, or scudi, soldi and denari; as the like in England is noted, some as be∣fore observing their rules of accounts in markes, and pence, and some, and those the most usuall and common, in pounds, shillings, and pence, starling; the which is necessarily both duely to be lear∣ned, and truely to be knowne, and understood, by such as shall have occasion to make use of, and exercise the art of Merchan∣dizing, and this Mappe of Commerce.

Now for the methode used in keeping these accounts, every * 1.140 Countrey and Nation are observed to frame to themselves, waies meanes and rules, whereby the same is performed and perfitted, and have for the most part every Countrey a peculiar forme by themselves. The generall knowne methode and best forme is by the laudable and excellent way of Debitor and Creditor, first in∣vented in Italie, and now generally practised by most part of the * 1.141 eminent Merchants of Europe, received for the most absolute, best, and truest methode of accounts that hitherto hath been found out and invented, which here to set downe would challenge a Vo∣lume by it selfe; yet such is the necessitie of this knowledge, that every Merchant should by the rules of his profession, be well ver∣sed and seene therein; the grounds whereof being universally knowne and daily taught, I referre to my good friends, Master Raphe Handson, and Master Valentin Markham, who are both ex∣cellent, and excellently learned therein; concluding this place with 4. principall rules required, and not to be omitted by such * 1.142 as have to doe, and practise accounts in Merchandizing.

First, it is required that in his account-keeping, he write all and singular the passages thereof, and thereto belonging, with all cir∣cumstances * 1.143 of time, price, and other conditions, in every bargaine, contract, adventure, receipt of goods, sales, &c. in which though there should afterward appeare an errour, either by disorderly charging, or by over or under charging, yet it will easily at a second view be both corrected and amended.

Secondly, It is required that he never come behind hand with * 1.144 his accounts, by letting the same run over-long, for being daily fi∣nished the trouble will be nothing, but being a while neglected, a man is still found to be the loather and loather to goe in hand therewith, and thus growing more loath every day than other, when necessitie constraineth him, either he is inforced to mumble them up to his owne prejudice, or to cast them off, and to neglect them altogether to his owne shame and undoing.

Thirdly, It is required, that he keepe them, just, true, and perfect, and not to falsifie any parcell, matter, or thing, nor yet interline * 1.145 or shuffle one matter with another, but to set every thing (either appertaining to himselfe, or to any other) plainly, directly, and orderly downe.

Lastly, It is required, that he be well skild in the art of Arith∣metique * 1.146 and numbering, which indeed is the principall steppe to this art of accounting, and the first degree of this Mappe of Com∣merce, without which knowledge, let none dare to intitle him∣selfe a Merchant, nor expect a benefit from this Worke. For the skill whereof I referre the learner, to the judicious, and excellent A∣rithmeticians of this Citie, and so proceed to the next generall point of Commerce, which is Measure.

CHAP. VIII.

Of Measures in generall used in Merchandizing, and com∣prehended in this MAP of COMMERCE.

THE next materiall point here handled, is the Mea∣sures * 1.147 in generall, used in all Kingdomes and knowne Cities of trade, by meanes whereof a certaine way and method was found out and invented to distin∣guish and order by rule the length and bredth of all commodities measurable, especially accustomed in all manner of fabricks, either linen, wollen, silkes or other stuffes; and this is ob∣served also (as in weights,) to have a speciall prerogative in many bargaines and contracts, where either buying or selling of things measurable is subsistent and in use; being granted to be a funda∣mentall point of all the traffique and commerce of the Universe; for thereby as by weights many commutations are regulated, many accounts are framed, and profit and losse is also thereby found out and distinguished: It is also estimated to be one of the standards of Kingdomes and Cities; and therefore (aswell as weights) carieth with it the approbation and authority of the Soveraigne Magi∣strate; and therefore to adde or detract therefrom, is ever in all Countries held punishable, and accounted a capitall crime.

The measures of length are found so diversly to vary, that every * 1.148 City and Province is noted almost to have aswell a distinct mea∣sure as a distinct weight, which in themselves oftentimes are found much to differ; and some particular Cities are observed by cu∣stome to have divers measures, for divers sorts of commodities, as * 1.149 it is seen practised by example in the City of London, where the yard is accounted the common measure for cloth of woollen, and silke &c. the elle accounted the common measure for linen, and the goad for frizes, cottens and the like, which in many other Countries is also observable. And as for measures in the generall, It is a recei∣ved opinion that the first measure that was to this end invented

was the cubit, agreeing as some imagine with the halfe elle, the which was divided into 4. parts or quarters, and every quarter * 1.150 into 4. inches; peradventure this was in those times a generall rule to all Nations: but time and traffique have since given to eve∣ry Countrey a particular measure, and therewith a peculiar law of measuring, which containes a succinct length by it selfe; which at this day wee see practised through most parts of the knowne World in severall waies: and thus diversity of places gave also di∣versity of names to their measures, such as are the ell yard, goad, fathome, cane, alne, brace, pico, sticke, palme, vare, covado, and the like.

But Invention by the helpe and asistance of time, growing * 1.151 more perfect and absolute, and finding that neither weight nor yet this measure could extend it selfe to all commodities used in and by the way of merchandize; the art of measuring of solid bodies became to be hence produced, as we see it in use in the measuring of timber, stones and such like commodities: neither yet was com∣merce satisfied herewith; for the ingenious Merchant found it still defective, and therefore to have it yet more perfect, invented the art of concave measures, that should serve aswell for dry as for liquid commodities, as it is seen practised at this day for graine, rice and such like commodities; and for oyles, wines, waters, liquors and such like commodities, setting by this way by art and invention, in * 1.152 most of these commodities, a concordance of measure with weight, as in other commodities was set a concordance of weight with measure: but forasmuch as this knowledge in the generall is of it selfe too capacious and large to be particularly handled, as the subject required, I have been therefore constrained to confine my selfe to measures of length; onely as being the most necessary part of this MAP of COMMERCE, yet so as I have not omitted the rest where they have fallen within the compasse of my obser∣vation; and if I have therein been found defective, the vastnesse of the subject may plead my excuse.

He then that intendeth by way of traffique to make use of this tract, must aswell be skild in measures, (as I have observed) he * 1.153 ought to be in weights; for he must not onely readily know his owne measure as it stands, and is found to be in it selfe in use, but also the measure of that place whereto he bendeth his trade and ne∣gociation, allowing or deducting by addition or substraction where the overplus or want doth challenge a part, to make a due proportion of both, and be so well versed therin, as that all mea∣sures may be to him as one measure, by a true calculation of the length or the shortnes therof.

Againe it is found by the observation of Merchants, that in all Countries and well governed Cities, there is for the reiglement * 1.154 of things measurable, instituted a publike measurer, authorized by the Soveraigne Magistrate, who is sworne to decide all con∣troversies

that happen in and about the Art of measuring; to whose honesty and faith is intrusted this publike measure, and to which all Merchants and traders may in time of need and diffe∣rence repaire and have recourse unto, and by which in many pla∣ces * 1.155 it is seen that Princes doe receive their duetie of customes up∣on commodities measurable; and by this common, known and re∣ceived publike measure, I have made my observation in all places, and as neere as I could, not onely rectified the same in the agree∣ment thereof with other neighbouring places and Countries, but also with our own use in England: and therefore to conclude this point, I have inserted the forme of an Instrument here fol∣lowing, easie to be made, and purposely invented to accord the measures of any two known places or Countries, whether they be ells, vares, yards, canes or any other measure whatsoever.

First then learn the order and custome of measuring of all those sorts of commodities in both the places which you would inquire after, then prepare a smooth straight borde, plate or such like, and draw upon the same a straight line of the length of the measure in one of the places with his allowance of measuring, either an inch or shaftnet or such like; which for example I will demonstrate in the Figure following, A B. Frst then divide the line A B into 4. equall parts, which is CDE, and divide the quarter of A C in∣to 250. equall parts, and number them from 10. to 10. upwards, making the print C the 750. part; for the number of parts con∣tained in the other three empty quarters:

Then marke upon the line A B the length of the measure of the other place, with his allowance, which is for example from B to F being just in the 900. parts; therefore 900. of those mea∣sures in the first place, make just 1000. of those measures in the o∣ther place: but if the measure of the other place be longer then the measure of the first place, as for example, if it were from B to G, then take the distance of A G with a compasse, and set the one foot in C, and extend the other towards A, which for ex∣ample doth come to rest in F, being 150. parts from C; there∣fore then 1150. measures of the one place makes just 1000. of the other, by which you may calculate to a lesser proportion; and this is as much as I conceive needfull to insert con∣cerning the knowledge of measures in generall, and proceed to the next, which is the know∣ledge in generall of commodities used by the way of Merchandizing.

CHAP. IX.

Of Commodities in generall used by the way of Mer∣chandize, and of the knowledge thereof.

HAving spoken of Cities of trade in generall as they * 1.156 are distinguished in these dayes; and of the Customes more or lesse that are imposed (by Princes in all Cities where trade is practis'd) upon all commodities used as Merchandize, by such as negotiate and use traffique and of the moneys and current Coines where∣by this trade is driven, with the weights and Measures whereby the same is distinguished and regulated: the next thing to bee hand∣led in order is the Commodities and Wares themselves, wherewith this Commerce is maintained and practised in every Citie and Coun∣trey comprised in this MAPPE; which is the proper thing upon which the said duties are paid, and for which the said mo∣neys are seene to bee given in Exchange, by the way of buying and selling.

All Commodities then that are used as Merchandizes by traders * 1.157 and Merchants may properly bee distinguished into two kinds; and are either naturall or artificiall commodities; naturall commo∣dities I call such as the Earth or Creatures, either with or without the labour and industry of man doth naturally produce of them∣selves: * 1.158 of which kinds are wines, oyles, cottons, wools, fruit, graine, raw silke, spices, druggs, jems, gold, silver and the like.

Artificiall commodities I call such as are either wrought or perfi∣ted * 1.159 by Art or Mystery, of which kind are all fabriques of either wollen, linnen, silke, and also the commodities of all manuall crafts, this day seene practised through the world in sundry Countries, within the compasse of which two sorts may all wares and all things used as commodities be comprised.

Againe, both the naturall and artificiall commodities may bee distinguished into two other sorts and kinds, which are either such as are staple and lasting commodities, or impairing and de∣caying commodities.

The staple and lasting commodities I call such as indure at all * 1.160 times and continue for ever in their true estate and first condition of goodnesse, never decaying, nor never losing their vertue and qualitie: and of this kind are jems, gold, silver, copper, brasse, lead, iron, steele, and the like.

The impairing and decaying commodities I call such as are either * 1.161 subject to corruption, or to leakage, and doe lose and decay ei∣ther

by long lying, or by keeping, as are the fruits of the Earth, corne, wines, oyles, currens, figgs, fish, and the like.

The infinite variety of which passeth any one mans judgement perfectly to know and distinguish, because that Nature and Art in all Countries and places brings into the world such change and diversitie, in place, time, use and qualitie in all professions, that it were a worke endlesse to set downe the natures, conditions and properties thereof; therefore it hath contented me in all Coun∣tries and Cities heere collected, to nominate only the commodi∣ties that the places are observed to afford, either naturall or artifi∣ciall, either staple or perishable, wherewith Merchants are found to negociate, and upon which it is found that a custome is imposed by Princes, and by them satisfied accordingly.

And yet forasmuch as many of these commodities herein named and found throughout the world, may seeme strange to some not well versed in the generall knowledge therof; and yet this know∣ledge so necessary to all that professe Merchandizing; I hold it not improper here, not onely to adde a word or two, conducing to this so needfull a skill; but also to the preservation and true keeping thereof in their prime goodnes and beauty.

He that intendeth then by his pen to teach the theorique of this mysterious part of Commerce must needs come short of his ayme: I hope I may therfore be well excused if I appeare defective here∣in; for I know it is practice and dayly use that maketh a man skil'd in this Art; and many lets and impediments appeare dayly in many men, that hinder the true attainement thereof: for it must needs be granted that hee that is imperfect in any one natu∣rall sense, or wants those helps that nature affords to perfect minds, must neither be a Merchant, nor yet addict himselfe to this know∣ledge: for any one sense being either depraved or defective in part or in whole, will inforce him to commit (against his will and mind) many errors, and constraine him to take the bad for good, or (at least wise) the bad as soone as the good; and som∣times (as we say) chalke for cheese, or one thing for another: for experience tels us that all commodities are not learned by one sense * 1.162 alone, though otherwise never so perfect; nor yet by two, but somtimes by three, somtimes by foure, and somtimes by all: and yet this Art is now a dayes come to that heigth, (I may say) to that heigth of cunning, that all these are little enough too.

But in the generall it must be granted that the eye above all the rest of the senses, still claimeth an especiall interest and prero∣gative herein, and must ever bee admitted as one of the chiefest that must still accompany the rest in this distinction, and there∣fore many things are oftentimes found saleable that are pleasing thereto; and in some commodities the same is noted to have the whole stroake, and onely to give the judgement, as in all manner of colours, and such like things depending thereupon.

Some are noted againe to require the sence of feeling to be as∣sistfull to the eye, as where the hand is of necessity to be imployed, as is seen in cloth and such commodities. Some require the sence of hearing, as where the eare giveth a help to the eye, as is seen in some mettalls, mineralls and such like: and some againe require the sence of smelling, as where the nose helpeth the eye, as is seen in some drugges, perfumes and the like; and lastly, some requireth the sence of tasting, as where the palate giveth the helpe, as is seen in spices, wines, oyles, and many such commodities, where it is to be noted * 1.163 that in this knowledge doth consist much of the Art of Merchan∣dizing, a principall part of which profession is properly to know and learn the same; and therefore a Merchants judgement must no•…•… be limited within the compasse of any one particular trade or Vocation: for herein must his mystery, skill and art exceede all o∣ther, as requiring by necessity a more generall knowledge then any other tradesman; from whom there can be expected no more, then a skill in those commodities they challenge a property or right by trade unto; or as appertaining particularly to their pe∣culiar profession and calling.

This is manifested in many trades-men, as in the goldsmith, whose knowledge is confined in silver and gold, and in the goodnes, finenesse * 1.164 and quality thereof: In the Ieweler, whose knowledge is confined in Iems and precious stones; in the Clothiers to their clothing, in the Druggesters to their drugges, in the Grocer to his spices; and so ge∣nerally in all others: But the Merchant whose judgement must be larger, must have skill in all, and have a generall inspection in every part and member of each of them, as being onely branches of his unlimited knowledge; which is not confinable to commodi∣ties and wares of value and consequence onely, but also to the wares of the meanest artificer; so that in this point his art may be com∣pared to the Poets, whose excellency must consist in a coursory judgement in all sciences, and to be learned in all professions, the difference being that the Merchants skill, must be reall, solid and substantiall, and the Poets may be fained and poeticall.

Therefore both the naturall and artificiall commodities must be comprehended within the circuit of his judgement, and into all * 1.165 trades he ought to have a generall insight, as with the fisherman, he must dive into the deep, and know all sorts of merchantable fish, as ling, codde, haberdine, herings, pilchards, salmon, eeles, how caugh•…•… and how preserved, and the proper season for the same.

With the Husbandman and labourer, he must have insight in the Harvest of the Earth, and know all commodities that the same is found naturally to afford for Merchandize, as all manner of corne, graine or pulse; the vintages for all manner of wines, the recoltoes for all manner of oyles, cottens, currants, figges, reasons, and other fruit of the Earth, how and when the same is gathered, and how and by what meanes the same is kept and preserved: with

the shepheard to know all manner of wools, with the woodman to know all manner of timber, and all circumstances thereto be∣longing; and to conclude, his skill and inspection must be such, that it extend it selfe from the commodities belonging to the meanest artificer, to the commodities belonging to the most emi∣net shop-keeper, which I neither know, nor yet am able in all neces∣sary points to learn; but specially so much of this knowledge must not be omitted as cometh within the compasse of that place, wherein and whereunto the Merchant resideth or bendeth his trade and adventures. * 1.166

Neither yet must his knowledge rest it selfe here upon the consideration of the meere goodnesse of commodities, but must also extend it selfe to the consideration of the true worth and value thereof, both in the price and in the esteem; and also know how the same is both requested and spent, and how imported, and how exported, either for use or for ornament, from one Countrey and place to another; together with the due circumstances of times and seasons, when this vent or sale presenteth, and when the same is out of use and not demanded: also when signes of plenty doth offer it selfe, and when of scarsitie, when of rising and when of falling; what commodities in themselves naturally are friends, and sympathise in the Shipping and will indure packing, binding, and ftowidge together; and which againe have a secret antipathie, and will perish and consume each other; all which circumstances I have at large handled in a tract which I have called the Merchants Magazin, which I may hereafter publish, if I find this my labour prove acceptable to Merchants. * 1.167

Moreover, all Merchants indeavouring to obtain this exquisit∣nes, should not be satisfied with a naked skill and knowledge in these commodities thus belonging to other mens professions, but their maine scope and aime should be to make this knowledge and skill profitable and beneficiall unto them, as by exporting the super∣fluous commodities of one Countrey at the plentifull season of either harvest, recolto or vintage to another place or Kingdome, where either nature, scarsitie, the curiosity, pride, sloth or necessity of the Inhabitants challengeth a supply or stand in need of, which must be done with many advised circumstances. First, in that con∣sideration must be had aswell to the place as to the time, aswell in the importation as in the exportation; and to the property and fitnes of both the place and time; for all commodities are not trans∣portable at all seasons, nor yet every season fit for every commo∣dity; some commodities requires winter and cold seasons for trans∣portations, and some againe requires summer and warmer wether, and in the fitnes of the place, a judicious eye is to be had, and the same to be done with a great deale of providence and circum∣spection, observing well the nature and property of the place, whither the same is to be imported, and whence exported, and

not as that Dutch Merchant is said unfitly to have done, that car∣ried fish to Rome at Easter, or shooe-hornes and hats to Constantinople, or as we commonly say coales to New-castle, where great quantities are daily digged up and vented thence to all parts of the World.

And for as much as Merchants find not at all times, a present * 1.168 vent and sale for their commodities, according to their minde, and to a contented profit, therefore their knowledge must yet extend it selfe so farre, as that they know how the same is both to be pre∣served and kept, from either spoyling or perishing; for experi∣ence shews, that almost every severall commoditie doth demand almost a severall and different way of preservation and keeping, that the same may continue and hold its prime vertue, worth, and goodnesse, both in colour, substance, and beautie; and also know what may be opposite therto, and incident either to spoyle, hurt, harme, or prejudice it: for first some commodities are observed to be best preserved drie, as is seene in some sorts of Spices, Drugges, Sugars, raw silke, and such like, and these require a dry, close, ware∣house or magazin for stowedge thereof; some are found to be best preserved by lying close without ayre or vent, as some wines, some fruits, and such like; and some are observed to be best pre∣served by moisture and no ayre, as Tobacco, Civet, Muske, Verdigrace, and such like; and so in some other commodities, which doe also differ in respect of the place; some commodities requiring low and close Celleredge, and some high and airy warehouses, &c. all which things are considerable in the housing and keeping of wares, and commodities, and necessarie to be knowne, least that by ignorance a damage be sustained in staying for a Market, or a fit or more proper season for the sale and vent thereof.

Neither is it sufficient that a Merchant doe know how to pre∣serve * 1.169 his wares and Commodities in their first splendor, goodnesse, and vertue, but their skill must extend, if possible, to give it new vigour, life, strength and beautie, being either by casualtie or time, dead or faded, dying or perishing, which though in some commo∣dities it may (in some sort) be performed, yet in all commodities it is a matter not onely unprobable, but utterly impossible to be in any manner of wayes effected; for this onely secret, if any where it were to be learned, would prove a most profitable knowledge, and worth the learning, and a mysterie that would too soone en∣rich tradesmen and Merchants. Yet some such there be their Arts∣masters, who before they will throw away their goods, when ei∣ther they are in part decaying, or totally perishing, will trie ma∣ny wayes and conclusions to rectifie the defaults and defects there∣of; sometimes by commixtures, compositions and helpes, adding excel∣lent good to the very worst, or sweet to sowre, or one colour to another; as is imagined is too oftentimes practised by the art of the Vintner, in his old perished or palled wines. Others againe by changing the Objects, turning one die into another, as it is

conceived is daily practised by Mercers, and others, by new dying of spotted stuffes and silkes: many such wayes being practised, which the ingenious head and hand of the Artsman hath found out, and invented, to save, preserve, maintaine, and sometimes to restore a commoditie that is wasting and perishing, which I referre to those that are more skilfull therein.

Now the last point resting to conclude this Chapter, is to shew * 1.170 briefly how this knowledge first spoken of in commodities may be gained and acquired, which doubtlesse is best done by experience, the true mother of knowledge; and this experience is best gotten by often viewing the same, and heedfully marking the qualitie and properties thereof, and especially the best and principall of each sort, that a man would be expert in; to which end, it is ever good to procure and keepe patterns, and samples, and thereby so to im∣print the very Idea thereof in a mans minde, that at sight of the like or equall, the same may instantly be knowne and discerned, and the sooner to obtaine this knowledge, a man that would learne must be very inquisitive of men of experience that are able to in∣struct in the commodities required, and learne from such what is the principall notes requisite thereunto, either in their colours, goodnesse, substance, vertue, taste, seeing, or feeling; and what he hath * 1.171 thus learned and gained, to take order never to forget, by com∣mitting the same to writing, and therewith to note, the signes and markes of the goodnesse and badnesse of all those commodities that a man doth either deale in, or would learne to know, and to make this knowledge the more compleat, to note downe therewith all manner of charges incident thereto, and that grow in that place upon the same, with the ordinary price which there it doth com∣monly beare and hold; and though these notes should either by hast or mis-information be at the first rude, and undigested, or though many should prove frivolous, and to little purpose, it mat∣ters not much; the one sort may soone be better ordered, and the other may as easily be rejected; his better knowledge and a little consideration may amend both these defects, my reason for the same is, that the use and custome of noting in this manner, will make a man (especially young beginners) more skilfull and readie in this knowledge in a yeare, than he that taketh onely a bare, idle, and su∣perficiall view, shall be in his whole life time; for it must needs be granted, that it both perfecteth skill, and helpeth memory, which is the onely meanes hereto, and by graving deeper impressions in a mans minde, inforce him will he, nill he, to a more considerate and judicious observation, and marking thereof; when as he hath thus absolutely tyed himselfe to a necessitie of setting downe every commoditie, and each particular circumstance in this manner ther∣to belonging. And this being as much as I thinke needfull to in∣sert, concerning this point in generall; I will proceed to the next and last, which is of Exchanges practised amongst Merchants in the art of Merchandizing.

CHAP. X.

Of Exchanges in generall, used by Merchants in this MAP of COMMERCE.

THE next and last generall point handled in this Map * 1.172 of Commerce, is Exchanges, which is observed to be the most mysterious part of the art of merchandizing and traffique, being not onely necessary for the know∣ledge of all Merchants, but also fit and usefull for such as negociate the publique affayres of Princes, and for such as sit at the sterne and government of the Common-wealth.

The necessitie and commodiousnesse of these exchanges in all * 1.173 traffique is doubtlesse very great, it having found in all Countries hitherto, such a generall allowance and approbation, and having for so many yeares stood uncontrouled, and is still preserved in its pristine splendor and integritie, shews evidently that at first the same was invented, and devised to a most excellent use and end, it being observed, that as money was devised, and first invented of the best, and purest mettals, to avoide the chargeable and trouble∣some carriage of commodities in trade, from one place to another; so was Exchanges of moneys, first also devised and found out to avoid the danger and adventure therof, and the chargeable and trouble∣some carriage of the same from one Citie or Country, to another.

I conceive it will not be materiall for me in this place to rec∣kon * 1.174 up the divers manner of exchanges, that have beene of old in use, and as yet are practised amongst traders and Merchants, throughout the world, nor yet here insert the forme of a bill of ex∣change, which in it selfe is accounted so noble and excellent a speci∣altie, that it carries with it not onely a kind of commanding power to pay, but is accordingly observed, satisfied, and discharged; though directed from the servant to the Master. Such a high e∣steeme being ever had to the qualitie thereof, that the proceedings and ceremonies used therein, are both singular and extraordina∣rie, and are not subject to any prescription by Law or otherwise, but subsisting meerly of a reverend custome, used and solemnized in and about the same. Neither yet will I here mention, the for∣malities and peculiar rites and customes that is onely found to ap∣pertaine thereunto, either in the punctuall presentment, intimation, acceptation, protest and returne, that is requisite, and necessarie, and thereto belonging; for it is to be understood, that he that doth take upon him, the title of a Merchant, and intendeth to make use of this Mappe, ought not to be ignorant in all the particular cir∣cumstances

of place and time, either of presentment, of payment, of •…•…w protests in default, and therewith know the common rates go∣•…•…rning, the causes of rising, the signes of falling of the said prizes, •…•…hich I here willingly omit, reserving the same to a more fit oc∣•…•…sion in the end of this Tract.

I have noted then the first use of this exchanging, and the excel∣•…•…ncie * 1.175 thereof, being preserved in times past in its true integritie •…•…d realitie; but those honest and innocent ends are vanished •…•…ith those innocent and honest dayes of our forefathers; for since •…•…rade by a more generall and universall Commerce and concurren∣•…•…ie of Nations, being growne to that height and perfection that •…•…ow it is, this faire and candid manner and use of exchanging, •…•…nd the most excellent commodities thereof, is in part given over; •…•…or the subtiltie of these times hath made an art and mysterie there∣•…•…f, which being reduced into heads and principals, hath proved 〈◊〉〈◊〉 many places so profitable and beneficiall to the studious therein, •…•…at it is now a received opinion, that the excellency thereof ex∣•…•…eeds the art of Merchandizing it selfe, and what inventions and •…•…eights to inrich themselves, their policies have brought to the •…•…iew of the world, I leave to the censure of Malines and others, •…•…hat have at large discoursed thereof, and described the same.

But where the ancient custome of Exchanges is still preserved •…•…nd maintained in its true and moderate use, and the crafts and •…•…buses thereof taken away and purged, it then appeares to be most •…•…xcellent, usefull, commodious, and beneficiall, as well to Kingdomes •…•…nd Cities in generall, as to private traders and Merchants in •…•…articular.

I have observed before that all waights and measures should be * 1.176 •…•…o the Merchant, as one and the selfe same waight and measure, •…•…bating or allowing, as the difference of the place requireth. •…•…o by this knowledge of exchanging should all Princes coines be •…•…rought into one and the selfe same qualitie, and paritie, and be •…•…o him, as one and the selfe same coine; for if the allay or Stan∣•…•…ard of one Princes moneys, be finer or better, than the coines and •…•…oneys used in that place where the Merchant resideth, and his •…•…onsequently courser or baser, the allowance given by exchange, •…•…ither in time, in price, or in both, makes up that disparitie, and •…•…etles thus a paritie between them, in drawing downe the one which is the finer, or raysing up the other, which is the baser, to an even scantling, time and price giving the allowance to rectifie both the one and the other, in equalitie and true value.

But so farre forth is this to bee understood, that this is truely seene practised where a course of quiet traffique is setled be∣tweene two Kingdomes and Nations, continuing in amitie and firme peace together: But where Princes either by the necessity of warres, or accidentall great disbursements, have occasion, or doe use to inhance the current rates of their monies in their pay∣ments,

or decrying them in the receipts, and that moneys by that ei∣ther casuall or constant course, become either more plentifull or more scarce then ordinary, then these rules of paritie holds not so justly; yet ever so as having in it's selfe a predominant power o∣ver the sudden affaires of Princes in matters of moneys, and with * 1.177 all expedition possible rectifying by a common knowledge and con∣sent of Exchangers and Bankers, the error or necessitie of Princes and their mints (who indeed are the Soveraignes of all coines and monies) so that though the Exchanger be not called to the Princes Counsell, nor yet admitted to give his opinion and verdict, either in his mint, or in the allay of his current monies; nor yet to his Procla∣mations and Decrees in the settling or rectifying of the goodnesse or current value thereof; yet the over-ruling part or Ballance is in his hand, and hee orders (by an invisible mystery of a visible Ex∣change) the allay, value, debasement or inhancement thereof, with due allowances, circumstances, places and times being rightly conside∣red, such as the necessity of the Countrey, the plenty or scarcitie of moneys, or other such like accidents may admit; regulating by this meanes tacitely in his Closet, the disorders committed by mints, and the oversights which the great affaires of Princes ne∣cessities plunge them in: and thus erecting to himselfe and others of his profession a certaine Rule and publique Ballance, that shall serve as an equall Parr and Standerd of all Princes coines whatso∣ever; thereby (as with a Touch-stone) taking the true valuation thereof; distinguishing still the finenesse and coursnesse according to the true worth and reall goodnes, altering and changing the price and rate thereof, as time, place and occasion may admit and give consent thereunto.

It now remaineth that I should shew this true Parr of Exchan∣ges, * 1.178 and how it may be found out and discerned in all Exchanges, experience hath made it evident to all the learned in this Art, that the true Royall Exchange for moneys by bils of Exchanges, is fairely and substantially grounded upon the weight, fines, and valuation of the moneys of each severall Countrey, according to the Parr which by Bankers is vnderstood to be value for value, as the truth thereof is seene in our Exchanges in England, which hath its ground upon the weight and fines of our starlin English moneys, the weight and fines of each other Countrey according to their severall Stan∣derds, proportionable in the valuation, being truely and justly made, giving also thereby the price of the Exchange, in and for every place according to the denomination of the money, and by which all Exchanges are or should bee in themselves framed, cast up and calculated: but besides this reall Parr of Exchange, there is also a Merchants Parr, which in due place I shall declare.

These Exchanges then in the generall propertie thereof, doe much differ both in the name and in the proportion betweene the gold and the silver observed in most Countries, and that to set

downe the Parr of Exchanges exactly, wee are to examine and compare, not onely our owne weight (as is aforesaid) with the weight of other Countries; but also the fines of our sterling Stan∣derds with the fines of the severall Standerds of the Coines of other Countries; and if wee bee found not to differ with them in the proportion betweene the gold and silver, then may our Exchan∣ges run at one and the same price and rate, both for gold and silver, taking the denomination according to the valuation of the moneys of each Countrey; and hereby shall wee find how much fine silver or gold our owne pound sterling containeth, and what quantity of other moneys either of France, Italy, Germany, Low Countreys, East∣land and elsewhere, wee are to have in exchange to countervaile the same, in the like weight and finenesse answerable to ours, bee it by the pound, doller, duccat, crowne, or any other imaginary or reall Coine, giving alwaies a value for value, and receiving the like, which is called by Exchangers (as I said before) the Parr; the which should in all Exchanges be so particularly knowne and con∣sidered, that as money is publica mensura, or the publique measure within the Realme betweene man and man, so should Exchanges thus made for these moneys, bee the publique measure betweene us and forreigne Countries, for all commodities either bought or sold, which therefore necessarily requireth a certainty in the cal∣culation of this Parr aforesaid, admitting neverthelesse (as I said before) an advantage upon the same upon good ground and just occasion on either side.

But as the price of Exchanges is at this day seene to be at the on∣ly * 1.179 and sole disposall of the Exchanger and Merchant, and that the same carrieth with it a predominancie in the buying and selling of their commodities as is observed especially beyond the Seas, so ought they carefully and circumspectly to consider the true na∣ture thereof, and not only looke upon the present object, which is to know how the price of the Exchange goeth at the time when they have occasion to deale therewith, but also truely to consider the Reality of this Parr, as is aforesaid, and as it is in it selfe really found to be, for it is observed both here in England, and abroad elsewhere beyond Seas, that those who altogether doe practise this exchanging, and deale for monies by exchange, have this ob∣servation therein; for they being Exchangers indeed, know per∣fectly the weight and fines both of our English and of forreign coines, and comparing the same together, make thereby to themselves the true calculation of the Par aforesaid, wherein they are not di∣rected by the current valuation of coines, which is often seene to be inconstant and uncertaine; nor by the tolleration of moneys, either here or beyond the Seas, going sometimes and in some places current above the said valuation, and this indeed is one of the most mysterious parts that is included in this Art of Exchan∣ging, which the Merchant ought considerately to learne and di∣stinguish.

And concluding here all further observations and cir∣cumstances practised in the generall Exchanges amongst Mer∣chants, I referre the Reader, for what is here purposely omitted, to the end of this Tract, where I have inserted what I have con∣ceived to be further needfull hereunto.

HAving then thus briefly run over the generall Heads vpon * 1.180 which I have grounded this MAPP OF COMMERCE and Trade, and noted first the division of the world, according to the received opinion of moderne Authors, and shewed how the same is generally bounded, and how distinguished into Empires, King∣domes, Provinces and Islands, and how againe these Countreys con∣taine certaine eminent and principall Cities and Townes, both ma∣ritime and Inland, which for their scituation, opulence and con∣course of Merchants, doe merit the name of the great and famous places of Commerce and traffique in the world: And having there∣in observed the commodities either naturally there growing or ar∣tificially there produced, whereby trade is in the said places both maintained and preserved; and therewithall noted the generall duty of Customes and Imposts leavied upon the said Commodities by the authority of Princes, and settled in all the said traffiquing Cities, and collected in certaine publique places from thence ter∣med Custome-houses, and then shewed the coines current in those se∣verall Cities and Kingdomes with the originall and present kinds thereof in sundry Countries, and then the reall and imaginary de∣nomination of species, wherein Merchants are observed to keepe their accompts in all the said places, with the weights and mea∣sures there extant and in use: and lastly the manner how the Par and prices of all Exchanges in the said places are settled, ordered, continued and maintained:

I will now proceed to the particulars thereof, making my en∣trance into AMERICA, as fu•…•…thest from us, and as least knowne to us, and first survey the Trade thereof, according to my proposed Method in this universall MAPPE OF COMMERCE: And from thence coa∣sting through Africa, Asia and Europe, conclude my Pilgrimage, and finish my MAPPE in the desired Port of the CITIE of LONDON.

Notes

• * 1.1

  The descripti∣on of Coun∣tries, condu∣ceth to the de∣scription of Cities and Towaes of traffiqu•…•….
• * 1.2

  Merchandizing the first Schoole of the present government of many Com∣monwealths.
• * 1.3

  Geographie de∣lightfull, pro∣fitable, and necessary to the Merchant.
• * 1.4

  The commo∣dity of this knowledge to Merchants.
• * 1.5

  Geographie demonstrated.
• * 1.6

  Maps and Cards.
• * 1.7

  The use of Maps and Cards in ge∣nerall. Meridian.
• * 1.8

  Parallel.
• * 1.9

  Poles Artick and Antartick.
• * 1.10

  •…•…quinoctiall.
• * 1.11

  Circles Ar∣tick and Ant∣artick.
• * 1.12

  2 Tropiques. 1 Cancer, 2 Capricorn.
• * 1.13

  Five Zones and where placed.
• * 1.14

  The division of the World into 4 parts.
• * 1.15

  Europe.
• * 1.16

  Long 2166. Miles. Lat. 2220. Miles.
• * 1.17

  Africa.
• * 1.18

  Long. 4425. Miles. Lati. 4020. Miles.
• * 1.19

  Asia.
• * 1.20

  Long. 4284. Lat. 4500.
• * 1.21

  America.
• * 1.22

  Long. 4264. Lat. 3210.
• * 1.23

  Latitude how accounted.
• * 1.24

  Dayes and nights differ according to the latitude.
• * 1.25

  Meridians and their vse.
• * 1.26

  Eclipse of the Moone when seene.
• * 1.27

  Eclipse of the Sunne when seene.
• * 1.28

  Latitude and longit. found out by the Me∣ridians.
• * 1.29

  To find out the longitude of a place.
• * 1.30

  To find out the latitude of a place.
• * 1.31

  To find out the distance of two places or Cities.
• * 1.32

  The distances of two places having diffe∣rent longi∣tudes and east and west la∣titude.
• * 1.33

  Merchandizing accounted an Art.
• * 1.34

  Merchandizing what.
• * 1.35

  The ma•…•…rials of Merchandi∣zing, are com∣modities and Moneys.
• * 1.36

  Commutati∣ons d•…•…stingui∣shed into 3. manners or kinds.
• * 1.37

  Bartering.
• * 1.38

  Bargaining.
• * 1.39

  Exchanging.
• * 1.40

  Exchanges drawn into a profitable Art, and the rea∣sons there of.
• * 1.41

  Things consi∣derable in Bar∣tering.
• * 1.42

  Things consi∣derable in Bar∣gaining.
• * 1.43

  Prncipally foure.
• * 1.44

  Things con∣siderable in Exchanging.
• * 1.45

  First duty to build, belon∣ging to the Shipwright.
• * 1.46

  Second dutie to furnish and set out, belon∣ging to Ow∣ners.
• * 1.47

  Third dutie to saile the Ship, belonging to the Pilot or Master.
• * 1.48

  Fourth duety of imploying this Ship, be∣longing to the Merchant.
• * 1.49

  A Merchant is to know the forme of a bill of Ex∣change.
• * 1.50

  Secondly, of all manner of protests and intimations. Thirdly, of charter parties.
• * 1.51

  Fourthly, of bills lading.
• * 1.52

  Fiftly, of Pol∣licies of assu∣rances.
• * 1.53

  Sixtly, of bils of debt and obligatory.
• * 1.54

  Seventhly, of an acquittance.
• * 1.55

  Eighthly of a letter attour∣ney.
• * 1.56

  Ninthly, In accompt-keep∣ing.
• * 1.57

  Tenthly, of A∣rithmetique.
• * 1.58

  Cities and Townes emi∣nent in trade, onely mentio∣ned in this Mappe.
• * 1.59

  Sixe parts re∣quired in a compleat City.
• * 1.60

  The Merchants purse and per∣son supplies many defects in a City of trade.
• * 1.61

  What Cities are found fit for trade and commerce.
• * 1.62

  Two sorts of Cities of traf∣fique.
• * 1.63

  Sea Towns of trade what.
• * 1.64

  Land Townes of trade what.
• * 1.65

  Townes of trade inmanu∣all arts and fa∣bricks.
• * 1.66

  The Cities of trade mentio∣ned in the Map of Commerce.
• * 1.67

  Five places in a City depen∣ding upon trade.
• * 1.68

  The Burse or Exchange.
• * 1.69

  The Custome house.
• * 1.70

  Magazines for commodities.
• * 1.71

  Kings Beame.
• * 1.72

  Met-house.
• * 1.73

  Customes pay∣able to Prin∣ces.
• * 1.74

  Custome hou∣ses.
• * 1.75

  Customes not alwaies alike in all places.
• * 1.76

  Custome due upon all com∣modities.
• * 1.77

  The originall of Customes.
• * 1.78

  The Merchant must learne what the Cu∣stomes are, and duly pay them.
• * 1.79

  Book of rates.
• * 1.80

  Custome dif∣fers in many respects.
• * 1.81

  In regard of place.
• * 1.82

  In regard of time.
• * 1.83

  In regard of Cities.
• * 1.84

  In regard of commodities.
• * 1.85

  In regard of weight.
• * 1.86

  Strictnes for not paying of Customes.
• * 1.87

  In Russia Den∣marke, Sueden.
• * 1.88

  In Spaines Do∣minions.
• * 1.89

  In England, Scotland and Ireland.
• * 1.90

  In Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands.
• * 1.91

  In Constantino∣ple, Sm•…•…a.
• * 1.92

  Impositions upon goods.
• * 1.93

  Fees to offi∣cers to be paid and knowne.
• * 1.94

  Silver & gold the most ex∣cellent of mettalls.
• * 1.95

  Coines made of Silver and Gold.
• * 1.96

  Bartering and exchanging before the use of gold and silver.
• * 1.97

  Severall sorts of moneys in use in severall Countries.
• * 1.98

  Moneys of le∣ther in S. Do∣minico, &c.
• * 1.99

  Moneys of shels in Tom∣buto.
• * 1.100

  Of Iron in Massa.
• * 1.101

  Of Lumaches in Congo.
• * 1.102

  Of Glasse beads in Me∣linda.
• * 1.103

  Of Salt and Paper in Ca∣thay.
• * 1.104

  Of Gansa in Pegu.
• * 1.105

  Of Almonds in Bengala.
• * 1.106

  Of sculls of dead men in Sumatra.
• * 1.107

  Of pepper and Cocos in India.
• * 1.108

  Moneys called by 3. severall names.
• * 1.109

  Moneta.
• * 1.110

  Nummus.
• * 1.111

  Pecunia.
• * 1.112

  Denarij.
• * 1.113

  Esterlin mony of England.
• * 1.114

  Coines deba∣sed or altered is a capitall crime.
• * 1.115

  Of Weights in generall.
• * 1.116

  Differences of Weights in all Countries.
• * 1.117

  The greatest denomination.
• * 1.118

  Second deno∣mination.
• * 1.119

  Third deno∣mination.
• * 1.120

  Least deno∣mination.
• * 1.121

  Hundreds, &c.
• * 1.122

  Cargos, &c.
• * 1.123

  Shipond, &c.
• * 1.124

  Lispond, &c.
• * 1.125

  Roves, &c.
• * 1.126

  Stone, &c.
• * 1.127

  Rotolos, &c.
• * 1.128

  The Merchant must be vers'd in all vveights.
• * 1.129

  Two manners of vveighing in use.
• * 1.130

  By Beame.
• * 1.131

  By Stalier.
• * 1.132

  To abbrevi∣ate the labour of vveighing.
• * 1.133

  Waights au∣thorised by the Magistrate.
• * 1.134

  Weigh-house.
• * 1.135

  Weigher svvorn.
• * 1.136

  By which weights the weight of this booke is cal∣culated.
• * 1.137

  A way to ac∣cord the weight of any two places.
• * 1.138

  Accounts ne∣cessary in the Mappe of Com∣merce.
• * 1.139

  Accounts kept diversly in di∣vers Cities & Countries.
• * 1.140

  The methode used in Ac∣counts is di∣vers.
• * 1.141

  The best is by way of Debitor and Creditor.
• * 1.142

  Foure rules re∣quired in an Accountant.
• * 1.143

  1 To write all, and all circum∣stances.
• * 1.144

  2 Not to suffer his accounts to out-run him.
• * 1.145

  3 To keep them true and per∣fect
• * 1.146

  That he be a good Arith∣metician.
• * 1.147

  Of Measures in generall.
• * 1.148

  False measure is punishable by the Magi∣strate.
• * 1.149

  Divers Coun∣tries have di∣vers Measure
• * 1.150

  Cain the first inventor of Weights and Measures, Io∣sephus.
• * 1.151

  Measures of solid bodies.
• * 1.152

  Measures of dry and liquid commodities.
• * 1.153

  All measures to the Mer∣chants must be as one Mea∣sure.
• * 1.154

  All Cities of trade have sworne and publique Mea∣sures.
• * 1.155

  An Instru∣ment to find out the agree∣ment of Mea∣sures in any •…•…wo Cities.

  [illustration]
• * 1.156

  Commodities in generall u∣sed in Merchan∣dizing, and the knowledge thereof.
• * 1.157

  All commodi∣ties are either naturall or artificiall.
• * 1.158

  Naturall com∣modities.
• * 1.159

  Artificiall commodities.
• * 1.160

  Staple commo∣dities.
• * 1.161

  De•…•…ying 〈◊〉〈◊〉.
• * 1.162

  All commodi∣ties are known by the senses.
• * 1.163

  A principall part of Mer∣chandise con∣sists in the knowledge of commodities.
• * 1.164

  A Merchant must be seene in all commo∣dities,
• * 1.165

  And in all trades.
• * 1.166

  A Merchant must know the value of all commodities, and all other circumstances thereof.
• * 1.167

  Merchants should reduce this know∣ledge of com∣modities to profit.
• * 1.168

  Merchants should know how to pre∣serve all com∣modities.
• * 1.169

  Merchants should know how to better their commo∣dities.
• * 1.170

  How a Mer∣chant may have knowledge in all commodi∣ties.
• * 1.171

  Merchants to write downe their observa∣tions upon commodities.
• * 1.172

  Exchanges in generall pra∣ctised by Mer∣chants in the Mappe of Com∣merce.
• * 1.173

  The necessity and commodi∣ousnes of Ex∣changes.
• * 1.174

  The excellen∣cie, &c. of a bill of Ex∣change.
• * 1.175

  The mysterie of exchanges re∣duced to profi∣table princi∣palls.
• * 1.176

  All Coines brought into one by Ex∣changes.
• * 1.177

  The Exchanger rectifieth the disorders of Mints, and the necessity of Princes.
• * 1.178

  How to find out the Parr of Exchanges.
• * 1.179

  The price of the Exchanges at the dispo∣sall of the Ex∣changer.
• * 1.180

  The particu∣lars observed in this Mappe of Commerce.