A general view of the writings of Linnæus: By Richard Pulteney, ...

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE WRITINGS OF THE LATE CELEBRATED LINNAEUS, &c.

CHARLES VON LINNÈ, the son of a Swedish divine, was born May 24, 1707, at Roeshult, in the province of Smaland, in Sweden; of which place his father had the cure, when this son was born, but was soon after preferred to the living of Stenbrihult, in the same province, where dying in 1748, at the age of 70, he was succeeded in his cure by another son. We are told, in the commemoration-speech on this celebrated man, de∣livered in his Swedish majesty's presence, before the royal academy of sciences at Stockholm, that the ancestors of this family took their sirnames of LINNAEUS, Lindelius, and Tiliander, from a large lime-tree, or linden-tree, yet standing on the farm where Linnaeus was born; and that this origin of sirnames, taken from natural objects, is not very uncommon in Sweden.

This eminent man, whose talents enabled him to reform the whole science of natural history, ac∣cumulated, very early in life, some of the highest honours that await the most successful proficients in medical science; since we find that he was made professor of physic and botany, in the university of Upsal, at the age of 34; and six years afterwards, physician to his sovereign, the late king Adolphus; who in the year 1753 honoured him still farther, by creating him knight of the order of the Polar Star. His honours did not terminate here, for in 1757 he was ennobled; and in 1776 the present king of Sweden accepted the resignation of his office, and rewarded his declining years by dou∣bling his pension, and by a liberal donation of landed property, settled on him and his family.

It seems probable, that his father's example first gave Linnaeus a taste for the study of nature; who, as he has himself informed us, cultivated, as his first amusement, a garden plentifully stored with plants. Young Linnaeus soon became acquainted with these, as well as the indigenous ones of his neighbourhood. Yet, from the straightness of his father's income, our young naturalist was on the point of being destined to a mechanical employ∣ment: fortunately, however, this design was over∣ruled. In 1717 he was sent to school at Wexsio, where, as his opportunities were enlarged, his progress in all his favourite pursuits was propor∣tionably extended. At this early period he paid attention to other branches of natural history; par∣ticularly to the knowledge of insects: in which, as is manifest from his oration on the subject, he must

very early have made a great proficiency, since we find that he was not less successful herein, than in that of plants, having given them an arrangement, and established such characters of distinction, as have been universally followed by succeeding ento∣mologists.

The first part of his academical education, Lin∣naeus received under professor Stobaeus, at Lund, in Scania, who favoured his inclinations to the study of natural history. After a residence of about a year, he removed in 1728 to Upsal. Here he soon contracted a close friendship with Artedi, a native of the province of Angermannia, who had already been four years a student in that university, and, like himself, had a strong bent to the study of na∣tural history in general, but particularly to Ich∣thyology. He was moreover well skilled in chemistry, and not unacquainted with botany, having been the inventor of that distinction in umbelliferous plants, arising from the differences of the involucrum. Emulation is the soul of improvement, and, heigh∣tened as it was in this instance by friendship, proved a most powerful incentive. These young men prosecuted their studies together with uncom∣mon vigor, mutually communicating their observa∣tions, and laying their plans, so as to assist each other in every branch of natural history and physic.

Soon after his residence at Upsal, our author was also happy enough to obtain the favour of several gentlemen of established character in litera∣ture. He was in a particular manner encouraged in the pursuit of his studies by the patronage of

Dr. Olaus Celsius, at that time professor of divinity, and the restorer of natural history in Sweden; since so distinguished for oriental learning, and more particularly for his Hierobotanicon, or Critical Dis∣sertations on the Plants mentioned in Scripture. This gentleman is said to have given LINNAEUS a large share of his esteem, and he was fortunate enough to obtain it very early after his removal to Upsal. He was at that time meditating his Hierobotanicon, and being struck with the diligence of Linnaeus, in describing the plants of the Upsal garden, and his extensive knowledge of their names, fortunately for him, at that time involved in difficulties, from the narrow circumstances of his parents, Celsius not only patronized him in a general way, but admitted him to his house, his table, and his library. Un∣der such encouragement, it is not strange that our author made a rapid progress, both in his studies, and the esteem of the professors: in fact, we have a very striking proof of his merit and attainments, inasmuch as we find, that after only two years re∣sidence, he was thought sufficiently qualified to give lectures occasionally from the botanic chair, in the room of professor Rudbeck.

In the year 1731, the royal academy of sciences at Upsal having for some time meditated the design of improving the natural history of Sweden, at the instance particularly of professors Celsius and Rud∣beck, deputed LINNAEUS to make the tour of Lap∣land, with the sole view of exploring the natural history of that arctic region; to which underta∣king, his reputation, already high as a naturalist, and the strength of his constitution, equally re∣commended

him. This tour had been made for the first time, with the same view, by the elder Rudbeck, in 1695, at the command of Charles XI; but unfortunately the whole fruit of that expedi∣tion, except two or three copies of the Campi Elysii, perished in the dreadful fire of Upsal, in 1702.

As this expedition could not take place till the succeeding summer, LINNAEUS spent his winter with his friends and relations in the south; and particu∣larly paid a visit, in January 1732, to his former preceptor Stobaeus, at Lund; whom he left in Fe∣bruary, to visit his native province of Smaland, and returned to Upsal about the middle of April, to prepare for his journey. He left Upsal the 13th of May, and took his route to Gevalia, or Gevels, the principal town of Gestricia, 45 miles distant from Upsal. Hence he travelled through Helsingland, into Medalpadia, where he made an excursion, and as∣cended a remarkable mountain, before he reached Hudwickswald, the chief town of Helsingland. From hence he went through Angermanland, to Hernosand, a sea-port on the Bothnic gulph, seventy miles dis∣tant from Hudwickswald. When he had proceeded thus far, he found it proper to retard his journey, as the spring was not sufficiently advanced; and took this opportunity of visiting those remarkable caverns on the summit of mount Skula, though at the hazard of his life.

When LINNAEUS arrived at Uma, in West Bothnia, about 96 miles from Hernosand, he quitted the public road, and took his course through the woods westward, in order first to traverse the most southern parts of Lapland. Being now come to

the country that was more particularly the object of his enquiries, equally a stranger to the language and to the manners of the people, and without any associate, he committed himself to the hospi∣tality of the inhabitants, and never failed to expe∣rience it fully. He speaks in several places, with peculiar satisfaction, of the innocence and simpli∣city of their lives, and their freedom from diseases. In this excursion, he reached the mountains to∣wards Norway, and, after encountering great hard∣ships, returned into West Bothnia, quite exhausted with fatigue. He seems to have been much struck with the singular use that the Laplanders make of the Pinguicula vulgaris, which we call Butterwort, or Yorkshire Sanicle: They receive the milk of the rein-deer upon the fresh leaves of this plant, which they immediately strain off, and set aside, till it becomes somewhat acescent, and the whole ac∣quires, in a day or two, a consistence equal to that of cream, without separating the serum; and by this method it becomes an agreeable food. When thus prepared, a small quantity of the same has the property of rennet, in producing the like change on fresh milk. But to return: Our tra∣veller next visited Pitha and Lula, upon the gulph of Bothnia, from which latter place he took again a western route, by proceeding up the river of that name, and visited the ruins of the temple of Jock∣mock, in Lula-Lapland or Lap-Mark; thence, he tra∣versed what is called the Lapland Desert, destitute of all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conve∣niences; inhabited only by a few straggling people, originally descended from the Finlanders, and who

settled in this country in remote ages, being en∣tirely a distinct people from the Laplanders. In this district he ascended a noted mountain called Wallevari, in speaking of which he has given us a pleasant relation of his finding a singular and beautiful new plant (Andromeda tetragona) when travelling within the arctic circle, with the sun in his view at midnight, in search of a Lapland hut. From hence he crossed the Lapland Alps into Finmark, and traverfed the shores of the North sea as far as Sallero.

These journies from Lula and Pitha, on the Bothnian gulph, to the north shore, were made on foot, and our traveller was attended by two Lap∣landers; one his interpreter, and the other his guide. He tells us that the vigour and strength of these two men, both old, and sufficiently loaded with his baggage, excited his admiration, since they appeared quite unhurt by their labour, while he himself, although young and robust, was fre∣quently quite exhausted. In this journey he was wont to sleep under the boat with which they forded the rivers, as a defence against rain, and the gnats, which in the Lapland summer are not less teazing than in the torrid zones. In de∣scending one of these rivers, he narrowly escaped perishing by the oversetting of the boat, and lost many of the natural productions which he had collected.

LINNAEUS thus spent the greater part of the summer in examining this arctic region, and those mountains, on which, four years afterwards, the

French philosophers secured immortal fame to Sir Isaac Newton. At length, after having suffered incredible fatigues and hardships, in climbing pre∣cipices, passing rivers in miserable boats, suffering repeated vicissitudes of extreme heat and cold, and not unfrequently hunger and thirst; he re∣turned to Tornoa in September. He did not take the same route from Tornoa as when he came into Lapland, having determined to visit, and examine, the country on the eastern side of the Bothnian gulph: his first stage, therefore, was to Ula, in East Bothnia; from thence to Old and New Carleby, 84 miles south from Ula. He continued his route through Wasa, Christianstedi, and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a small university in Fin∣land. Winter was now setting in apace, he there∣fore crossed the gulph by the island of Aland, and arrived at Upsal in November, after having per∣formed, and that mostly on foot, a journey of ten degrees of latitude in extent, exclusive of those de∣viations which such a design rendered necessary.

The result of this journey was not published till several years afterwards, during his residence in Holland. For the present he only gave in to the academy a Florula Lapponica, consisting of a very few pages in the Acta Upsaliensia for the years 1732 and 1734. In this little catalogue the plants are disposed according to the system which was after∣wards called the sexual; and which we should not have mentioned here, but to prove how early Lin∣naeus had laid the foundation of that method, which he afterwards wrought up to such perfection.

In 1733 he visited and examined the several mines in Sweden, and made himself so well ac∣quainted with mineralogy, and the docimastic art, that we find he was sufficiently qualified to give lectures on those subjects, upon his return to the university. The outlines of his system on mi∣neralogy appeared in the early editions of the Systema Naturae; but he did not exemplify the whole until the year 1768.

In the year 1734 LINNAEUS was sent by Baron Reuterholm, governor of Dalekarlia, with several other naturalists, into that province, to investigate the natural productions of that part of the Swedish dominions. Each gentleman had his particular department assigned; and they noted daily the ob∣servations made relating to geography, &c.; but particularly, and as their principal object, the eco∣nomical and natural history, and mineralogy. A full account of these observations was intended to have been published, but the design was laid aside. It was in this journey that our author firft laid the plan of an excellent institution, which was after∣wards executed in a certain degree at least, by himself, with the assistance of many of his pupils, and the result published under the title of Pan Suecus, in the second volume of the Amaenitates Academicae.

After the completion of this expedition, it ap∣pears that LINNAEUS resided for a time at Fahlun, the principal town in Dalekarlia; where he tells us that he taught mineralogy, and the docimastic art, and practised physic; and where he was very hospitably treated by Dr. More, the physician of

the place. It also appears, that he contracted at this time an intimacy with one of that gentleman's daughters, whom he married about five years afterwards, upon his settling as a physician at Stock∣holm.

In this journey he extended his travels quite across the Dalekarlian Alps into Norway; but we have no particular account of his discoveries in that kingdom. From its situation, however, in the same parallels of latitude and of longitude, nearly, with Sweden, as well as from the face of the country, but little variety could be expected; and from the Flora Norwegica of Bp. Gunner, since published, the vegetable productions of na∣ture appear to be nearly the same, except that the Norway coast abounds with fuci or sea-wracks, not known in the Baltic.

In the year 1735, LINNAEUS travelled over many other parts of Sweden, some parts of Denmark and Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefly resided until his return to Stockholm, about the year 1739. He here took his doctor's degree in physic, in June 1735. How clearly the great Boerhaave saw his merit will appear hereafter. On the present occasion he sustained a thesis under the title of HYPOTHESIS NOVA de febrium inter∣mittentium causa. It is an enquiry into the causes of the frequency of that distemper in Sweden, particularly in Upland, and the south-east parts of that kingdom; which he was inclined to attribute to a local cause, after the most minute scrutiny into the soil and situation of those places where this distemper was so remarkably prevalent and

obstinate; and finally proposes, Whether it might not be owing to the strong impreg∣nation of the water with argillaceous particles? Whether or not he afterwards adhered to this opinion, we are uncertain, as it is but justice to observe, that he did not republish this tract himself, since it was placed at the head of the first volume of the Amaenitates, printed at Ley∣den, as we believe, without his knowledge, by Dr. Peter Camper. In the mean time we may observe, that howsoever insufficient this hypothesis may be to solve the difficulties that have at∣tended the search into the remote causes of this disease; the advocates of the modern theory, re∣lating to it, may think the author's facts, of its frequency in low situations, confirm and illustrate in no small degree their own, according to which it is imputed to miasmata arising from moist and marshy ground.

In this year LINNAEUS also published the first sketch of his Systema Naturae, in a very com∣pendious way, and in the form of tables only, in twelve pages in folio. By this it appears, that he had at a very early period of his life (cer∣tainly before he was 24 years old) laid the basis of that great structure which he afterwards raised, not only to the increase of his own fame, but to that of natural science.

In 1736, LINNAEUS came into England, and vi∣sited Dr. Dillenius, the late learned professor at Oxford, whom he justly considered as one of the first botanists in Europe. He mentions with par∣ticular respect the civilities he received from him,

and the privileges he gave him of inspecting his own, and the Sherardian collections of plants. It is needless to say, that he visited Dr. Martyn, Mr. Rand, and Mr. Miller, and that he was in a more singular manner indebted to the friendship of Dr. Isaac Lawson. He also

contracted an intimate friendship with Mr. PETER COLLINSON, which was reciprocally increased by a multitude of good offices, and continued to the last without any diminution.

Dr. Boerhaave had furnished him with letters to our great naturalist Sir HANS SLOANE; but, it is with regret that we must ob∣serve, they did not procure him the reception which the warmth of his recommendation seemed to claim.

Dr. Boerhaave's letter to Sir Hans Sloane, on this occasion, is preserved in the British Museum, and runs thus—

LINNAEUS, qui has tibi dabit literas, est unice dignus te videre, unice dignus a te videri; qui vos videbit simul, videhit hominum par, cui simile vix dabit orbis.

—This encomium, howsoever quaintly expressed, yet was in some measure pro∣phetic of Linnaeus's future fame and greatness, and proves how intimately Boerhaave had penetrated into the genius and abilities of our author; and, strained as this parallel might be thought, it is likely however that the opening of the sexual system, so different from Ray's, by which Sir Hans Sloane had always known plants, and particularly the in∣novations, as they were then called, which LIN∣NAEUS had made in altering the names of so many genera, were rather the cause of that coolness with which he was received by our excellent naturalist.

Probably we have reason to regret this circum∣stance; for otherwise LINNAEUS might have obtained an establishment in England, as it has been thought he wished to have done; and doubtless his op∣portunities in this kingdom would have been much more favourable to his designs, than in those arctic regions where he spent the remainder of his days. In the mean time, we may justly infer the exalted idea that Linnaeus had of England, as a land eminently favourable to the improvement of science, from that compliment which, in a letter to a friend, he after∣wards paid to London, when, speaking of that city, he called it "Punctum saliens in vitello orbis." However, the English naturalists may now con∣gratulate themselves on having adopted a most excellent disciple of the Linnaean school; who, with an illustrious associate, shared the perils of a navigation round this globe, incited by thirst of knowledge alone; and who now enjoys that general esteem among us which is due to his extensive science, and to his singular liberality of mind and manners.

One of the most agreeable circumstances that happened to LINNAEUS, during his residence in Holland, arose from the patronage of Mr. Clifford, in whose house * 1.1he lived a considerable part of his time, being now as it were the child of fortune:—Exivi patriâ triginta sex nummis aureis dives—are his own words. With Mr. Clifford,

however, he enjoyed pleasures and privileges scarcely at that time to be met with elsewhere in the world; that of a garden excellently stored with the finest exotics, and a library furnished with almost every botanic author of note. How happy he found himself in this situation, those only who have felt the same kind of ardour can conceive.

Whilst in Holland, our author was recom∣mended by Boerhaave to fill the place, then va∣cant, of physician to the Dutch settlement at Suri∣nam; but he declined it, on account of his hav∣ing been educated in so opposite a climate. He recommended, however, to that department a young German physician of great merit, who had the misfortune to fall a sacrifice, partly to the climate, and partly perhaps to ill usage from the governor, in half a year after his arrival: A circumstance which LINNAEUS has very pathe∣tically lamented in the Flora Suecica, N^o 515, when treating of a plant to which he has given this gentleman's name.

Besides being favoured with the particular patronage and friendship of Boerhaave and Mr. Clifford, as is above-mentioned, our author had also the pleasure of being contemporary with, and of reckoning among the number of his friends, many other learned persons, who have since proved orna∣ments to their profession, and whose merit has most deservedly raised them to fame and honour. Among these we may properly mention Dr. John Burman, professor of botany at Amsterdam, whose name and family are well known in the republic of

letters, to whom our author dedicated his Biblio∣theca Botanica, having been greatly assisted in com∣piling that work, by the free access he had to that gentleman's excellent library; John Frederick Grono∣vius, of Leyden, editor of Clayton's Flora Virginica, and who very early adopted Linnaeus's system; Baron Van Swieten, late physician to the Empress Queen; Isaac Lawson, before-mentioned, after∣wards one of the physicians to the British army, who died much regretted at Oosterhout, in the year 1747, and from whom Linnaeus received singular and very important civilities; Kramer, since well known for an excellent treatise on the Doci∣mastic Art; Van Royen, botanic professor at Leyden; Liëberkun, of Berlin, famous for his skill in microscopical instruments and experiments. On this occasion it is not foreign to our plan to remark, that LINNAEUS, being present with several of these gentlemen, at a meeting when the latter was exhibiting the animalcules in semine masculino, openly declared his opinion, that these moleculae were not true animalcules; and he appears ever afterwards to have retained the same opinion re∣lating to them. To these may be added also the names of Albinus and Gaubius, and of others, were it requisite, to shew that our author's talents had very early rendered him conspicuous, and gained him the regard of all those who cultivated and patronized any branch of medical science; and to which, doubtless, the singular notice with which Boerhaave honoured him, did not a little contri∣bute.

Early in the year 1738, after LINNAEUS had left

Mr. Clifford, and, as it should seem, when he re∣sided with Van Royen, at Leyden, he had a long and dangerous fit of sickness; and upon his re∣covery, went to Paris, where he was properly entertained by the Jussieu's, at that time the first botanists in France. The opportunity this gave him of inspecting the Herbaria of Surian and Tour∣nefort, and those of the above-named gentlemen, afforded him great satisfaction. He had intended to have gone from thence into Germany, to visit Ludwig, and the celebrated HALLER, with whom he was in close correspondence; but he was not able to compleat this part of his intended route, and was obliged to return without this gratification.

Our author did not fail to avail himself of every advantage, that access to the several museums of this country afforded him, in every branch of natural history; and the number and importance of his publications, during this absence from his native country, sufficiently demonstrate that fund of knowledge which he must have imbibed before, and no less testify his extraordinary application. As these works laid the foundation of his future fame, and distinguished character, it will be incum∣bent on us to enumerate them, and give a brief account of each, as nearly as we can in the order of time in which they were published, before we accompany our author into Sweden; whither he returned to receive at length the reward of his merit.

The first of these was the SYSTEMA NATURAE, five regna tria Naturae systematicè proposita, per

classes, ordines, genera et species. Lugd. Bat. 1735. fol. pp. 14, in Latin, with the Swedish names annexed. As this is little more than the general outlines of his work, we shall reserve a fuller account of it till we come to the enlarged editions; in which it was fully exemplified by the introduction of the species.

FUNDAMENTA BOTANICA, quae majorum operum prodromi instar, theoriam Scientiae Botanices per breves Aphorismos tradunt. Amst. 1736, 12^o, pp. 35. The science of botany is in this work reduced to 365 aphorisms, or canons; and what Sethus Calvisius has said of Ptolemy's canon, mutatis mutandis, may be truly said of this work.—Omni auro pretiosior est, si dudum innotuisset, nec adeo in diversas sectas BOTA∣NICI abiisent, sed RES BOTANICAE, multo melius se haberent. It passed through several editions, and was published with a comment upon each aphorism in 1751, under the title of Philosophia Botanica, hereafter to be noticed.

BIBLIOTHECA BOTANICA, recensens libros plus mille de plantis hucusque editos, secundum Systema Auctorum naturale in classes, ordines, genera et species dispositos, additis editionis loco, tempore, forma, lingua. Amst. 1736, 12^o, pp. 153, and afterwards in 8^o, 1751, much enlarged. Botanic writers are in this work distributed into 16 classes, and it is by no means so unentertaining as might be expected from the general idea of a catalogue merely; as the author has frequently subjoined short characters of the books; and at the beginning of each class, as also in the orders or subdivisions, takes occasion to ex∣plain several of his terms used in his subsequent

writings. The preface contains a short history of the rise and progress of botany, and an acknow∣ledgment of the aid the author received in the compilation of this work, by his free access to the libraries of Mr. Sprekelsen at Hamburgh, Dr. Gro∣novius at Leyden, and particularly to those of his patron Mr. Clifford, and Dr. Burman, professor of botany at Amsterdam. Authors are classed in this work as follows:

• 1. Patres.
• 2. Commentatores.
• 3. Ichniographi.
• 4. Descriptores.
• 5. Monographi.
• 6. Curiosi.
• 7. Adonistae.
• 8. Floristae.
• 9. Peregrinatores.
• 10. Philosophi.
• 11. Systematici.
• 12. Nomenclatores.
• 13. Anatomici.
• 14. Hortulani.
• 15. Medici.
• 16. Anomali.

Subjoined to the last edition, we have a biogra∣phical table, exhibiting, in chronological order, the names of 139 botanic authors, from the time of Avicenna in 981, to Mr. Catesby in 1749, specifying, wherever it was possible, the year of their birth and death.

The flowering of the Plantain or Banana (Musa paradisiaca) this year, a thing not seen in Europe before more than thrice, in the garden of our au∣thor's patron M. Clifford, produced a compleat his∣tory of that plant from LINNAEUS'S pen, under the title of MUSA CLIFFORTIANA florens Hartecampi 1736 prope Harlemum. Lugd. Bat. 4^o, pp. 46. This piece is drawn up with the utmost precision, ac∣cording to the author's own Methodus Demonstrandi,

printed at the end of the Systema, and is a model for Monographers in this way. It is embellished with two plates, one representing the plant at large, the other, the parts of fructification separately.

GENERA PLANTARUM eorumque Characteres na∣turales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportio∣nem, omnium fructificationis partium. Lugd. Bat. 1737, 8^o, pp. 384. In this work, which exhibits what LINNAEUS has called the natural characters of the genera of plants, the classes are established upon the number or situation, or both conjointly, of the stamina, analogically considered as the male parts; and the orders or subdivisions of the classes, upon the pistils, analogous to the female parts: and the genera themselves from the agreement of all the parts of fructification compared with each other, as they agree in number, figure, situation, and pro∣portion. Hence the Linnaean characters of plants are applicable to any classical method founded on the parts of fructification alone, in which respect they have the advantage over those of all foregoing writers, and will probably stand firm, even al∣though the classical part of the system should be set aside. This is to be considered as one of the capital of Linnaeus's works. He tells us, that before the publication of the first edition, he had examined the characters of 8000 flowers. Those alone who have been accustomed to examine plants with a scientific view, can judge how arduous this undertaking must have been, and how great the application that he must necessarily have bestowed thereon, and that at an early period of life. Neither can any others sufficiently admire that accuracy with which

so great a number of flowers have been examined and compared, or see the aptitude of that assem∣blage of terms, which were invented by LINNAEUS, to express the different figure, situation, and pro∣portion, that exist in such a variety of subjects. If this was a proper place to expatiate upon this sub∣ject, by extending the idea to all that LINNAEUS has done, respecting every other part of plants, as considered in their specific distinctions, it must still farther exalt the merit of the author, and place him above all praise. At the latter end of this work was given the general plan of a system invented by LINNAEUS, and founded upon the different kinds, and arrangement, of the calix or cup of the flower, in plants: but this was omitted in the lat∣ter editions. Also a fragment of that primum et ultimum in botany, the natural method.

The first edition of this book contained 935 genera: the sixth and last, at Stockholm, in 1764, hath extended the number to 1239, and the Mantissae since to 1336. It has been thought by some, that the first idea of the sexual me∣thod was received from the writings of Jungius, a learned professor, first at Helmstadt, and after∣wards rector of the Gymnasium at Hamburgh, where he died in 1657, and whose works contain an uncommon display of original observations on the subject of plants; and prove him to have been a most accurate observer of nature. He has not only discriminated with peculiar nicety, the struc∣ture, and several parts of plants, but he hath also, with equal judgment, shewn the impropriety of many of the old generical and specifical distinc∣tions,

and has given rules for forming them anew, that have been of the greatest service to his suc∣cessors in the science, and of which they have not failed to avail themselves. But Jungius did not, however, exhibit any plan, by which it appears that he laid the basis either of the sexual, or any other system.

Before the conclusion of the same year (1737) our author published the COROLLARIUM GENERUM, cui accedit METHODUS SEXUALIS, in 8^o; the for∣mer contained only the addition of sixty new genera of plants; all which were taken into the next edition of the foregoing book; and the latter ex∣hibits a brief view of the sexual system, as far as respects the classes and orders. Neither would it be of importance to mention a small piece published in the same year, during his residence with Mr. Clif∣ford, under the title of VIRIDARIUM CLIFFORTIA∣NUM, were it not incumbent on us to mention all that came from our author's pen.

In this year, 1737, appeared likewise the result of the Lapland expedition, as far, at least, as re∣lates to the plants of that country; for we are now deprived of the expectation of ever seeing the Lachesis Lapponica, intended to complete our au∣thor's history of this country through all its parts. This volume includes the plants of a tract of country not less than 100 Swedish miles (nearly equal to 600 English) in length, and 50 in breadth, under the title of FLORA LAPPONICA, exhibens Plan∣tas per Lapponiam crescentes, secundum Systema sexuale, collectas in itinere impensis Societatis regiae Litterariae et Scientiarum Sueciae An. 1732 instituto, additis syno∣nymis,

et locis natalibus omnium, descriptionibus et figuris rariorum, viribus medicatis et oeconomicis pluri∣marum. Amst. 1737, 8^o, pp. 372, tab. 12. This work is much more than a bare enumeration of synonyms; the preface contains an account of the author's journey, and his acknowledgment to the members of a literary society, by whose munifi∣cence this work was adorned with the plates, on which are engraven 58 of the more rare, and chiefly alpine plants. This is preceded by ad∣ditional Prolegomena, in which the geographic and natural description of the country is set forth, and the difference between the Alps and the Desart dis∣tinctly marked; concluding with some observations on alpine plants in general. The work is interspersed with many very curious observations relating to the inhabitants, their simplicity of life and man∣ners, their diseases; the animals of the country; the medical and economical uses of many of the plants; descriptions at large of such as were not well described before; and critical observations, in a botanical way, upon others.

To instance briefly a few only of our author's observations. Under

N^o 16. The dropsy very frequent in East Both∣nia; owing to the intemperate use of spirits.

N^o 22. The down of the Cotton Grass, used for bedding among the poor, instead of feathers.

N^o 62. Astonishing growth of the Great Plantain. The spikes 4 or 5 feet high. In other situations, the whole plant not an inch.

N^o 80. The wretched inhabitants sometimes obliged to make bread of the roots of the Marsh

Trefoil. The scurvy unknown in Lapland; although vegetable productions have scarcely any share in the Lapland diet, which is almost wholly the recent flesh of the rein-deer: a fact which Sir John Pringle has made good use of, among others, in his dis∣course "On the means of preserving the health of "mariners."

N^o 101. Symptoms of the Colica Lapponica, (Sauvag. Nosol. II. p. 103) a most excruciating disease, for which the Laplanders use the root of Angelica.

N^o 103. The deleterious effects of the Cicuta virosa, Water Hemlock, largely discussed.

N^o 136. The pernicious effects of the Anthericum ossifragum, Lancashire Asphodel, on sheep.

N^o 143, 144, 145. Manifold uses of the black and red Whortleberries, and Cranberries.

N^o 160. Various economical uses of the Andro∣meda polifolia, Marsn Cistus.

N^o 200. Observations on the gout, whether owing to the use of spirituous and fermented liquors. Reflections on the health and vigour of the Lap∣landers.

N^o 311. The Achillaea Millefolium, Yarrow, used sometimes in Dalekarlia instead of hops, and said to render the drink very intoxicating.

N^o 328. Singular economical uses of the Carices, or Sedges, amongst the Laplanders.

N^o 341, 342. Uses of the Birch-tree; and the Dwarf Birch, beyond almost all others. The thick woods of this tree frequently set on fire by light∣ning, and consumed for miles. Moxa of the Lap∣landers

prepared from a part of this tree: their universal remedy in painful diseases.

N^o 345. The leaves of Sparganium natans, Bur∣reed, preferred by horned cattle and horses to other grass. Observations on the immense number of Water Fowl, and Waders, in Lapland, and on their migration.

N^o 395. Uses of the Polytrichum commune, or Golden Maidenhair; and N^o 415, those of the Sphagnum Palustre, or Bog-Moss, among the Lap∣land women; to which he has annexed some curious observations relating to the state of the menstrual evacuations in the sex, in those northern regions.

N^o 437. Observations on the rein-deer, and their food, the Lichen rangiferinus.

N^o 445. On the Lichen islandicus, on which M. Scopoli has of late written largely.

N^o 517. In treating on the Agarics, he recites the baneful effects of the Oestrus Tarandi, Gad-fly, on the whole economy of the rein-deer. More largely discussed in the Amoenitates.—But to re∣turn:

In this work, moreover, our author has first exemplified, what he ever afterwards laboured to bring to its greatest perfection, in all his writings, and particularly in the Species Plantarum, a work not published till sixteen years afterwards, the spe∣cific names of plants, not taken, as had been custom∣ary with former authors, from the colour of the flower, relative size of the plant, smell, taste, place of growth, time of flowering, name of the dis∣coverer, virtues, uses, duration; none of which are

sufficiently permanent: but from those invariable and essential parts, which fully and clearly distin∣guish each species under the same genus, and in the compass of ten or twelve words convey such an idea of the plant intended, as will more effec∣tually distinguish it, than the verbose descriptions of many foregoing authors. LINNAEUS has taken in∣credible pains with this part of his system, which is certainly as difficult as any that leads to the perfection of the science, since it depends upon a nice inspection of every species belonging to each genus, and of every actual variety belonging to each species.

The plants of Lapland are but few, not amount∣ing to more than 537 species; and in this number are included upwards of an hundred discovered by Linnaeus in this journey, not known to be natives of Sweden before; and of which some were non∣descripts: among the former, there seems to be a propriety in mentioning specially the Campanula serpyllifolia, or thyme-leaved Bell-flower, which, as it turned out to be a new genus, was appropriated to our author by Dr. J. Gronovius, and engraved in this volume by the name of LINNAEA.

No part of LINNAEUS'S writings had given more offence to the contemporary botanists, than the liberty he had taken in changing the generic names of plants, which had necessarily taken place in many instances, from the rules established by the Fundamenta. Even DILLENIUS was by no means reconciled to this innovation. LINNAEUS, who had entertained an high opinion of our English pro∣fessor, having said of him—nullus est in Anglia qui

genera curat, vel intelligit praeterquam Dillenius—probably, therefore, dedicated to him his next publication, the CRITICA BOTANICA, in qua No∣mina Plantarum generica, et specifica, et variantia exa∣mini subjiciuntur, selectiora confirmantur, indigna re∣jiciuntur, simulque doctrina circa Denominationem Plan∣tarum traditur. Lugd. Bat. 1737, 8^o, pp. 270. This is a large comment upon the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th parts of the Fundamenta, from Aphorism 210 to 324 inclusive; in which he has amply explained all his reasons for these alterations; and there were at that time many who saw the justice of his remarks. Ludwig says, when speaking of this work—"rigo∣rosus quidem, sed saepissime faelix botanicorum censor est." The work is rendered very applicable to use, by two excellent indexes.

LINNAEUS printed, at the end of this volume, Discursus de introducenda in scholas et gymnasia Histo∣riae naturalis lectione, pp. 24, written by Dr. Bro∣wallius, who afterwards defended very ably the system of Linnaeus against professor Siegesbeck of Petersburgh.

In 1737 was likewise published the most splendid of all our author's writings, the Hortus Cliffortianus Plantas exhibens quas in Hortis tam vivis quam siccis, Hartecampi in Hollandia, coluit Vir Nob. et Gen. Geor∣gius Clifford, J. U. D. reductis varietatibus ad species, speciebus ad genera, generibus ad classes, adjectis locis plantarum natalibus, differentiisque specierum. Amst. 1737, fol. pp. 501, t. 32. As this book was printed at the expence of Mr. Clifford, it is orna∣mented with an elegant frontispiece, and adorned with some of the finest engravings of plants that

are extant, the drawings for which were made with all possible accuracy by the late Mr. Ehret. By the munificence of Mr. Clifford, many of the cele∣brated botanists received a present of this book. How rich this garden was in plants, the book will testify. They are arranged, as in all our author's succeeding works, in the sexual method; the varie∣ties are reduced to their several species, the natural places of the plants are particularly noticed, many new genera, and species under former genera, are introduced, with their descriptions at large, and curious observations interspersed throughout the whole. And, what must have been more especi∣ally acceptable to those who began to relish our author's system, was, the farther exemplification of his specific characters, which the vast number of plants included in this work necessarily led to. Add to this, that from the copious number of synonyms, it is almost a pinax of every plant therein mentioned; and on this account, as well as others, will yet retain its value, though superseded in a great degree by the Species Plantarum. To the curious and critical botanist also it is no small satisfaction now, to see in this volume, compared with later works, the progress of the author's own knowledge, manifest by the removes and altera∣tions that better information enabled him to make. In the dedication our author enumerates those patrons who have cultivated botanical gar∣dens so greatly to the emolument of the science: he gives a list of the Cliffortian library, and an∣nexes two tables, with explanations of all the variety of leaves, according to his new method

of defining them. This addition was very neces∣sary, as the number of plants synonymed in this volume amounts to near 2,500. We conclude with Gesner's opinion of this work, in a letter to the celebrated Haller:

Opus sane egregium et acerrimi judicii, nec minoris eruditionis, quo dif∣ficulter botanicus carebit.—Mihi perplacet ab eo in nominibus specierum notas earum essentiales exhiberi, quod ante vix quisquam botanicus recte praestitit.

The last book which LINNAEUS published of his own, during his stay in Holland, was the CLASSES PLANTARUM, seu Systemata Plantarum om∣nia a fructificatione desumta, quorum 16 universalia et 13 partialia, compendiose proposita secundum classes, ordines et nomina generica, cum clave cujusvis methodi et synonymis genericis. Lugd. Bat. 1738, pp. 656. This work is a very large illustration of the second part of the Fundamenta, from aphorism 53 to 78, and contains a compendious and useful view of all the systems of botany, or methods of classing plants, both general and partial, from Caesalpinus, in 1583, who is considered as the inventor, to LINNAEUS himself in 1735. To the generical name in every system, he has added that by which it stands in his own, which is a great advantage in the use of this book. A new edition, with the requisite additions, would be very acceptable to the public even now. The systems at large that are displayed in this book, are those of Caesal∣pinus, Morison, Ray, Knaut, Herman, and Boerhaave, founded on the fruit: Rivinus, Ruppius, Ludwig, and Knaut, on the number of petals in the flower: Tournefort and Pontedera, on the figure of the

same: and of Magnol and LINNAEUS, on the cup of the flower. After these follow LINNAEUS'S sexual system, and his fragments of the natural method. We say nothing of the arrangement of particular classes, such are the composite flowers, the umbelliferous plants, the graminaceous, the ferns, &c. A very large index, referring to every genus in each system, concludes the volume.

LINNAEUS, whilst in Holland, sustained a very severe loss in the premature death of his friend and fellow student Artedi; with whom, as has been before observed, he had contracted the firmest friendship whilst they resided at Upsal; insomuch that they had, in case of death, mutually be∣queathed to each other their manuscripts and collections in natural history. Artedi had been particularly assiduous in arranging anew, and describing all such fishes as had fallen under his own inspection; and had taken a voyage to Eng∣land in 1734, to give more perfection to his plan. Our author, after his death, procured, though with some difficulty, all Artedi's papers, and put the finishing hand to them, and published them at Leyden in 1738, in octavo, under the title of Petri Artedi, Sueci Medici, ICHTHYOLOGIA: sive opera omnia de piscibus, scilicet Bibliotheca Ichthyo∣logica; Philosophia Ichthyologica; Genera Piscium; Synonymia Specierum; Descriptiones Specierum. Om∣nia in hoc genere perfectiora quam antea ulla. Post∣huma vindicavit, recognovit, cooptavit, et edidit, Caro∣lus LINNAEUS. In this work fishes are arranged in an entire new method, and which our author adopted with little or no variation, and continued

through all the former editions of his System to the tenth; when he removed the cetaceous order into the class of the mammalia; and instead of re∣taining in the remaining orders the distinctions arising from the bony or cartilaginous texture of the fins; he established them on the situation of the ventral fins, which he considers as analogous to the feet in other animals, as they are placed either before, underneath, or behind the pectoral fins.

In this work Artedi has exhibited an instance of genius, labour, and application, that cannot fail to excite the greatest regret at his early death. He has given to Ichthyology that degree of perfec∣tion, which his friend afterwards extended through all the animal kingdom, and which must remain a lasting monument of his abilities. In parti∣cular, his descriptions of the indigenous fishes of Sweden, are scientific to a degree that had never before been seen; and we cannot sufficiently ad∣mire the pains he must have taken to extricate the synonyms from every author on the subject. Artedi, after his return from England, was re∣tained, at the recommendation of LINNAEUS, by Seba of Amsterdam, to complete that part of his Thesaurus relating to fishes, and was unfortunately drowned in one of the canals in that city. LIN∣NAEUS, in a short account of the author's life, has lamented his untimely decease, in a manner which does no less honour to his friend than to his own feelings.

We must now accompany our author into Sweden, whither he returned about the latter end

of the year 1738, or the beginning of the next, and settled as a physician at Stockholm, where he seems to have met with considerable opposition, and was oppressed with many difficulties; all of which at length he overcame, and got into ex∣tensive practice; and, soon after his settlement, married the lady before spoken of. By the interest of Count Tessin, who was afterwards his great patron, and even procured medals to be struck in honour of him, he obtained the rank of physician to the fleet, and a stipend from the citizens for giving lectures in botany. And what at this time especially was highly favourable to the advancement of his character and fame, by giving him an opportunity of displaying his abilities, was the establishment of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm; of which LIN∣NAEUS was constituted the first president, and to which establishment the king granted several pri∣vileges, particularly that of free postage to all pa∣pers directed to the secretary. By the rules of the academy, the president held his place but three months, at the expiration of which, he made his ORATIO de memorabilibus in Insectis, Oct. 3, 1739; in which he endeavours to excite an atten∣tion and enquiry into the knowledge of insects, by displaying the many singular phaenomena that occur in contemplating the nature of those animals, and by pointing out, in a variety of instances, their usefulness to mankind in particular, and to the economy of nature in general.

During all this time, however, LINNAEUS appears to have had his eye upon the botanic and medical

chair at Upsal, at this time occupied by Rudbeck, who was far advanced in life. We learn in∣deed that he was so intent on pursuing, and per∣fecting, his great designs in the advancement of his favourite study of nature, that he had deter∣mined, if he failed in procuring the professorship at Upsal, to accept the offer that had been made to him by Haller, of filling the botanic chair at Gottingen. However, in course of time, he obtained his wish. In the year 1741, upon the re∣signation of Roberg, he was constituted joint pro∣fessor of physic, and physician to the king, with Rosen, who had been appointed in the preceding year on the death of Rudbeck. These two col∣leagues agreed to divide the medical departments between them; and their choice was confirmed by the university. Rosen took anatomy, physiology, pathology, and the therapeutic part. LINNAEUS, natural history, botany materia medica, the dietetic part, and the diagnosis morborum.

During the interval of his removal from Stock∣holm to Upsal, in consequence of this appointment, our professor was deputed by the states of the kingdom, to make a tour to the islands of Oëland and Gothland, in the Baltic, attended by six of the pupils, commissioned to make such enquiries as might tend to improve agriculture, and arts, in the kingdom; to which the Swedish nation had for some time paid a particular attention; awakened, as it were, by the desolating wars of Charles the XIIth, to extend their commerce, and cultivate the arts of peace. The result of this journey was very successful, and proved fully satisfactory to

the States, and was afterwards communicated to the public.

LINNAEUS, on his return, entered upon the pro∣fessorship, and pronounced before the university his ORATION de Peregrinationum intra Patriam neces∣sitate, Oct. 17, 1741; in which he forcibly displays the usefulness of such excursions, by pointing out to the students that vast field of objects which their country held out to their cultivation; whether in geography, physics, mineralogy, botany, zoology, or economics; and by shewing the benefit that must accrue to themselves and their country as re∣wards to their diligence. That animated spirit which runs through the whole of this composition, renders it one of the most pleasing and instructive of all our author's productions. That intimate knowledge which LINNAEUS himself had acquired of his own country by his repeated travels (fraught as he was too with every requisite for making use∣ful observations) enabled him to point out with the utmost precision the most proper objects of investigation, in every part of nature; and his love to his country gave a zeal to his wishes, that shewed him on this occasion to great advan∣tage; not to add, the aid arising from that self∣congratulation, which he must feel, having just gained, by his late appointment, the summit of his wishes.

The ITER OELANDICUM ET GOTLANDICUM, in 8^o, pp. 284, were printed at Stockholm, in 1745, in the Swedish language; as was also the ITER SCANICUM, in 1751, 8^o, pp. 435. We cannot help regretting that these Itinera have not made

their appearance in the English, or some other language besides that of Sweden; for though, in a country cultivated like ours, many hints, perhaps, might not be drawn from these volumes, of real importance to agriculture here; yet they are so replete with curious and philosophical observa∣tions, that they could not fail to be an acceptable present to the public; as the general scope of these volumes is to adapt natural history to eco∣nomical purposes. In the Iter Gothlandicum et Oelandicum, LINNAEUS'S instructions were di∣rected principally to these particulars:—He was to endeavour to find some kind of earth proper for making pottery-ware in imitation of the porcelaine of China: he was to notice every production of nature that might supersede the necessity of the importation of any article, used either in physic or manufactures: and in fine, he was to have a regard to every part of natural history. In the execution of his plan, however, he went much farther than his commis∣sion extended, having interspersed a number of observations relating to the antiquities of these islands, the mechanic arts, to the manners of the people, their fishery, and various other articles. He was, as might reasonably be expected, un∣successful in the first part of his commission, since the two islands are almost entirely com∣posed of limestone, or coral rocks, which abound in a remarkable degree in the Baltic.

As a proof of the little attention that had been paid to natural history in Sweden, we may observe,

that our author in this journey discovered above an hundred plants, which before were not known to be indigenous; many of which were such as are used in physic, and in dyeing. He pointed out to the natives several plants of great use in rustic economy, and shewed them the advantage of planting the Sea-reed grass (Arundo arenaria) to arrest the sand, and form soil on the shores; to which it is extremely well adapted by the length of the roots. In the ITER OELANDICUM there occurs a curious remark in vegetation, confirming the annual increase of the wood in an oak-tree, in which was perfectly distinguished the hard winters of 1578, 1687, and 1709, by the narrow∣ness of the circles in those years. He describes the process for making tar, as practised by these islanders; and further, intersperses many observa∣tions relating to mineralogy in general; to iron in particular, with which Sweden abounds; de∣scribes the iron mountain Taberg, (See Phil. Transact. vol. xlix. p. 30.) the alum mines of Mockleby; the Poma chrystallina, or aëtites marmo∣reus, which illustrates the formation of chrys∣tals, &c.

In the ITER SCANICUM, performed in 1749, our author treats largely on the culture of marshy grounds; on the useful and noxious herbs, for instance, the Stakan, supposed to be the Phellan∣drium aquaticum, or Water Hemlock, which it is believed renders horses that eat it paralytic; on the Gramen Mannae, or Festuca fluitans, the seeds of which are so particularly useful in fattening geese; on the Agaricus muscarius, &c.

In 1743, on occasion of conferring a degree on Dr. J. Westman, the professor delivered his third ORATION de Telluris habitabilis incremento: an elaborate and ingenious defence of that hypo∣thesis, which Sir Isaac Newton, and several other philosophers, have inclined to,

That the pro∣portion of water on the globe of this earth is constantly decreasing.

This leads the pro∣fessor also to discuss the 132d section of the Philosophia—Initio rerum ex omni specie viventium unicum sexus par creatum fuisse suadet ratio.—The visible recession of the waters of the sea in divers parts of the earth, particularly apparent in the Baltic, had inclined the Swedish philosophers to this opinion of Sir Isaac Newton's. The position of the Philosophia, he thinks naturally deducible from the foregoing hypothesis, and necessarily so from the Mosaic history. In solving the difficul∣ties attending the latter part of the hypothesis, he is led by his subject to enter largely into a part of the economy of nature, which renders his dis∣course highly interesting, independently of ali con∣jectures relating to the main argument: this re∣lates to the various ways in which vegetables are disseminated, and by which they find their way to every part of the globe. To this effect winds, rain, rivers, the sea, animals, &c. are all subser∣vient, as well as the various structure and pro∣perties of the seeds themselves; in illustrating which last affair the professor has taken great pains, and constructed tables of the genera, founded on these different properties of the seeds. In the introduction to this oration, our author turns the

attention of his readers to some of the more re∣markable discoveries that had lately been made in natural history and philosophy; such were those relating to the Polype, Rattlesnake, and the Senega, &c.; among others also, he mentions a remarkable fact that had been communicated by Sauvages of Montpelier, respecting the effect of the berries of the Coriaria myrtifolia, Spec. pl. 1467 (Myrtle-leaved Sumach) in occasioning instant epilepsy.

The three orations of LINNAEUS are subjoined to the second volume of the Amoenitates Academicae, printed in 1752.

In 1745, the professor published his FLORA SUECICA exhibens Plantas per Regnum Sueciae cres∣centes, systematice cum differentiis specierum, synonymis autorum, nominibus incolarum, solo locorum, usu Pharmacopoeorum, 8^o, Holm. pp. 392, 1745; and again, with many additions, in 1755, pp. 464. The first edition contains 1140 plants. In the second they are increased, by his own, and the discoveries of his pupils, to 1296. No generical characters are introduced into this work, but re∣ferences made to them as they stand in the Genera Plantarum, before spoken of. A number of select synonyma is added to his own specific name, under each plant; and not only the Swedish names in general, but the provincial ones: highly worthy this of imitation in works of this kind, and quite ne∣cessary in so extensive a kingdom. Many of the rare plants are described at large, and botanical criticisms added to many others. In the last edi∣tion the author has interspersed a great number

of curious observations relating to the economical and medical uses of the plants; and has particu∣larly noted those that are capable of being ap∣plied to the purposes of dyeing. The author moreover never fails to mention euporistic medi∣cines, which he seems to think, perhaps very justly, have not been attended to by physicians as they deserve. The plan of this work has been a pattern for all succeeding writers of local cata∣logues, more especially those who have followed the Linnaean system, and has been very little im∣proved by any; perhaps excelled by none. The plants of Lapland are all included in this work; and the preface, besides the account of Swedish authors on botany, contains a curious division of the several provinces of the kingdom, in respect to their different soils and situation, as adapted to particular plants, specifying under each pro∣vince the plants found therein.

In 1746 appeared the FAUNA SUECICA, sistens Animalia Sueciae Regni: Mammalia, Aves, Amphi∣bia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes; distributa per classes et ordines, genera et species, &c. Stockholm 1746, 8^o; and again, greatly augmented, in 1761, pp. 556. The first edition contained 1350 subjects, the latter comprehends not less than 2266. Neither in this work are any classical, ordinal, or generical notes given at large. The world had never seen so compendious, and it may be truly said, at the same time, so complete a zoology before. Here, as in plants, the author has given to each animal a new specific name, expressive, as far as possible, of its essential character. The synonyms are added,

or referred to, from almost every author on the subject, and almost every animal is moreover com∣pendiously described. Insects make a very consi∣derable part of this catalogue; near 1700 species, all found in that kingdom, are enumerated, distin∣guished, and methodized, in a manner entirely new, and which has been adopted by nearly every writer on the subject since. We shall speak more fully of the classification in the abstract intended to be given of the Systema Naturae. A compendious manual of English Zoology on this plan, is a work much wanted; though we think it could not fail to enhance its value, if the tables of the genera were prefixed to each class, and the characters to each genus, as in the System of our author. Two plates, of some of the rarer birds chiefly, accom∣pany this volume, on which are explained the technical terms used in ornithology. The number of each class of animals stands thus:

1. Mammalia—

53

2. Aves—

195

3. Amphibia—

25

4. Pisces—

77

5. Insecta—

1691

6. Vermes—

198.

An accident having thrown into the hands of the professor an Herbarium, consisting of five large volumes of plants, he discovered that it was the collection of the famous Dr. Paul Herman, which had been made in the island of Zeylon, by that gentleman, at the expence of the Dutch East India Company. This Herbarium had been lost for up∣wards of half a century, until chance threw it into the hands of M. Gunther, apothecary to the king of Denmark, who sent it to LINNAEUS, re∣questing

the professor to examine it, and affix the names to the plants of this superb collection. Its great value, as being collected by so eminent a man, induced our author to examine the whole with great attention; and he was thereby enabled to form many new genera, and settle many doubt∣ful species. He published the result of his la∣bour under the title of FLORA ZEYLANICA, sistens Plantas indicas Zeylonae Insulae, quae olim 1670—1677 lectae fuere, à Paulo Hermanno Professore Botan. Ley∣densi; demum post 70 annos ab A. Gunthero orbi redditae. Holm. 1747, 8^o, pp. 254, tab. 4.

This work is yet of use as a pinax of these plants, and as a Linnaean catalogue of Burman's Thesaurus Zeylanicus, published in 1738, and illus∣trated with the figures of upwards of 200 of these plants. Many of the rare species are described, and a very copious number of synonyms added to several of the East Indian plants. The Her∣barium consisted of about 660 plants, of which the true places in the system are assigned to up∣wards of 400, and the remainder were too im∣perfect to admit of distinction. This volume is rendered valuable by a concise history of the pro∣gress of botany, from the restoration of learning in the 16th century; a natural history of the island, and its general produce; the life of Dr. Herman; a short account of J. Hartog, who was sent by Dr. Sherard to make collections in this island; and of Burman's Thesaurus Zeylanicus. LINNAEUS authenticates this Herbarium to have been Herman's, by shewing that the numbers, and

the plants, answer to his Museum Zeylanicum, pub∣lished in 1717.

We now see LINNAEUS fixed in the situation that was so well adapted to his character, his taste, and abilities, and which seems to have been the object of his ambition, and center of his hopes. Soon after his establishment, he laboured to get the Academical Garden, which had been founded in 1657, put on a better footing, and very soon effected it; procuring also a house to be built for the residence of the professor. The whole had been in ruin ever since the fire in 1702, and at the time Linnaeus was appointed professor of botany, the garden did not contain above 50 plants that were exotic. His correspondence with the first botanists in Europe, soon supplied him with great variety. He received Indian plants from Jussieu of Paris, and from Van Royen of Leyden; European plants from Haller and Ludwig; American plants from the late Mr. Collinson, Mr. Catesby, and others; and variety of annuals from Dillenius: in short, how much the garden owed to his diligence and care, in a few years, may be seen by the catalogue published under the title of HORTUS UPSALIENSIS exhibens Plantas exoticas horto Upsaliensis Academiae a sese (Linnaeo) illatas ab anno 1742, in annum 1748, additis, differentiis synonymis, habitationibus, hospitiis, rariorumque descriptionibus, in gratiam studiosae ju∣ventutis. Holm. 1748, 8^o, pp. 306, tab. 3. By this catalogue it appears that the professor had introduced 1100 species, exclusive of all the Swedish plants, and of varieties; which latter, in ordinary gardens, amount not unfrequently

to one third of the whole number. The preface contains a curious history of the cli∣mate at Upsal, and the progress of the seasons through the whole year. From these observa∣tions we learn, that the greatest degree of heat, in the summer of 1747, at Upsal, was on the second day of July, when Celsius's thermometer stood at 30 degrees above 0; that the greatest degree of cold, on the 25th of January 1740, was 28 de∣grees below 0. In this thermometer the freezing point is 0, and boiling water 100. From seven years observations on the leafing of the oak, it was found never to push before the 6th of May, or to be retarded beyond the 22d.

About this period it was, that LINNAEUS made a remarkable discovery, relating to the generation of pearls in the river Pearl-Muscle (Mya Margaritifera, Syst. 1112.) This shell-fish must not be confounded with what is called the Mother of Pearl Shell, as that belongs to another genus, is a sea-shell, and an inhabitant of the warmer countries only. The shell-fish in question is found in rivers, in all the northern parts of the world; in Norway and Sweden it abounds; it is found in the rivers of the county of Tyrone in Ireland, and in those of Done∣gall; in Scotland, the Don is said to abound with it; and it is not unfrequent in the rivers of Eng∣land. This fish will bear removal remarkably well; and it is said, that in some places they form reservoirs for the purpose of keeping it, and taking out the pearl, which, in a certain period of time, will be again renewed. From observa∣tions on the growth of these shells, and the num∣ber

of their annular laminae, or scales, it is sup∣posed the fish will attain a very great age; 50 or 60 years are imagined to be a moderate computation. The discovery turned on a method, which LIN∣NAEUS found, of putting these muscles into a state of producing pearls at his pleasure; though the final effect did not take place for several years: he says, that in 5 or 6 years after the operation the pearl would have acquired the size of a Vetch. We are unacquainted with the means by which he accomplished this extraordinary ope∣ration, but it was probably published at the time, and considered as important, since it is cer∣tain that the author was rewarded with a munifi∣cent praemium, from the States of the kingdom, on this account. We regret that we cannot speak more fully on this head; but may ob∣serve, that it is probable, from a paper published many years afterwards in the Berlin Acts, that the method consisted in injuring the shell externally, perhaps by a perforation; as it has been observed, that these concretions in shell-fish are found on the inside, exactly opposite to perforations and injuries made from without by serpulae, and other animals.

From the time that LINNAEUS and Rosen were appointed professors at Upsal, it should seem that the credit of that university, as a school of physic, had been increasing; and the fact in∣deed is certain, that numbers of students re∣sorted thither from Germany, attracted by the character of these two able men: and certainly in Sweden itself, many young men were invited to

the study of physic, by the excellent manner in which it was taught, who otherwise would have engaged in different pursuits. We must not deviate into the line of Rosen's department: suf∣fice it to say, that these two eminent men, by their united zeal and abilities, failed not to exalt, together with their own fame, that of their uni∣versity. LINNAEUS, in teaching the diagnosis mor∣borum, had adopted the plan, with some alteration, of M. Sauvages's Nosology, of which we shall be led to give some account hereafter. In the year 1749, he published, for the use of his students, MATERIA MEDICA, Liber I. de Plantis digestus secundum genera, loca, nomina, qualitates, vires, dif∣ferentias, durationes, simplicia, modos, usus, synony∣ma, culturas, praeparata, potentias, composita. Holm. 1749, 8^o, pp. 252. The compendious method in which this work is executed, and the several useful preliminary papers annexed, render it a very useful and instructive manual to students in medicine. A materia medica of the vegetable king∣dom, in which every simple was ascertained by so able a botanist as LINNAEUS, was a very con∣siderable acquisition to science. In this volume are arranged 535 subjects, and several are for the first time reduced to their proper genera; such are the Ipecacuanha, Pareira brava, Coculi Indici, and others. The method pursued in this volume is as follows. The author gives,

1. His own specific character of the plant.

2. C. Bauhine's synonym: or, if the plant was unknown to him, that of the first discoverer.

3. The country where it is produced. In

the same line is expressed, by a single epithet, whether it be an herb, shrub, or tree: whether it be annual, biennial, or perennial: also, whether it be indigenous; or if not, whether it thrives well by common cultivation in gardens, or requires de∣fence from the cold of the winter in Sweden; or whether it will not endure that climate.

4. The Swedish officinal name, what part is in use, or what preparation of it, if any; and the doses of each.

5. The sensible quality of the plant; whether bitter, aromatic, acid, astringent, &c.; whether fra∣grant, foetid, or inodorous; whether gummy, resinous, or milky. Its reputed quality; whether uncertain, well-known, and approved; or whether to be cau∣tiously used. Whether chiefly used in physic, or for culinary purposes.

6. Its reputed effects on the human body, whether purging, emetic, diuretic, &c.

7. The diseases in which it is most frequently prescribed.

8. The compound medicines into which it en∣ters in the Swedish dispensatory.

At the end of the volume is an index morborum, with the simples appropriated to each: and an index virium, adapted to a preceding classification, founded on their qualities or effects, either on the solids or fluids of the human body.

In the year 1749 was published the first volume of a collection of Theses in 8^o, under the title of Amoenitates Academicae, seu Dissertationes variae, phy∣sicae, medicae, et botanicae. This publication has

been continued, from time to time, to the com∣pletion of the seventh volume in the year 1769. Holm. These volumes, as soon as published, were constantly reprinted in Germany and Hol∣land. As these academical dissertations were sustained under LINNAEUS in his professorial character, and were selected by himself, they have been regarded as of equal authority nearly with his own writings; and many of them do in a particular manner extend and exemplify divers parts of his works, the subjects having been pointed out by himself, in many instances, for that purpose. For these reasons we shall, in the course of this volume, give a very brief ac∣count of the purport of each dissertation, since they contain a great variety of curious intelligence on the subjects of physic and natural history, every where digested in the most scientific taste.

Whilst LINNAEUS was meditating one of his capital performances, which had long been ex∣pected, and greatly wished for, he was interrupted by a very long and painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very weak and dispirited state; and, according to the intelligence that his friends gave of him, nothing was thought to have contributed more to the restoration of his spirits, than the seasonable acquisition, at this juncture, of a col∣lection of rare and undescribed plants.

Upon the recovery of his health, he published his book; PHILOSOPHIA BOTANICA in qua expli∣cantur fundamenta botanica cum definitionibus partium, exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorum, ad∣jectis

figuris aeneis. Stockh. et Amst. 1751, 8^o, pp. 362, tab. 11. This must be considered as the in∣stitutions of the Linnaean system of botany, and is a work which none, who wish to be acquainted with the sexual system, can be without, as it is the author's own comment on his Fundamenta, first published in 1736, and which are comprized in 365 aphorisms, divided into 12 chapters. The author's original intention was to have explained all these aphorisms at large, in the manner that had been done in the Bibliotheca Botanica, Classes Plantarum, Sponsalia Plantarum, Critica Botanica, and Vires Plantarum; but he says his numerous avocations did not allow him requisite time.

Ch. 1. Exhibits a systematical distribution of the principal botanical writers, and is that part which is treated of at large in the Bibliotheca.

Ch. 2. Systemata. A view of all the botanical systems, being a compend of the Classes Plantarum, but here brought down somewhat later, so as to comprehend the general view of Van Royen's, Haller's, and Wachendorf's.

Ch. 3. Plantae. Explains the terms used in de∣scribing the different kinds of roots, stalks, and leaves of plants.

Ch. 4. Fructificatio. Describes the parts of fructification, and defines all the terms used re∣specting their number, figure, proportion, situation, and uses.

Ch. 5. Relates to the sexes of plants, a subject which is more copiously treated in a paper called Sponsalia Plantarum, printed in the first volume of the Amoenitates Academicae.

Ch. 6. Characteres. Rules and definitions for establishing the characters of classes, orders, and genera.

Ch. 7. Nomina. Rules for rightly forming ge∣nerical names, and those of orders and classes.

Ch. 8. Differentiae. Rules for establishing the specific characters of plants.

Ch. 9. Varietates. Rules for distinguishing va∣rieties among plants.

Ch. 10. Synonyma. Rules relating to the right disposition of synonymical names in botanic writ∣ings.

The four chapters last mentioned make the sub∣ject of the CRITICA BOTANICA, in which work every aphorism is much more largely explained than in the present.

Ch. 11. Adumbrationes. Rules for properly de∣scribing and naming the species, and for giving their complete history in a scientific manner.

Ch. 12. Vires. Relates to the virtues of plants, as deducible from their agreement in their charac∣ters, as of the same genus, the same natural order, or class. The subject of this chapter is treated in a more comprehensive manner in the Vires Plantarum, printed in the first volume of Amoeni∣tates Academicae. To give a few instances how∣ever as illustrations:—The Scammony, Me∣choacan, Turbith, and Sea Bindweed, are all species of the genus Convolvulus, and all agree in possessing a purgative quality. The Mallow, Marsh-mallow, and Cotton-bush, are so many distinct genera, under a natural order, called columniferous, and agree in being all mucilaginous.

Of the umbelliferous plants, such as grow in dry places are aromatic, and considered as sudorifics and carminatives: those growing in watery places, on the contrary, are mostly of a quality to be justly suspected, and not a few of them quite noxious. Plants of the papilionaceous class are all excellent food for cattle. The syngenesious, com∣monly bitters. The coniferous class, all evergreens and resinous, are considered as diuretics.

Ten explanatory plates are added to this vo∣lume, on which are described the different leaves, and their situations on the stalk, &c. different stalks, roots, flowers, &c. The first part of these plates, relating to the leaves, had been given in∣troductory to the Hortus Cliffortianus. Some new terms in botany▪ which have been invented since the publication of the Philosophia, may be found in a paper under the title of Termini Botanici, in the 6th volume of the Amoenitates.

In this work of LINNAEUS it is difficult to de∣termine, whether we ought most to admire the ge∣nius of its author in his inventive power, or that exquisite scientific arrangement which he has given to the whole; and which, both together, constitute this a most excellent performance.

At the end of the volume we meet with several curious fragments: such are,

1. Directions to botanic pupils.

2. The method of constructing an herbarium.

3. Method of conducting botanical excursions.

4. Method of laying out a botanic garden.

5. Plan for naturalists in travelling and con∣structing

their journal; with an enumeration of all those subjects that demand their attention.

6. Idea of a compleat botanist. Some of the principal botanists are here enumerated.

7. A compend of the philosophy of vege∣tation.

In 1753, appeared the Professor's

Opus maximum et aeternum,

the SPECIES PLANTARUM exhibentes Plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale di∣gestas. Tom. II. Holm. 8^o, 1753, pp. 1200; and a second time in 1762, pp. 1684. To give this work its utmost perfection, had been the author's object for many years, and to this all his other bota∣nic productions are in some measure only prepara∣tory; especially the local catalogues; as the rightly ascertaining the species is the great object of all me∣thod. In this work Linnaeus takes in every plant that had come sufficiently under his own inspec∣tion; seldom admitting any on the authority of others; and wheresoever he has done it, the plant is distinguished by a proper mark. The plan of this work is, in general, agreeable to that of all his other local catalogues; no other part of the system being exemplified except the species: and as it is entirely botanical, none of the uses of the plants are here introduced. Every plant has its specific name, constructed according to the rules established in the eighth part of the Philo∣sophia Botanica, with a reference to all, or any of his own works, in which it has been mentioned be∣fore;

and the synonym is given, if it be different from the present. Then follow the synonyms of the best authors, and constantly, where the plant is at all rare, or newly-discovered, there is a reference to the best figures. The country in which the plant grows is then added, and frequently a sym∣bol, expressive of its duration, whether annual, biennial, or perennial.

In this work, for the first time, the professor has given to each plant, what he calls a trivial name: that is, a single epithet, which may be ex∣pressive, as far as possible, of the essential specific difference, among the species of the genus: this, however, can take place but rarely; in other in∣stances it is expressive of some, the most striking and obvious difference; and not seldom it is a lo∣cal term; or the name of the first discoverer. The latter method, could it have taken place, would have had the advantage of conveying, somewhat like a chronological history of each plant, and at the same time perpetuating due credit to the dis∣coverer. These trivial names are printed in the margin, to catch the eye instantly, which is a great advantage. The invention of trivial names, the hint of which was probably borrowed from Rivini, by assisting the memory, has much promoted the knowledge of plants, and must be considered as a capital improvement. Their use in speaking of plants, and forming compendious catalogues, has been acknowledged by every botanist since the introduction of them.

In the preface the author gives an ample ac∣count of the assistances he received, and of the

pains he had taken, to bring this work to its pre∣sent state. To this end, he specifies, the coun∣tries he had travelled over; the many botanic gardens he had visited; the various excellent her∣baria that he had examined, in Sweden, Holland, England, and France; the names of his pupils educated under him, and their various peregrina∣tions; from all which he reaped great advantages, as from these he received various new plants: and, finally, he acknowledges the many liberal communications of seeds and specimens, sent to him from all parts of the world by the first bota∣nists of the time.

As this work contains all the plants of the known world which had come to Linnaeus's knowledge, or rather inspection; which, at the publication of these volumes, appear to have amounted to about 7,300 species, all varieties excluded, the professed botanist has only to regret, that it could not have been extended by the author himself, to a com∣pleat pinax, and history of every plant therein de∣scribed.

In this year also LINNAEUS published MUSEUM TESSINIANUM, opera Ill. Comitis C. G. TESSIN, Regis Regnique Senatoris, &c. &c. collectum. Holm. 1753, fol. pp. 90. tab. 12. This is a description of the cabinet of LINNAEUS'S first patron and great friend Count Tessin, at that time preceptor to the Prince Royal, now King of Sweden, who had spared no expence in collecting a rich museum, principally consisting of subjects in mineralogy, and particu∣cularly abounding in fossils of the figured or ex∣traneous kind. The work is in Swedish and Latin;

and the tables represent several scarce and very valuable figured fossils, not to be seen elsewhere.

The petrifactions or figured fossils in this work, are arranged in four orders, founded on the dif∣ferent modes of the formation of them.

1. Fossilia, commonly so called; shells, corals, animal remains, unchanged, except by being de∣prived more or less of the connecting animal gluten.

2. Redintegrata. Earthy, stony, or chrystalline fossils, formed within any crustaceous or testaceous body, as in a mould; thus retaining the cast, without the external coat.

3. Impressa. Impressions only: as of fishes and capillary plants, or ferns, &c.

4. Transubstantiata. Perfect petrifactions, in which the original organic parts are perfectly filled up with stony particles, and retaining the exact structure, externally and internally, of the origi∣nal body.

In 1754 was published MUSEUM REGIS ADOL∣PHI Suecorum, &c. in quo Animalia rariora, imprimis et exotica Quadrupedia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, In∣secta, Vermes describuntur et determinantur, Latine et Suetice. Fol. 1754, pp. 135. tab. 33. This splen∣did volume is frequently referred to by our author in his Systema, on account of the figures of so many of the rarer serpents, and fishes, here engraven. Of the former there are 48 species, and of the lat∣ter 32; specimens of which are all preserved in spirits in the royal museum; in the palace of Ulricksdahl.

The fame which our author had now acquired

by his Systema Naturae, of which a sixth edition, much enlarged, had been published at Stockholm, in 1748, in 8^o, pp. 232, with eight tables, expla∣natory of the classes and orders; and which was also republished by Gronovius at Leyden; had brought, as it were, a conflux of every thing rare and valuable in every branch of nature, from all parts of the globe, into Sweden. The king and queen of Sweden had their separate collections of rarities; the former at Ulricksdahl, as hath just been mentioned; the latter, very rich in exotic insects and shells, procured at a great expence, at the palace of Drottningholm. These our author was employed in arranging and describing. Be∣sides these, the museum of the royal academy of Upsal had been augmented by a considerable do∣nation from the king, whilst hereditary prince, in 1746; by another, from Count Gyllenborg, the year before; by a third, from M. Grill, an opulent citizen of Stockholm. The contents of these three collections are given in the first volume of the Amoenitates Academicae. We mention them here only to shew that LINNAEUS now began to enjoy ample resources in every branch of natural history at home; besides that many ingenious men, who had been educated under him, were now dispersed into various quarters of the globe; and that from their letters he received great intelligence and satisfaction. Seeds and specimens of plants were sent him from Siberia, by Gmelin; from America, by Dr. Mitchel and Governor Coldingham; from England, by Mr. COLLINSON; Mr. Ellis; as also from his friends in Holland, and various other parts

of Europe. And thus it will be seen, that he be∣gan scarcely to feel the disadvantages of his northern situation.

We shall now also begin to see the professor in a more elevated rank and situation in life. His reputation had already procured him ho∣nours from almost all the Royal Societies in Eu∣rope. Into the Imperial Academy, he had been very early received, and distinguished, according to the custom of that institution, with a classic name, having most aptly been called DIOSCORIDES secun∣dus: and in the year 1753 he received this honour from the Royal Society of London; and his own sovereign, truly sensible of his merit, and greatly esteeming his character and abilities, favoured him with a mark of his distinction and regard, by creating him a KNIGHT of the POLAR STAR. It was now no longer Laudatur et alget. His emo∣luments kept pace with his fame and honours; his practice in his profession became lucrative, and we find him soon after possessed of his country house and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles from Upsal. He had moreover received one of the most flattering testimonies of the extent and magnitude of his fame, that perhaps was ever shewn to any literary character, the state of the nation which conferred it, with all its circumstances, duly considered. This was an invitation to Ma∣drid, from the king of Spain, there to preside as a naturalist, with the offer of an annual pension for life of 2000 pistoles, letters of nobility, and the perfect free exercise of his own religion. An offer not readily parallelled in the history of modern

times! That he did not accept of it is cer∣tain, having, after the most perfect acknowledg∣ments of the singular honour done him, returned for answer,

that, if he had any merits, they were due to his own country.

In the year 1755, the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm honoured our professor with one of the first premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparre; who had decreed two gold medals, of ten ducats value each, to be annually given by the academy, to the authors of such papers, in the preceding year's Stockholm Acts, as should be ad∣judged most useful in promoting agriculture par∣ticularly, and all branches of rural oeconomy. This medal bore on one side, the arms of the Count, with this motto—Superstes in Scientiis amor FREDE∣RICI SPARRE.—LINNAEUS obtained it in consequence of a paper de Plantis, quae Alpium Suecicarum in∣digenae, magno rei oeconomicae et medicae emolumento fieri possint, and the ultimate intention was to re∣commend these plants, as adapted to culture in Lapland. This paper was inserted in the Stockholm Acts for 1754. Vol. XV.

LINNAEUS also obtained the praemium centum au∣reorum, proposed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, for the best paper written to establish, or disprove, by new arguments, the doc∣trine of the sexes of plants. On this occasion the professor wrote his DISQUISITIO de quaestione ab Acad. Imper. Scient. Petrop. in annum 1759 pro praemio proposita: SEXUM PLANTARUM argumentis et experi∣mentis novis, praeter adhuc jam cognita, vel corroborare vel impugnare, praemissa expositione historica et physica

omnium Plantae partium, quae aliquid ad faecundationem et perfectionem seminis, et fructus conferre credun∣tur; ab eadem Academia die 6 Sept. 1760, in con∣ventu publico praemio ornata. Petrop. 1760, 4^o, pp. 32.

Apart from all foregoing arguments, facts, and experiments, brought in support of this question, the professor has in this little tract sufficiently proved, by a series of new facts, that the dust of the Antherae, analogically called the male parts, is absolutely necessary to be shed on the stigma or female part, in order to render the seed fertile. His theory of vegetation, prefixed to this paper, is explained more at large in the Prolepsis Planta∣rum, printed in the 6th volume of the Amoenitates.

It was, if possible, an additional glory to LIN∣NAEUS to have merited this premium from the Peters∣burgh academy; inasmuch as a professor of that society, a few years before, had with more than common zeal, although with a futility like that of the other antagonists of our author, endeavoured to overturn the whole Linnaean system of botany, by attempting to shew that the doctrine of the sexes of plants, had no foundation in nature, and was unsupported by facts and experiments.

The great character of LINNAEUS, and that of his colleagues, particularly of Rosen, in the medical departments, and their united endea∣vours, had very considerably raised the credit of the university of Upsal, as we have before ob∣served. It is certain, that the number of stu∣dents are, at this time, nearly double what they are said to have been in accounts written 30 and

40 years ago. The emulation excited among the students amply rewarded those gentlemen for their pains, by the vast harvest of useful information flowing in, particularly on the subjects of natural history, from their pupils, now dispersed in every part of the world. Many of these young men, after being properly grounded in the principles of physic, had, with an ardour which nothing but the strongest love of science could inspire, volun∣tarily undertaken the most distant and perilous voyages, supported by the munificence of parti∣cular patrons or societies, to gratify their taste in the pursuits of natural history, and other useful knowledge. Several of these young men perish∣ed, from change of climate, or various other causes, and much of the fruit of their labour was lost with them. Such was the fate of Ternströem, at Pulicandor, in 1745; of Hasselquist, who went into Aegypt and Palestine, and died at Smyrna, in 1752; of Loefling, who died in Cumana, in 1756. Of the first of these we have no remains. The papers of Hasselquist were redeemed by the queen of Sweden, and published by LINNAEUS, under the title of ITER PALAESTINUM, in 1757, in 8^o; and those of Loefling, under the title of ITER HISPANICUM, in 1758; to each of which is pre∣fixed a short account of the author. We have also the fruit of Kalm's journey in N. America, and of the voyage of Osbeck and Toren, who both went chap∣lains to Swedish East India ships. These are here mentioned particularly, as they are all translated, and published since in the English language. We yet deplore the more recent fate of Forskal, and his

unfortunate associates, in Arabia, and the more so, since his posthumous pieces, published at Copen∣hagen in 1775, are sufficient to convince us, that the fruit of that expedition would have been rich and large, had it not been so unfortunately blasted.

There were also several others, who made less remote journies for the same purpose; such were L. Montin, who visited Lula-Lapmark in 1749; M. Koehler, who travelled into the southern part of Italy in 1752; Dr. SOLANDER, who visited Pitho-Lapmark, and Torno-Lapmark, in 1753, where he made several discoveries, and brought back divers rare plants, and other subjects in natural history, which had escaped the diligence of his great master; D. Rolander, who visited Surinam and St. Eustatia, in 1755; A. R. Martin, who searched Greenland in 1758, as C. Alstroëmer did the southern parts of Europe in 1760. We do not mention others, who re-visited the isle of Gothland in 1752 and 1760, after Linnaeus's own tour into that place.

The travels of these gentlemen afforded great sources of information, and furnished ma∣terials for our author, that proved very favour∣able to the last editions of his Systema Naturae, and Species Plantarum: insomuch, that we shall see him exemplifying, in a much more perfect and de∣tailed manner, his System of Nature.

This work, as far as respected the vegetable kingdom, had been separately and largely exhi∣bited, as before mentioned, in the Genera Plan∣tarum, and the species given in the several Florae of

our author, and finally in the Species Plantarum. As yet, however, although it had passed through nine editions, little more had appeared in the ani∣mal kingdom than the generical characters, with a single specific name; insomuch that the ninth edition at Leyden, in 1756, was contained in a small octavo of 226 pages. This it must be ob∣served notwithstanding, was only a republication of the author's sixth edition in 1748. The scheme therefore cannot be considered as perfected by the author, until the publication of the 10th edition, in 1758, the first part of which, relating to the animal kingdom, makes a volume of 821 pages; and the same part, in the 12th and last edition, is augmented by the addition of new subjects to 1327 pages. This work therefore, published in two volumes at Stockholm, in 1766 and 1767, is to be considered as having received the author's finishing hand, as far as possible, since he pro∣fesses to describe only such animals as had fallen under his own inspection, except in some instances, where his dependence upon other authority ren∣dered it justifiable. The title of this enlarged edition runs thus:

SYSTEMA NATURAE per regna tria Naturae secun∣dum classes, ordines, genera et species, cum charac∣teribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Holm. 1766, I. 1767, II. 1768, III.

TOM. I. The ANIMAL KINGDOM.

In this volume, after a philosophical history of the animal kingdom in general, our author pro∣ceeds to the establishment of the classical cha∣racters;

previous to which, he presents us with the natural division of animals, arising from their different internal structure; an arrangement partly established by Aristotle, and of which our own great naturalist Mr. RAY has made considerable use, in the introductory part of his Synopsis Ani∣malium. By this division all the animal kingdom naturally falls into six classes, as follow: animals having the

HEART furnished with

Two ventricles and auricles:— Blood warm and red.	Viviparous.	MAMMALIA.
Oviparous.	BIRDS.
One ventricle and auricle:— Blood cold and red.	Respiration voluntary.	AMPHIBIA.
Breathing by Gills.	FISHES.
One ventricle, with∣out auricle:— Sanies, cold and co∣lourless.	Antennated.	INSECTS.
Tentaculated.	VERMES.

He then gives the natural characters at large of each class, taking in with the foregoing internal structure, all the differences arising from the lungs, or other organs of respiration, as gills: from the maxillae, jaws or mandibles: the organs of genera∣tion: those of sensation: the teguments, or outward covering: and the fulcra, or legs, wings, &c. Our plan does not admit of introducing these at large.

At the head of each class is given a concise and most instructive description of the classical cha∣racter; so methodically constructed, as to include at the same time an explanation of all the terms

appertaining to that class, concluding with a ge∣neral mention of the best authors thereon.

After this, our author proceeds to the establishment of the natural characters of each order of the class respectively. These also we must omit, as incon∣sistent with our compendious view of the system, and more especially the latter classes of this king∣dom, where the subjects are so numerous: but in the four first classes we propose to give the artificial generical characters as they stand at the head of each order.

Class I. MAMMALIA.

This class comprehends not only all the animals which we call Quadrupeds (the Lizard genus, or rather the reptiles Pedati, excepted) but also the cetaceous order, or Whales, Cachalots, and Porpesses. This arrangement of Whales with Quadrupeds, which did not take place in the first editions of this work, has not been relished by some very respectable Zoologists who wrote be∣fore LINNAEUS; but our author thinks himself fully justified on account of the agreement of these animals in the structure of the heart, in the respiration by means of lungs, in their hav∣ing moveable eyelids, ears, in being viviparous, in being furnished with teats, and in other parti∣culars, by which they differ so materially from fishes, as to more than balance that single agree∣ment in living in the same element.

The MAMMALIA are divided by our author into seven orders; the distinctions of which are, in this artificial arrangement, principally established on

the difference in the number, situation, and form, of the three kinds of teeth, namely, the primores or incisores, called fore-teeth, or cutting teeth; the laniarii or canini, called dog-teeth, canine, or lace∣rating teeth; and the molares, double teeth or grinders. LINNAEUS, notwithstanding, does not entirely neglect the feet, as will appear from his description of the natural characters of the orders, as well as from the following systematic arrangement, of this class.

1. Digitated.

Fore-teeth, none—	BRUTA.	2.
Fore-teeth, two. Canine none	GLIRES.	4.
Fore-teeth, four. Canine single	PRIMATES.	1.
Fore-teeth, 6, 2, 10. conical. Canine single	FERAE.	3.

2. Hoofed.

Fore-teeth, above and below—	BELLUAE.	6.
Fore-teeth, none above—	PECORA.	5.

3. Destitute of hoofs or claws.

Teeth, various; in the different genera—

CETE.

7.

We shall give the characters as they stand at the head of each ORDER; and then enumerate the genera, adding to the latter only the abbreviated characters.

I. PRIMATES. Animals furnished with fore-teeth, or cutting teeth: four above; parallel. Two pectoral teats.

II. BRUTA. No fore-teeth.

III. FERAE. Six, sharp fore-teeth in the up∣per jaw. One canine tooth on each side.

There are exceptions in this order. The Di∣delphis

hath 17. The Sorex hath 19. And the Erinaceus 20.

IV. GLIRES. Two fore-teeth in each jaw, close together; but remote from the grinders. No canine teeth.

V. PECORA. No fore-teeth in the upper jaw: six or eight in the lower jaw, very remote from the grinders. Hoofed feet: inguinal teats.

VI. BELLUA. Fore-teeth truncated. Hoofed feet.

VII. CETE. Breathing apertures on the head. Pectoral fins. Tail placed horizontally. No claws.

Abbreviated generic characters.

I. PRIMATES.

Howsoever the pride of man may be offended at the idea of being ranked with the beasts that perish, he nevertheless stands as an animal, in the system of nature, at the head of this order; and as such is here described, with his several varieties observable in the different quarters of the globe, in a manner, and with an accuracy, peculiar to our author, and which we may venture to say, is no where else to be met with. But man is not left by LINNAEUS, to contemplate himself merely as such; but he is led to the consideration of what he ought to be, as an intelligent and moral being, in a comment on the Grecian Sage's dictate, KNOW THYSELF: by the true application of which, he cannot but be sufficiently elevated above every humiliating idea which can otherwise arise from such an association.

• 2. SIMIA. Ape. Canine teeth, separate.
  • 33 species.
  • a. Without tails. True Apes. 3:
  • b. With short tails. Baboons. 6.
  • c. With long tails. Monkeys. 24:
• 3. LEMUR. Maucauco. Fore-teeth below 6.
  • 5 species. Mongoz, Black Mau∣cauco, Ringtailed M. &c.
• 4. VESPERTILIO. Bat. Fore-toes elongated, and connected by mem∣branes, performing the office of wings.
  • Vampyre, Common Bat, Long-eared, &c. 6 species.

II. BRUTA.

• 5. ELEPHAS. Elephant. Tusks and grinders only: long proboscis.
• 6. TRICHECHUS. Walrus. Tusks above only; grinders formed of a rugged bony substance; hinder feet formed into fins.
  • The Morse, the Manati.
• 7. BRADYPUS. Sloth. Grinders only; first grind∣ers long; body hairy.
  • 2 species.
• 8. MYRMECOPHAGA. Ant-eater. No teeth; body hairy.
  • 4 species.
• 9. MANIS. Manis. No teeth; body scaly.
  • 2 species.

• 10. DASYPUS. Armadillo. Grinders only; body crustaceous.
  • 6 species.

III. FERAE

• 11. PHOCA. Seal. Fore-teeth above 6; below 4.
  • 3 species. Ursine, Leonine, Com∣mon.
• 12. CANIS. Dog. Fore-teeth 6; and 6: middle ones above; lobated.
  • Faithful, with all its varieties. Wolf, Hyaena, Fox, Arctic Fox, Jackal, &c. 9 species.
• 13. FELIS. Cat. Fore-teeth 6; and 6: lower ones, equal: tongue very rough.
  • Lion, Tyger, Panther, Cat, Lynx, &c. 7 species.
• 14. VIVERRA. Civet. Fore-teeth 6; and 6: mid∣dle ones below short.
  • 6 species. Ichneumon or Mungo, Coati Mondi, Civet, Genet, &c.
• 15. MUSTELA. Weesel. Fore-teeth 6; and 6: lower ones close toge∣ther; 2 placed inwards.
  • Sea-Otter, Otter, Lesser Otter, the Glutton, Martin, Pole-cat, Ferret, Sable, Stoat, or Er∣mine.

    The Glutton is thought by Mr. Pennant to be the same animal with the Ursus Luscus, or Quick-hatch, of Linnaeus.

    11 species.

• 16. URSUS. Bear. Fore-teeth 6; and 6: upper ones hollowed.
  • Black Bear, White Bear, Badger, Raccoon, Quick-hatch or Wol∣verene, (the same animal called Glutton.)
• 17. DIDELPHIS. Opossum. Fore-teeth above 10; below, 8.
  • Virginian, Philander, Seba's Mu∣rine, Dorsigerous.
• 18. TALPA. Mole. Fore-teeth 6 above; 8 below.
  • 2 species.
• 19. SOREX. Shrew. Fore-teeth 2 above; 4 be∣low.
  • Crested, Minute, the least of all quadrupeds; weighs 1 drachm. Water, Murine, Foetid or com∣mon.
• 20. ERINACEUS. Hedgehog. Fore teeth 2 above, 2 below.
  • Common, American, Asiatic.

IV. GLIRES.

• 21. HYSTRIX. Porcupine. Body covered with quills.
  • Canada, Long-tailed.
• 22. LEPUS. Hare. Fore-teeth above, double▪
  • Common Rabbet, Cape Rabbet, Brasilian Rabbet.

• 23. CASTOR. Beaver. Fore-teeth above truncated, and hollowed.
  • Common, Musk, Zibet.
• 24. MUS. Rat. Fore-teeth above subulated.
  • 21 species. Cavy, called Guinea Pig, Aguti, Javan, Earless, Lemming, Marmot, Earth Rat, Water R. Common R. Mouse, Dormouse, Jerbua, &c.
• 25. SCIURUS. Squirrel. Fore-teeth above, cu∣neated; below, com∣pressed.
  • Common, Black, Grey, Palm, Striated, Glis, Flying, Java, Flying Cat. 11 species.
• 26. NOCTILIO. Noctule. Fore-teeth, below bi∣lobated; fore-toes elon∣gated, and connected by membranes, perform∣ing the office of wings.
  • American. 1 species.

V. PECORA.

• 27. CAMELUS. Camel. No horns; several canine teeth on each side.
  • Camel, Bactrian or Dromedary, Glama, Pacos.
• 28. MOSCHUS. Musk. No horns; canine teeth single on each side; upper ones standing out of the mouth.
  • Tibet Musk, Guinea Musk, an Antelope of Mr. Pennant, Pigmy Musk.

• 29. CERVUS. Deer. Horns solid, branched, de∣ciduous; no canine teeth.
  • Camelopard, Elk, Stag, Rein Deer, Buck, Roebuck, Guinea.
• 30. CAPRA. Goat. Horns hollow, erect; no canine teeth.
  • Tame Goat, Wild Goat, Chamois, Rock Goat, Gazell, Egyptian Antelope of Mr. Pennant, Com∣mon Antelope, Bezoar, Dorcas, Ammon, &c. 12 species.
• 31. OVIS. Sheep. Horns hollow, bending back∣wards; no canine teeth.
  • Ram and its varieties; Guinea, Cretan; these two are also varieties, according to Mr. Pennant.
• 32. BOS. Ox. Horns hollow, extending out∣wards; no canine teeth.
  • Bull; Bonasus, the same in a wild state, according to Mr. Pennant; Bison, Grunting, Buffalo, Dwarf or Indian.

VI. BELLUAE.

• 33. EQUUS. Horse. Fore-teeth 6 above, and 6 below.
  • Horse, Ass, Zebra.
• 34. HIPPOPOTAMUS. Hippopotame. Fore-teeth above 6, below 4.
  • River Horse. Mr. Pennant de∣scribes this animal as having 4 cutting teeth only above and below.

• 35. SUS. Hog. Fore-teeth above 4, below 6.
  • Common; Guinea, considered as a variety; Pecary; Capybara, Thick-nosed Tapiir of Pennant; Babyroussa.
• 36. RHINOCEROS. Fore-teeth 2 above, and 2 be∣low.
  • One-horned. Variety with two horns. See Dr. Parsons on this subject, Phil. Trans. vol. xlii. p. 523, and vol. lvi. p. 32. Linnaeus thinks this may be removed into the order of Bruta.

VII. CETE.

• 37. MONODON. Narwal. Two long strait teeth in the upper jaw, perfo∣rating the lip.
  • Sea Unicorn.
• 38. BALAENA. Whale. Horny laminae in the up∣per jaw.
  • Whalebone Whale, Fin-fish, Hump-backed or Pike-headed, Round-lipped.
• 39. PHYSETER. Cachalot. Teeth in the lower jaw only.
  • Round-headed, Spermaceti, Crook∣ed-toothed, Plane-toothed.
• 40. DELPHINUS. Dolphin. Teeth in both jaws.
  • Porpess, Dolphin, Grampus.

This part of the system, taking in a few species described in the appendix of the third Tome, and in the Mantissa of 1771, contains about 230 species. Mr. Pennant, in his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, and our learned friend Professor MARTIN, in his Elements of Natural History, by including some animals that were unknown to LINNAEUS, and giving the rank of species to several that were considered by our author as varieties, have extended the number of Mammalia to 289 species.

Class II. AVES. BIRDS.

These are divided by LINNAEUS into six orders, the distinctions of which are chiefly taken from the beak, but in some genera it has been necessary to call in the tongue, nares or nostrils, and, in some instances, the feet, and other parts. We shall give the characters of the orders as they stand at the head of each; and subjoin the abbreviated generical characters, enumerating the number of species under each genus.

I. ACCIPITRES. RAPACIOUS. Birds having the upper mandible of the beak furnished on each side with an angular process.

II. PICAE. PIES. Birds having the beak some∣what compressed on the sides and convex on the upper part.

III. ANSERES. WEB-FOOTED. Birds having a somewhat obtuse beak, cloathed with a thin skin; gibbous at the base underneath, wide at the end; the faux or edges of the base denticu∣lated; the feet palmated or webbed, and formed for swimming.

IV. GRALLAE. WADERS. Birds having the beak subcylindrical, and rather obtuse; the tongue entire and fleshy; the thighs naked for some space above the knees.

V. GALLINAE. GALLINACEOUS. Birds having the upper mandible convex, or arched, and re∣ceiving the edges of the lower; nostrils half cover∣ed, by means of a convex, somewhat cartilaginous membrane; the rectrices, or tail-feathers, more than twelve; the feet cloven, but the toes connected by a membrane as far as to the first joint.

VI. PASSERES. PASSERINE. Birds having a conical acuminated beak; the nostrils ovated, open, and naked.

Abbreviated generic characters.

I. ACCIPITRES.

• 41. VULTUR. Vulture. Beak hooked; head naked.
  • Condor, Harpy, King of Vultures, &c. 8 species.
• 42. FALCO. Eagle. Beak hooked, and bordered with a cere at the base.
  • Eagles, Hawks, Buzzards, Spar∣row-hawk. 32 species.
• 43. STRIX. Owl. Beak hooked; capistrum, or feathers of the fore∣head, thrown over the beak.
  • Horn Owls, Grey Owl, Screech Owl, Little Owl, &c. 12 species.

• 44. LANIUS. Butcher-bird, or Skrike. Beak near∣ly strait; upper man∣dible on each side, near the end, notched, and furnished with a den∣ticle.
  • 26 species.

II. PICAE.

• ...
  a. Feet with three toes before, and one long one behind, formed for walking.
  • 66. TROCHILUS. Honey-sucker. Beak incurvated, filiform, forming a tube at the extremity.
    • 22 species.
  • 65. CERTHIA. Creeper. Beak incurvated, acumi∣nated.
    • 25 species, 1 only English.
  • 64. UPUPA. Hoopee. Beak incurvated, somewhat obtuse.
    • 3 species, 1 English.
  • 48. BUPHAGA. Beef-eater of Mr. Pennant. Beak strait, quadrangular.
    • 1 species.
  • 60. SITTA. Nut-hatch. Beak strait; cuneated at the end.
    • 3 species, 1 English.
  • 52. ORIOLUS. Oriole. Beak strait, conic, very acute.
    • Golden Thrush, &c. 20 species, all exotic.
  • 51. CORACIAS. Roller. Beak cultrated (sharp or cutting) incurved at the end.

• ...
  • ...
    • 6 species, 1 English.
  • 53. GRACULA. Grackle. Beak cultrated, equal, naked at the base.
    • Mino of Edwards, Saulary, Mair∣bird of America, &c. 8 species.
  • 50. CORVUS. Crow. Beak cultrated; capistrum reversed.
    • Raven, Crow, Rook, Royston-Crow, Jack-Daw, Jay, Nut-cracker, Mag-pye, Cornish Chough, &c. 19 species.
  • 54. PARADISAEA. Paradise-bird. Beak sub-cultra∣ted; capistrum or fore∣head covered with down.
    • Manucodiata of Edwards, Ray, &c. 3 species.
• ...
  b. Feet with two toes before, and two behind, formed for climbing.
  • 46. RAMPHASTOS. Toucan. Beak serrated; tongue fringed on the edges.
    • 8 species, all American.
  • 55. TROGON. Curucui. Beak serrated, hooked at the end.
    • 3 species, all American.
  • 45. PSITTACUS. Parrot. Beak covered with the cere; tongue fleshy.
    • Maccaws, Parrots, Parroquets, Lory. 47 species.
  • 49. CROTOPHAGA. Tick-eater. Beak rough, upper

• ...
  • mandible angulated on each side.
    • Ani of Brasil. 2 species.
  • 59. PICUS. Woodpecker. Beak angulated; tongue vermiform.
    • 21 species.
  • 58. YUNX. Wryneck. Beak smooth; tongue ver∣miform.
    • English. 1 species only.
  • 57. CUCULUS. Cuckow. Beak smooth; nostrils marginated.
    • 22 species, all exotic except one.
  • 56. BUCCO. Barbet of Mr. Pennant. Beak smooth, emarginated, and hook∣ed at the end.
    • 1 species.
• ...
  c. Feet, with the middle and exterior toe joined together, nearly the whole length.
  • 47. BUCEROS. Horn-bill of Mr. Pennant. Beak ser∣rated, furnished with a protuberance, or horn, at the base of the up∣per mandible.
    • 4 species.
  • 62. ALCEDO. Kingfisher. Beak trigonal, strait.
    • 15 species, all exotic except one.
  • 63. MEROPS. Bee-eater. Beak incurvated, some∣what compressed.
    • 7 species.
  • 61. TODOS. Tody, Mr. Pennant. Beak linear, strait, and somewhat de∣pressed.
    • American. 2 species.

III. ANSERES.

• ...
  a. Beak denticulated.
  • 67. ANAS. Duck. Beak furnished with membrana∣ceous denticles, and nail at the end.
    • Swan, Burrow-duck, Goose, Duck, Mallard, Tufted Duck, &c. 45 species.
  • 68. MERGUS. Merganser. Beak furnished with subulated denticles and nail.
    • Gooseander, Smew, Lesser Dun Di∣ver, &c. 6 species.
  • 74. PHAETON. Tropic Bird. Beak cultrated.
    • 2 species.
  • 73. PLOTUS. Darter of Mr. Pennant. Beak subu∣lated.
• ...
  b. Beak edentulous.
  • 78. RHYNCOPS. Skimmer of Mr. Pennant. Upper mandible much shorter than the lower.
    • Sea Crow of Ray. 2 species; nearly allied to the Gull genus.
  • 71. DIOMEDEA. Albatross. Lower mandible trun∣cated.
    • Albatross, Black-legged Penguin. 2 species.
  • 69. ALCA. Auk. Beak wrinkled transversely.
    • Auks, Puffin, &c. 5 species.
  • 70. PROCELLARIA. Petrel. Nostrils superincum∣bent, and subcylindri∣cal.

• ...
  • ...
    • Storm-finch, Fulmar, Shear-Water, &c. 6 species.
  • 72. PELECANUS. Pelecan. Face entirely naked round the base of the beak.
    • Pelecan, Corvorant, Shag, Gannet, Booby, &c. 8 species.
  • 76. LARUS. Gull. Beak gibbous under the apex.
    • Gulls, Herring Gull, Arctic Gull, &c. 11 species.
  • 77. STERNA. Tern. Beak subulated, compressed at the apex.
    • 7 species.
  • 75. COLYMBUS. Diver. Beak subulated, some∣what compressed on the sides.
    • Guillemots, Divers, Grebes, &c. 11 species.

IV. GRALLAE.

a. Four-toed.

• ...
  • 79. PHAENICOPTERUS. Flaming. Beak incurvated, as if broken; denticu∣lated: feet webbed.
  • 80. PLATALEA. Spoonbill. Beak flattened, and wide at the end.
    • 3 species.
  • 81. PALAMEDEA. Screamer of Mr. Pennant. Beak acutely hooked at the end.
    • Anima and Cariama of Brasil.
  • ...

• ...
  • ... 82. MYCTERIA. Jabiru. Lower mandible thick, and turned upwards.
    • American. 1 species.
  • 85. TANTALUS. Ibis. Beak arcuated; throat pouched.
    • Ibis of Aegypt, Guara, &c. 7 species.
  • 84. ARDEA. Heron. Beak strait, sharp-pointed.
    • Demoiselle, Crane, Stork, Heron, Egret, Bittern, White Heron, &c. 26 species.
  • 89. RECURVIROSTRA. Avoset. Beak subulated, thin, depressed, and re∣curved.
    • 1 species.
  • 86. SCOLOPAX. Curlew. Beak strait, round, rather obtuse at the end.
    • Curlew, Whimbril, Woodcock, Snipes, Stone Plover, Godwit. 18 species.
  • 87. TRINGA. Sand Piper. Beak roundish obtuse; hinder toe very short, and placed high.
    • Ruffe, Lapwing, Knot, Purr, &c. 23 species.
  • 91. FULICA. Coot. Beak ▪rising at the forehead and base.
    • Coot, Water Hen, &c. 7 species.
  • 92. PARRA. Jacana.Beak at the base and the forehead carunculated.
    • Chavary of Jacquin, &c. 5 spe∣cies.
  • ...

• ...
  • ... 93. RALLUS. Rail. Beak somewhat carinated; body compressed.
    • Land Rail, Water Rail, Small Spotted Rail, &c. 10 species.
  • 94. PSOPHIA. Trumpeter. Beak somewhat arched or convex; nostrils ovated.
    • American.
  • 83. CANCROMA. Boat-bill of Mr. Pennant. Upper mandible very gibbous.
    • Tamatia of Brasil. 2 species.
  b. Three-toed, formed for running.
  • 90. HAEMATOPUS. Oyster-Catcher. Beak somewhat compressed, ending in a wedge.
    • Sea Pie. 1 species.
  • 88. CHARADRIUS. Plover. Beak round, obtuse.
    • Sea Lark, Dotterel, Sanderling, Green Plover, Long-legged Plo∣ver. 12 species.
  • 95. OTIS. Bustard. Upper mandible convex or arched; tongue emar∣ginated or bifid.
    • 4 species.
  • 96. STRUTHIO. Ostrich. Beak conical; wings unfit for flying.
    • Ostrich, Cassowary. American.

V. GALLINAE.

• ...
  • 97. DIDUS. Dodo. Beak ribbed and sulcated across the upper mandible▪ face naked.

• ...
  • ...
    • Hooded Swan of Ray. 1 species only.
  • 98. PAVO. Peacock. Head crested; beak naked.
    • Pea-cock, Chinese Two-spurred Pea∣cock, &c. 3 species.
  • 99. MELEAGRIS. Turkey. Head covered with ca∣runcles.
    • Turkey, Quan, Horned Pheasant of Bengal.
  • 100. CRAX. Curasso. Cere investing the whole base of the beak.
    • Cushew Bird, Curasso, &c. 5 spe∣cies.
  • 101. PHASIANUS. Pheasant. Legs and knees naked.
    • Common Cock, Pheasant, Painted, &c. 6 species.
  • 103. TETRAO. Grous. Naked papillose membrane above the eyes.
    • Cock of the Wood, Black Game, White Game, Partridge, Quail, &c. 20 species.
  • 102. NUMIDA. Pintado. Carunculated wattles, hang∣ing from each side of the face.
    • ...Guinea Hen.

VI. PASSERES.

• ...
  a. With thick beaks. Crassirostres.
  • 109. LOXIA. Gross-beak. Beak conical and ovated.
    • Cross-bill, Gross-beak, Pine Bull∣finch, Bull-finch, Cardinal, Green∣finch, &c. 48 species.
  • ...

• ...
  • ... 112. FRINGILLA. Chaffinch. Beak conical and acute.
    • Chaffinch, Brambling, Gold-finch, Canary-bird, Red Pole, Sparrow, &c. 39 species.
  • 110. EMBERIZA. Bunting. Beak subconical; lower mandible the broader, a little inflexed and narrowed in on the sides.
    • Sea Lark, Bunting, Yellow Ham∣mer, Reed Sparrow, &c. 24 species.
• ...
  b. With the upper mandible incurved at the end.

  • ...Curvirostres.
  • 118. CAPRIMULGUS. Goatsucker. Beak incurved, depressed, ciliated about the base; nostrils tubu∣lar.
    • 2 species.
  • 117. HIRUNDO. Swallow. Beak incurved, depres∣sed.
    • Chimney Swallow, Marten, Sand Marten, Swift, Pratincole of Kramer. 12 species.
  • 115. PIPRA. Manakin. Beak incurved, subulated.
    • 13 species, chiefly S. American; a beautiful genus of birds!
• ...

• ...
  c. With the upper mandible emargi∣nated, or notched near the apex. Emarginatirostres.
  • 207. TURDUS. Thrush. Beak notched, subulated, compressed at the base.
    • Missel-bird, Field-fare, Red-wing, Throstle, Black-bird, Ring-ousel, Rose-coloured Ousel, &c. 28 sp.
  • 108. AMPELIS. Chatterer. Beak notched, subulated, depressed at the base.
    • Silk-tail of Ray, Pompadour of Edwards, &c. 7 species.
  • 111. TANAGRA. Tanager. Beak notched, subu∣lated, conic at the base.
    • 24 species, mostly American.
  • 113. MUSCICAPA. Fly-catcher. Beak notched, subu∣lated, base ciliated, or bristled.
    • Pied Bird of Paradise of Ray, &c. 21 species.
• ...
  d. With strait, entire, small, slender beaks. Simplicirostres.
  • 116.
  • PARUS. Titmouse. Beak subulated; capistrum reversed; tongue trun∣cated.
    • Ox-Eye, Blue Titmouse, Colemouse, Black Cap, Least Butcher Bird, &c. 14 species.
  • 114. MOTACILLA. Warblers. Beak subulated; tongue jagged; claw of the hind toe moderately long.

• ...
  • ...
    • Nightingale, Hedge-Sparrow, Sedge∣bird, White Throat, Wheat Ear, Black Cap, Red Start, Robin, Wren, Golden-crested Wren, &c. 49 species.
  • 105. ALAUDA. Lark. Beak subulated; tongue bifid; claw of the hin∣der toe very long.
    • Sky-Lark, Tit-Lark, Wood-Lark, &c. 11 species.
  • 106. STURNUS. Starling. Beak subulate, but flat∣ted at the apex, and marginated.
    • Starling, Water Ousel, &c. 5 spe∣cies.
  • 104. COLUMBA. Pigeon. Beak rather arched, or convex; nostrils gib∣bose, and half covered with a membrane.
    • Wood Pigeon, and its descendant the Common, Ring Dove, Tur∣tle Dove, Migratory, &c. 40 species.

The specific characters in the class of birds are deduced from a great variety of particulars. In several, as in the Falcon genus, the colour of the cere, or naked tunic that surrounds the basis of the beak, and the colour of the legs, assist in distin∣guishing the species. The colour of the bird in general is subject to great variation in different countries, as well as in the same country at dif∣ferent

seasons in the year, as is more particularly seen in the arctic regions; not to mention that of the sexes in almost all kinds. Our author therefore does not trust to this, wherever a more permanent mark can be found. It must, however, be con∣fessed, that in too many instances, it is necessary to trust entirely to this distinction, howsoever un∣stable. The form of the tail, as it happens to be even, cuneated, or forked, is an excellent and firm note; in the Parrot genus its length, as shorter or longer than the body, is of great service. In others, the colour of the beak, a naked or crested head, con∣tribute to form the note of distinction. And in fine, nature has stamped upon others some pecu∣liarity, which points them out immediately; as, the receptacle of the lower mandible, in the Pelican; two long tail-feathers, in the Tropic-bird; the di∣rection of the mandibles in the Cross-beak, &c. Among the common marks, none more frequently occur than the differences of colour in the quill∣feathers and those of the tail. This class compre∣hends upwards of 930 subjects.

Class III. AMPHIBIA.

This class is so called by LINNAEUS, not because all the subjects of it are, strictly speaking, ca∣pable of living either in air or water; but prin∣cipally from their power of suspending or per∣forming the function of respiration in a more ar∣bitrary manner than other animals. This class is divided into four orders:

I. REPTILES. REPTILES. Amphibious ani∣mals breathing through the mouth by means of

lungs only; and furnished with four feet.

II. SERPENTES. SERPENTS. Amphibious animals breathing through the mouth by means of lungs only; destitute of feet, fins, and ears.

III. MEANTES. GLIDERS. Amphibious ani∣mals breathing by means of gills and lungs; fur∣nished with arms and claws.

IV. NANTES. BREATHING FISHES. Amphi∣bious animals breathing at will by means of gills and lungs. The rays of the fins cartilaginous.

Abbreviated generic characters.

I. REPTILES.

• 119. TESTUDO. Tortoise. Body covered with a shell.
  • Coriaceous Tortoise, Green Turtle, Hawkshill Turtle, Common Gre∣cian or African Tortoise, Tesse∣lated Tortoise, &c. 15 species.
• 121. DRACO. Dragon. Body winged.
  • Flying Lizard, of Bontius, p. 57. 2 species.
• 122. LACERTA. Lizard. Body naked, furnished with a tail.
  • ...

    a. With a compressed tail:

    Among these is the Crocodile.

    b. With a verticillated tail:

    The Lizard, Stellio.

    c. With a round imbricated tail: shorter than the body.

    The Chamaeleon, the Geeko, the Skink.

• ...
  • ...

    d. With a round imbricated tail, longer than the body.

    The Iguana, the Guernsey Li∣zard.

    e. With the body smooth: four toes on the fore feet.

    Common Swift, Water Eft or Newt, Salamander. 49 species.

  • 120. RANA. Frog. Body naked: no tail.
    • Surinam Toad, Common Toad, Su∣rinam Frog-fish. See Phil. Trans. vol. li. p. 653. Common Frog, Tree Frog, Bull Frog of America. See Kalm ii. 170, &c. 17 species.

II. SERPENTES.

• 123. CROTALUS. Rattlesnake. Body and tail un∣derneath cloathed with small shields; tail ter∣minating in a horny rattle.
  • ... Rattlesnake, &c. 5 species, all American, and all venomous.
• 124. BOA. Serpent. Body and tail underneath cloathed with small shields; no rattle.
  • Gigantic Serpent, or Constrictor. Vide Adanson's Senegal, p. 274. Hog-nosed Snake of Catesby, 2. t. 56, &c. 10 species; not furnished with venomous fangs.
• ...

• ... 125. COLUBER. Viper. Body underneath cloathed with small shields; tail cloathed with scales.
  • True Viper of Egypt, Horned Viper. See Phil. Trans. vol. lvi. t. 14. Berus, or English Viper, Natrix or Common Snake, Naja or Hooded Serpent of Kaempf. p. 565; Black Snake, Kalm ii. p. 202. 97 species, of which 18 are known to have veno∣mous fangs.
• 126. ANGUIS. Snake. Body and tail underneath cloathed with scales only.
  • Javan fourfooted Snake, an ano∣maly; Common Slow Worm, &c. 16 species.
• 127. AMPHISBAENA. Annulated Snake. Body and tail composed of annu∣lar segments.
  • 2 species, both American.
• ...128. CAECILIA. Tentaculated Snake.
  • Body and tail wrinkled; not scaly; upper lip furnished with two feelers. 2 species.

III. MEANTES.

• SIREN. Siren. Body biped, and furnished with a tail.

• ...
  • Lizard Siren or Mud Inguana of Carolina. See Phil. Trans. vol. lvi. 189, t. 9. For this un∣common animal LINNAEUS was obliged to form a new order. See Syst. Nat. tom. I. ad∣dend.

IV. NANTES.

a. Such as have several branchial holes on each side.

• 129. PETROMYZON. Lamprey. Seven branchial apertures on each side of the neck.
  • Lamprey, Lesser, Lampern.
• 130. RAJA. Ray. Five branchial apertures on each side the neck un∣derneath.
  • Torpedo, Skate, Sharp-nosed Ray, Rough Ray, Sting Ray, Thorn∣back. 9 species.
• 131. SQUALUS. Shark. Five branchial apertures on the side of the neck.
  • Picked Dog-fish, Angel-fish, Ba∣lance-fish, Tope, Dog-fish, White Shark, Blue Shark, Saw-fish, &c. 15 species.
• 132. CHIMAERA. Chimera. Single branchial aper∣ture, dividing into four within.
  • 2 species.

b. Such as have a single branchial hole on each side.

• 133. LOPHIUS. Fishing-frog. Two ventral fins; mouth furnished with teeth.
  • Toad-fish. 3 species.
• 134. ACIPENSER. Sturgeon. Two ventral fins; no teeth.
  • Sturgeon, Strelet or Cavear-fish, Huso.
• 139. CYCLOPTERUS. Lump-fish. Two ventral fins nearly uniting into one orbicular fin. 3 species.
• 135. BALISTES. Old Wife Fish. Single ventral fin, or carene.
  • Sea Unicorn, Old Wife Fish, &c. 8 species.
• 136. OSTRACION. Bonyskin Fish. No ventral fins; body entirely cloathed with a bony covering.
  • Triquetrous Ostracion, Three-horn∣ed, Four-horned, &c. 9 species.
• 137. TETRODON. Sun-fish. No ventral fins; belly rough or muricated.
  • Ocellated Sun-fish, Common Mole or Sun-fish, &c. 7 species.
• 138. DIODON. Porcupine-fish. No ventral fins; body set with acute moveable spines.
  • Sphaerical, Oblong. 2 species.
• 140. CENTRISCUS. Trumpet-fish. Ventral fins united; a long moveable spine on the back, near the tail.

• ...
  • Scolopax of Gesner, &c. p. 838. 2 species.
• 141. SYNGNATHUS. Pipe-fish. No ventral fins; body articulated.
  • Needle-fish, Pipe-fish, Hippocampus or Sea-horse. 7 species.
• 142. PEGASUS. Dragon-fish. Two ventral fins; upper mandible or beak den∣ticulated, or ciliated.
  • Flying Dragon of Amboina, &c. 3 species.

This part of the System contains upwards of 290 subjects.

In the REPTILES order, the specific characters of the Testudo genus are deduced principally from the difference in the shells, and the feet; which in the Turtles are pinniform, and in the Tortoises di∣gitated. In the Lacerta genus, from the tail, head, toes, and various other parts; and in the Rana, from the diversity in the make of the body, and number of the claws on the fore or hinder feet.

In the SERPENTES order, the specific distinctions have ever been matter of great difficulty with naturalists, as they were commonly taken from the colour, which is subject to an almost infinite variation. Hence it has happened that Seba, de∣pending on the colours alone, hath, in the opinion of our author, figured the Boa Constrictor, or Gi∣gantic Serpent, ten times, as so many distinct spe∣cies; and the Coluber Naga, or Hooded Viper, fourteen, LINNAEUS at length discovered a much

more certain and permanent note, upon which his specific characters are solely founded: it was first exemplified in the Amphibia Gyllenborgiana, and he has since retained it in all his works, sensible however that it is yet liable to failure: this arises from the number of the small shields and scales, or rings and rugae of the belly and tail; and the pro∣portion those numbers bear to each other in the different species: for example, in our Common Viper the shields of the belly are usually about 146, and the scales of the tail, that is all below the anus, about 39 or 40: the shields in our Common Snake about 170, and the scales about 60.

In the NANTES the specific characters are short, but very various in the different genera, as to the parts of the animal from which they are deduced: in the Petromyzon and Raia, from the mouth, fins, teeth, &c.; in the latter very much from the body itself: in the Squalus, from a variety of parti∣culars: in the Acipenser, from the cirri or beard, and the dorsal shields, or squamae: in the Balistes, from the fins and tail: in the Ostracion, from the different angulated form of the body: in the Tetrodon, from differences in the body chiefly; and in the remaining genera, from the form of the body, and the differences in the fins.

Class IV. PISCES. FISHES.

In the earlier editions of the Systema Naturae, our author, in the distribution of FISHES, had followed the method of his friend and fellow collegian Artedi; whose Icthyology he had published

during his residence in Holland, in 1738. This method, which took in the CETACEOUS order, now among the MAMMALIA, and the NANTES, now referred to the AMPHIBIA, was established on the structure or rather situation of the tails in the cetaceous order; and in others, on the difference in the gills, and the rays of the fins, whether car∣tilaginous or bony. In the two last editions, ano∣ther disposition is attempted: after having dis∣missed the cetaceous order to the MAMMALIA, and the CHONDROPTERYGII or Cartilaginous Fishes, and the Branchiostegi to the NANTES, our author forms four orders of the bony fishes (which respire by means of gills only) from the situation of the ventral fins, which he analogically considers as the feet of the animal, according as they are placed either before, under, or behind the pectoral or gill fins, or as in one order wanting the ventral fins.

I. APODES. APODAL. Fishes destitute of ven∣tral fins.

II. JUGULARES. JUGULAR. Fishes having the ventral fins placed before the pectoral fins.

III. THORACICI. THORACIC. Fishes hav∣ing the ventral fins placed underneath the pec∣toral fins.

IV. ABDOMINALES. ABDOMINAL. Fishes having the ventral fins placed on the abdomen behind the pectoral fins.

Abbreviated generic Characters.

I. APODES.

• 143. MURAENA. Eel. Apertures of the gills placed behind the pec∣toral fins.
  • Sea Serpent, Eel, Conger Eel, &c. 7 species.
• 144. GYMNOTUS. Gymnote. Back destitute of any fin.
  • Carapo of Brasil, Electric Eel, Beaked, &c. 5 species.
• 145. TRICHIURUS. Needle-tail. Subulated tail without any fin.
  • Mucu of the Brasilians.
• 147. AMMODYTES. Lance. Head much slenderer than the body.
  • Sand Eel.
• 146. ANARCHICAS. Wolf-fish.Grinding teeth rounded.
  • Sea Wolf. In the fossil state fre∣quent, called Bufonites.
• 148. OPHIDIUM. Snake-fish. Body ensiform.
  • ...Bearded Ophidion, Beardless Ophi∣dion.
• 149. STROMATEUS, Pampus. Body ovated.
  • Pampus of Sloane. 2 species.
• 150. XIPHIAS. Sword-fish. Upper mandible ter∣minating in an ensiform beak.
  • Sword-fish of all authors.

II. JUGULARES.

• 151. CALLIONYMUS. Dragonet.Breathing spi∣racles on the hinder part of the head.
  • ... The Harp, &c. 3 species.
• 152. URANOSCOPUS. Star-gazer. Mouth flat, opening upwards.
  • Scabrous. 1 species.
• 153. TRACHINUS. Weever. Anus near the breast.
  • Draco of the old authors. 1 species.
• 154. GADUS. Cod. Pectoral fins slender, and end∣ing in a point. With
  • a. Three dorsal fins, and the jaw bearded.
    • Haddock, Torsk, Cod-fish, Bib, Whiting, Pout, Poor
  • b. Three dorsal fins; jaw not bearded.
    • Whiting, Cole-fish, Pollack, &c.
  • c. Two dorsal fins only.
    • Hake, Ling, Burbot.
  • d. One dorsal fin.
    • Mediterranean. 17 species.
• 155. BLENNIUS. Blenny. Ventral fins of two rays, small, and not prickly.
  • Crested, Gattorugine, Smooth, Spot∣ted, Viviparous. 13 species.

III. THORACICI.

• 156. CEPOLA. Cepole. Mouth opening upwards, body ensiform.
  • Taenia, &c. 2 species.
• ...

• ... 157. ECHENEIS. Sucking-fish. Top of the head flat, marginated, and transversely sulcated.
  • Remora, Naucrates. 2 species.
• 158. CORYPHAENA. Dolphin. Anterior part of the head very obtuse or truncated. Dolphin of mariners.
  • River Dolphin, Parrot-fish, &c. 12 species.
• 159. GOBIUS. Goby. Ventral fins united into one ovate fin.
  • Black Goby, Spotted Goby. 8 species.
• 160. COTTUS. Bull-head. Head broader than the body.
  • Pogge, Feather Lasher, Miller's Thumb, &c. 6 species.
• 161. SCORPAENA. Scorpen. Head set with prickles or beards.
  • Porcus, Scrofa, Horrida or Tover-fish.
• 162. ZEUS. Doree. Upper lip projecting, or for∣nicated by means of a transverse membrane.
  • Doree, Silver-fish of Brown, &c. 4 species.
• 163. PLEURONECTES. Plaise.Both eyes on the same side of the head. With the eyes,

  a. On the right side.

  Holibut, Plaise, Flounder, Dab, Sole.

• ...

  b. On the left side.

  The Pearl, the Turbot, &c. 17 species.

• 164. CHAETODON. Pilot-fish. Teeth very fine, thick set, very nume∣rous, and flexile.
  • ... Jaculator-fish. Vide Phil. Trans. vol. liv. t. 9. Pilot-fish, &c. 23 species.
• 165. SPARUS. Gilt-head. Teeth very strong; fore teeth sharp; grinders close set, and obtuse.
  • Sea Bream, &c. 26 species.
• 166. LABRUS. Wrasse. Connecting membrane of the dorsal fin extending beyond the extremity of each ray, in the form of filaments.
  • ... Wrasse, Bimaculated, &c. 41 spe∣cies.
• 167. SCIAENA. Cavalhas. A groove in the back to receive the dorsal fin.
  • ... Umbra, Jaculatrix. Vide Phil. Trans. vol. lvi. p. 186, t. 8. f. 6. All Mediterranean. 5 species.
• 168. PERCA. Pearch. The gill-covers jagged or serrated.
  • Pearch, Basse, Sea Pearch, Ruffe. 36 species.
• 169. GASTEROSTEUS. Stickle-back. Body at the tail carinated on each side; spines on the back distinct from the fins.
  • ...

• ...
  • ... Three-spined Common Stickle-back, Ten-spined, &c. 11 species.
• 170. SCOMBER. Mackrel. Body towards the tail carinated on each side; spurious fins, in most species, near the tail.
  • Mackrel, Bonet, Tunny, Horse Mackrel, &c. 10 species.
• 171. MULLUS. Surmullet. Head and body covered with large deciduous scales.
  • Red, Striped, Beardless.
• 172. TRIGLA. Gurnard. Several distinct appen∣dages placed at the pectoral fins.
  • Piper, Gurnard, Red Gurnard, Tub-fish, &c. 9 species.

IV. ABDOMINALES.

• 173. COBITIS. Loche. Body nearly of an equal width quite to the tail.
  • Loche, Sand Loche or Fossil Loche. See Phil. Trans. vol. xliv. p. 451, t. 2. f. 1, &c. 5 species.
• 174. AMIA. Mud-fish. Head rough, bony, and denudated.
• 175. SILURUS. Sheat. The first ray of the dorsal and pectoral fins den∣tated.
  • ...

• ...
  • ... Sheat-fish, Callichthys; Piso says,

    In dry seasons this fish travels over small tracts of land in search of fresh∣water.

    21 species.
• 176. TEUTHIS. Liver-fish. Head anteriorly flat, and as if truncated.
  • 2 species.
• 177. LORICARIA. Helmet-fish. Body invested as with a shelly crust, set with points.
  • 2 species.
• 178. SALMO. Salmon. Posterior dorsal fin adipose, and without rays.
  • a. Trouts; body variegated; teeth manifest.
    • Salmon, Grey, Salmon Trout, Trout, Char.
  • b. Smelts; dorsal and anal fin op∣posite.
  • Smelt, Saurus.
  • c. Teeth scarcely perceptible.
    • Gwiniad, Umber.
  • d. With four branchiostegous rays only.
  29 species.
• 179. FISTULARIA. Tobacco-pipe Fish. Very long cylindrical beak or mandible, with the mouth at the end.
  • Tabacaria, Chinensis.
• ...

• ... 180. ESOX. Pike. Lower jaw the longest; punc∣tated.
  • Pike, Sea Pike, &c. 9 species.
• 181. ELOPS. Sean-fish. Branchiostegous membrane double; exterior one small, of five rays.
  • ... Saurus of Sloane, t. 251. 1.
• 182. ARGENTINA. Argentine. Vent placed very near to the tail. So called from the silvery skin of the air-bladder.
  • 2 species.
• 183. ATHERINA. Atherine. The lateral line sil∣very.
  • 2 species.
• 184. MUGIL. Mullet. Inferior mandible carinated inwards.
  • Mullet, Albula of Catesby.
• 185. EXOCETUS. Flying-fish. Pectoral fins nearly the length of the body.
  • 2 species.
• 186. POLYNEMUS. Finger-fish. Several distinct processes or appendages placed with the pectoral fins.
  • Paradise-fish of Edwards, &c.
    • 3 species.
• 187. MORMYRUS. Mormyre. Branchial aperture linear, and no cover to the gill.
  • Caschive of the Arabians, &c. 2 species.
• 188. CLUPEA. Herring. Belly sharp or keel form, and serrated.

• ...
  • Herring, Sprat, Shad, Anchovy, &c. 11 species.
• 189. CYPRINUS. Carp. Three branchiostegous rays.
  • a. Jaw bearded or cirrose.
    • Barbel, Carp, Gudgeon, Tench.
  • b. Tail fin entire.
    • Carasse, Chub.
  • c. Tail fin trifid.
    • Gold-fish.
  • d. Tail fin bifid.
    • Minnow, Dace, Roach, Rud, Bleak, Bream.

The class of Fishes contains about 400 species, but very great additions have been made to this class by later discoveries: among which those made by Dr. Forskal, in Arabia, are not the least, as appears by his fragments lately published.

Great pains were taken by Artedi, and since by Gronovius, and our author, to distinguish the species by the number of the rays in the fins; and although, from repeated observations, they are found to agree in many species very re∣markably; yet, in others, they vary so much as not to establish a sufficient character. At present, in this system, the specifical characters are taken from a great variety of particulars; amongst which, however, the number of the rays in the fins is frequently the most distinctive, and whe∣ther so or not, it is subjoined to most species, and usually, as they have been observed by different authors. The form of the tail, the cirri, or beard at the mouth, the length of the jaw, the spots and

lines on the body, &c. all conspire in their turn to the same end.

Class V. INSECTA. INSECTS.

No part of the system of nature has undergone a greater change than this class; neither does our author stand more unrivalled, than in the excel∣lent arrangement he has given to this branch of natural history; which, before his time, was nearly without method. It comprehends 87 GENERA, disposed into seven orders, founded, in most of them, on the differences observable in the number and texture of the wings. Our intended brevity will not permit a detail of the genera, in the suc∣ceeding parts of the system; we must, therefore, now that we are descended to the inferior parts of the animal kingdom, only give the definitions of the several orders, with a few observations. The first order is called,

I. COLEOPTERA. Insects having the wings co∣vered with two crustaceous cases, divided by a longitudinal suture.

This order is the most numerous; it contains almost all those insects which go under the general name of Beetles: and includes upwards of 900 species, ranked under 30 genera. Among these are the Chafers, Stag-beetles, Leather-eaters, Car∣rion-beetles, Tortoise-beetles, Lady-flies, Honey-beetles, Weevils, Musk-beetles, Glow-worm, Spring-beetles, Water-beetles, Blister-beetle, Rove-beetle, Earwig, and several other genera.

II. HEMIPTERA. Half-winged insects; having the shells or cases semi-crustaceous, not divided by

a straight suture, but incumbent on each other in the margin. The beak curved inwards.

This order contains about 350 species, under 12 genera; among these are the Cock-roach, Camel-cricket, Locusts and Common Crickets, Lan∣thorn-fly, Flea-locust, Boat-fly, &c. Bug, a nu∣merous genus; Aphis, or Currant-louse; Cochi∣neal-insect, and others.

III. LEPIDOPTERA. Insects with four wings, imbricated or cloathed with fine scales or feathers: tongue spiral, and coiled up; body hairy.

This order contains only three genera; but the species are very numerous, nearly 800. The But∣terflies, Hawk-moths, and the Moths or Phalenae. Of the latter, LINNAEUS enumerates 460 species. This being the most beautiful tribe of insects, has been much sought after, and later entomologists have considerably increased this number.

IV. NEUROPTERA. Insects with 4 naked, trans∣parent, or reticulated wings; tail in most kinds without a sting.

Upwards of 80 species in 7 genera; among these are the Dragon-fly, May-fly, Spring-fly, Pearl-fly, Scorpion-fly, &c.

V. HYMENOPTERA, Insects with 4 membra∣naceous wings, excepting some few species, which are destitute of wings; females with the tail armed with a sting.

This is a numerous order; it contains 320 in∣sects in 10 genera; among these are the Saw-fly or Tenthredo, Tailed-wasp, Ichneumon-fly, Ichneu∣mon-wasp, Wasp, Bee, Ant, and Golden Wall-fly, &c.

VI. DIPTERA. Insects with two wings; fur∣nished also with a balance or club behind each wing.

This order, under 10 genera, contains near 270 species, among which are the Gad-flies, Gnats, Common Flesh-fly, Wasp-fly, Horse-fly, Bee-fly, and others.

VII. APTERA. Insects without wings, in either sex.

This order contains 290 species under 14 genera, and falls easily into three divisions.

1. With 6 legs: The Sugar-mite, Ground-flea, Death-watch, Louse, Common Flea.

2. With 8 to 11 legs: The Tick-spiders, Scor∣pion, Crab, King-crab, and Millepede.

3. With numerous legs: The Centipede and Gallyworm.

In forming the genera under each of these or∣ders, the antennae hold a principal rank, and par∣ticularly in the COLEOPTERA; but the author does not trust to them alone; the elytra or out∣ward cases, the head, the rostrum or mouth, the thorax, and tail; and indeed in almost every genus, some or other of them are called in to assist in forming the character.

In the HEMIPTERA, the rostrum gives a note of primary use; but here the antennae, wings, and feet come in also.

In the LEPIDOPTERA, the antennae and wings form the character.

In the NEUROPTERA, the mouth, wings, and tail.

In the HYMENOPTERA, the mouth, the wings, and the sting.

In the DIPTERA, the mouth or proboscis alone.

In the APTERA, the eyes, the tail, and the num∣ber of the feet, &c.

Class VI. VERMES.

The sixth and last class contains the VERMES, which are divided into five orders. LINNAEUS very early adopted the new system of Peysonnel, Jussieu, and some others, in introducing the corals and corallines into the animal kingdom, under the names of LITHOPHYTA and ZOOPHYTA. This system has had great light thrown upon it by the late excellent Mr. ELLIS, in his history of Coral∣lines, and several papers printed in the Philosophi∣cal Transactions.

As this is by far the most anomalous of all the classes, the characters of the orders are very va∣rious.

1. INTESTINA. Animals simple, naked, desti∣tute of limbs.

This order includes 7 genera; among which are the Guinea-worm, Ascarides, Earth-worm, Gourd∣worm, Leech, &c. It contains but 24 species.

II. MOLLUSCA. Animals simple, naked, not in∣cluded in a shell, but furnished with limbs.

This order includes 18 genera, containing 110 species. Among these rank the common naked Snail, Sea Hare of Rondeletius, Doris, Sea Mouse, Nereis, Ascidia, Actinia, or Sea Anemone, Tethys, Cuttle-fish, Sea Lungs, or Blubbers, Star-fish, and Echinus, called Sea Hedge-hog, and others.

III. TESTACEA. Animals, generally of the foregoing order, but included in a shell.

This order takes in the whole tribe of shells, consisting of upwards of 800 species, under 36 genera, and disposed in a method entirely new. The three first genera are the multivalves, the next fourteen bivalves, and the remainder univalves.

IV. LITHOPHYTA. Composite animals, affixed to, and fabricating a fixed calcareous base, called Coral.

This order contains 59 species, under four gene∣ra: the Tubipora, red tubular Coral; Madrepores or Brain Stones; Millepores; and another called Cel∣lepore.

V. ZOOPHYTA. Animal composite, resembling a flower, and springing from a vegetating stem.

This order contains 14 genera, of which nine are fixed, and the other locomotive: amongst the former rank the Isis or red Coral, Sea Fan, Al∣cyonium, Sponge, Corallines, &c.: among the latter, the Polype, Sea Pens, Taenia, Furia, and lastly the assemblage of chaotic, or microscopi∣cal Animalcula. The species under this order are 156.

The generical distinctions among the INTESTINA arise from the diversity of the body of the animal, almost solely.

In the MOLLUSCA, from the body and feelers, called tentacula, and from other parts.

In the TESTACEA, the included animal, the general differences between the shells themselves, but principally the cardo or hinge in the bivalves,

and the aperture in the univalves, furnish the ge∣neric note.

In the LITHOPHYTA, the inhabitant animal, and the form of the coral itself: and in the ZOOPHYTA, the animal, and the very different forms of the fabrifications, lay a foundation for the generic notes.

After having thus exhibited a view of the Classes, it remains that we give a general account of the method pursued in treating on each species. To this end it must be observed, that throughout the whole system, the classical character, that of the order, and the generical note, always make a part in the description of each species. After these, our author begins with his own specific name for the animal, established upon the most essential difference observable between that and every other species of the genus; and here it must be allowed, that he has, in general, happily suc∣ceeded, by giving, in the space of two or three lines, a distinction that more immediately points out the animal sought for, than the long and la∣boured descriptions of many foregoing authors. If the specific name is the same that is adopted in any of his former writings, he refers to it. He has, however, in many parts of this enlarged edition, formed new names to animals noticed in the former edition, and in the Fauna Suecica. Where indeed the essential or specific distinction is the point in view, this must frequently be the case, so long as new species continue to come in; for, as the essential character of each species results

from the most careful comparison of the whole genus, the introduction of a new one must, in many instances, so clash with the old, as to re∣quire, perhaps, a total alteration in every specific name of the genus.

After his own specific name, he gives the synonyms, and page of the most reputed and au∣thentic writers in each class; and particularly re∣fers to those who have best figured his subject; then the locus natalis, and in many instances, more especially among the Mammalia and Aves, a short but comprehensive history respecting the nature, economy, and uses of the animal. To every animal the author has affixed his trivial name, expressive, most commonly, of place where it is found, of its colour, form, or some quality or attribute, descriptive, as far as may be, of the ani∣mal; or, in a great variety of cases, where the subject has been well known by a single term, he retains that as his trivial name. To instance in the Partridge and Quail, which both belong to his genus established under the name Tetrao: he therefore calls the former Tetrao Perdix, and the latter Tetrao Coturnix.

It has been objected to LINNAEUS'S classification in various parts of his system, that he has thrown together subjects too different in their general appearance and economy, by keeping too closely to one character; to instance particularly in the MAMMALIA, by confining himself to the teeth. To this it may be answered, in general, that if only quadrupeds were to be classed, no system

needed to have bee built, as their number is so small: but when it is recollected, that all Nature was under his eye, and that therefore the subjects were almost infinite, it became necessary to form the basis of every great division or class, as far as possible, on one simple foundation. And perhaps it is the observance of this rule that has given LIN∣NAEUS'S system so greatly the advantage over all foregoing writers. For, as nature does not seem to have observed any system, ours must be artificial, and will ever have its anomalies. As an artificial system therefore, that must have the preference, which will most readily lead to the subject under investigation; in which case it is of small im∣portance where it is placed, and how far removed from others with which it seems to bear a similar and general appearance.

We shall close this brief view of the arrangement of animals, by exhibiting the number of subjects enumerated, all of which are synonymed by the author, in the 12th edition of his System.

• Mammalia 219
• Insects 3075
• Birds 931
• Vermes 1163
• Amphibia 291
• Various, from the Mantissae 140
• Fishes 398
• Total 6217.

With the first tome of the Systema Naturae is in∣timately connected a work of the professor's, pub∣lished under the title of MUSEUM Ludovicae Ulricae REGINAE, in quo animalia rariora exotica, imprimis

insecta, et conchylia describuntur et determinantur pro∣dromi instar editum. Holm. 1764, 8^o, pp. 720. This was drawn up, and published, by order of the queen of Sweden, who had constructed a copious and rich cabinet of natural history, at the palace of Drottningholm; the subjects of which, as hath been observed, LINNAEUS had been appointed to arrange. The great expence her majesty had be∣stowed in procuring, particularly insects and fhells, had given this collection an advantage that proved very favourable to our author, by throwing in his way a multitude of fine and very expensive objects, which otherwise, probably, he could have had no opportunity of describing; and these were, for∣tunately, all collected before the publication of the enlarged editions of the System.

In this work the exotic insects and shells only are introduced; of the former, 436; and of the latter, 434, with twenty-five of the Mollusca. The in∣sects chiefly consist of the large and beautiful Lepidoptera; and the shells abound with all their elegant varieties. These are described at large, with all that precision, brevity, and accurate ar∣rangement of the several parts, which every where manifests itself so happily in our author's writings. Both in entomology and conchology a new language is introduced; and these descriptions may well stand as models for future writings.

Annexed to this work is the second part, or rather only the prodromus, of the MUSEUM ADOLPHI Frederici REGIS, in quo animalia rariora, imprimis et exotica, aves, amphibia, pisces describuntur. 1764, pp.

110. In this additional volume are described at large 156 subjects of the animal kingdom, all be∣longing to the first four classes; and all acquired since the publication of the first part in 1754. Throughout the whole System, LINNAEUS has referred to these books for descriptions at large to all the exotics: and nothing could be more ac∣ceptable to the critical zoologist, than to see the plan of this volume perfected through the whole history of animals.

TOM. II. The VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

The second part of the Systema Naturae, relating to vegetables, in all the editions prior to the tenth, was very compendiously exhibited; the au∣thor having, after his Clavis Classium, only given the names of the genera, with their essential or ab∣breviated characters, without touching at all on specific distinctions, which were reserved for the present enlarged edition of the System, and for the SPECIES PLANTARUM, a work before spoken of. This volume contains upwards of 560 pages; and in the twelfth edition of 1767, by the accession of new materials, is enlarged to 731. It contains, in a most compendious manner, a view of the whole vegetable kingdom, as far as the subjects thereof had come under our author's own inspection, dis∣posed according to that system of which LINNAEUS had been the inventor, founded, as to the classical part, upon the sexes of plants; a system now al∣most universally received. It is in this branch

of the study of nature, that this great naturalist has so distinguished himself. From him botany boasts a new aera; and HALLER, one of the first writers of this age, in the same line of science, and who alone might dare to rival him, has, with a liberality of mind becoming a great man, allowed this supe∣riority to LINNAEUS.

Before we proceed to a particular account of this part of the system, it may not be improper to premise some observations on methods of botany in general, before our author wrote. It is needless to urge the necessity of method in the study of na∣ture, as it is the very soul of science; and, amidst such a multitude of objects which the vegetable kingdom affords, all attempts towards the acqui∣sition of knowledge without it, must end in un∣certainty and confusion. We have sufficient proofs of this in the writers upon plants before the in∣vention of systems, and see and deplore the want of them, in the loss of many valuable articles, not only in the Materia Medica, but in the Materia Pictoria, and Tinctoria of the antients. Articles, the virtues and properties of which appear to have been well ascertained, are now lost to us, for want of a more scientific arrangement of the subjects, and accuracy in the descriptions of them.

Botanic writers chose very different methods of arranging plants, not only before, but since, the invention of systematic botany. The al∣phabetic has been much followed, especially in local catalogues. Some have disposed the plants according to the time of flowering; as Pauli, in his

Quadripartitum Botanicum, published in 1639; Bester, in the Hortus Eystettensis, 1640; and Dil∣lenius, in the Catalogus Gissensis, 1719. Others have arranged them according to the different places of their growth; as the authors of the Historia Lugdu∣nensis, in 1587: and some according to their virtues in medicine. Others again, observing that numbers of vegetables agreed with each other in their general habit and appearance, or had a certain harmony and proportion in the form and disposition of their roots, leaves, flowers, or fruit; in their particular mode of growing, flowering, or foliation, saw that they naturally fell as it were into classes, agree∣able to such distinctions. Hence their division of trees, into pomiferae, pruniferae, bacciferae, nuciferae, glandiferae, &c.; of herbs, into bulbosae, siliquosae∣umbelliferae, verticillatae, papilionaceae, &c. These were so many classes or orders, which nature had so characterized that they could not escape their notice; and, could all the subjects of the vegetable kingdom be properly reduced to such combinations, and the whole chain properly connected, we should then see what is meant by the NATURAL METHOD, that ultimum et desideratum of botany, of which our author says, however,

Nec sperare fas est, quod nostra Aetas systema quoddam naturale videre queat, et vix seri nepotes.

Nevertheless the best writers of the last century, such were John and Caspar Bauhine, endeavoured to preserve the above∣mentioned arrangement, although it was in a rude manner. In this they were followed by our own countrymen Gerard and Parkinson, but as

they established no precise definitions to their classes, so in their subdivisions, or chapters, they paid little or no regard to the minuter parts of distinction, taken from the fructification; hence, nothing like generical notes can be discovered in their methods: so that the only resource, in find∣ing many of their plants, was, to read over their long and tedious descriptions, which, after all, were frequently insufficient to distinguish the plant sought for.

That great naturalist Conrade GESNER, who died in 1565, in his 50th year, appears to have been the first who thought, with any precision, of a method of classing plants from the flower, or fruit; but he only slightly touches thereon in his epistles; he lived not to bring any thing to perfection in this way. It was reserved for Caesalpinus, physician to Pope Clement VIII. to be the first author who arranged plants in a true systematic manner, in his Libri de Plantis, published in 1583, in which he establishes the characters principally from the fruit. It is wonderful, that after his time, though so many eminent botanists flourished, among whom were the two Bauhines, no one ever thought of pursu∣ing the plan he laid down, until Morison and Ray, who both published, nearly together, their separate systems, founded also upon dis∣tinctions principally drawn from the fruit. Since their time, others have laboured to bring their systems to perfection; as Knaut in Germany; Paul Herman, and Boerhaave, in Holland; and Dillenius, late professor at Oxford, had still far∣ther

perfected Mr. Ray's method, as is evident from the arrangement he has given to the British plants, in the third edition of that author's Synopsis.

Several elegant systems have also been formed from the flower, as the basis of the classical cha∣racter; in considering which, both the regularity and irregularity, as well as the number of the petals, have been made the principal distinction. Rivini, at Leipsic, in 1690, was the first who took the flower as the foundation of his method, as did Ruppius in 1718. But no one carried this me∣thod to such perfection as Tournefort, in 1694, who forms his classical character from the figure of the flower, and establishes his orders or subdivisions on the different situation of the fruit, whether above or below the empalement or receptacle.

Besides these methods, in which the authors have considered one part only, either flower or fruit, as the base of their systems, several others have been constructed of late years, in which ve∣getables have been arranged, as far as possible, according to what have been called the natural classes; the foundations of which take in a nu∣merous set of characters, arising from a combina∣tion and agreement in the habit of the plants, as well as their harmony in the essential parts of fructification. Among these, that of Van Royen, late professor at Leyden, is among the most elegant at∣tempts towards this ultimum in botany. This is exhibited in the Prodromus Florae Leydensis, 1740. He is followed by Gmelin, in the Flora Sibirica,

1747, &c. These authors, as also L. Gerard, in his Flora Gallo▪provincialis, Paris 1761, preserve the natural generical characters of LINNAEUS almost entire through their systems; and the latter writer has, with some variations, taken the orders of a natural method, constructed by B. Jussieu, for his classes. HALLER also planned, and brought to great perfection, a method of this kind, as is exhibited in his Enumeratio Stirpium Helvetiae, 1742, and in the Hortus Gottingensis, 1753, which he has since still more elaborated, in a work of infinite labour and merit, the Historia Stirpium Helvetiae, 3 tom. fol. 1768.

LINNAEUS himself very early attempted a na∣tural method; but it is evident he thought there were too many links wanting in the chain, to ren∣der it the readiest guide to botanical science; since he soon deserted it, although he continued to improve it to the last: however he only reduced the genera into orders, but did not venture so far as to form the classical part of a system on that plan. The present learned and indefatigable professor Dr. HOPE, at Edinburgh, whose zeal and success in cultivating and diffusing the principles of the Linnaean system are well known, has constructed perhaps the most elaborate attempt of this kind that the botanists have ever seen. We join with many others in wishing that he may be enabled to give it all that perfection which may encourage him to present it to the public.

Methods have also been formed from the dif∣ferent species and arrangement of the calyx, or cup

of the flower in plants. Professor Magnol, of Montpelier, published in 1720 on this plan; and LINNAEUS himself in 1737, but he did not pursue it.

Every method of arrangement hath its advan∣tage in some respect or other; and it is surely rather to be regretted, howsoever the flower may claim the preference, that a method founded in the distinctions of the fruit, should not also have as it were a secondary place in common use; for, as all artificial methods are only supposed to be so many succedanea to the natural one, a due attention to each might tend to illustrate the natural classes, to connect them, and reduce the anomalies, and so far pave the way to the accomplishment of that scheme, which, however, will yet by many be considered as quite impracticable in botany.

LINNAEUS was the first who constituted the stamina and pistils as the basis of an artificial me∣thod of arranging plants; and he tells us, in his CLASSES PLANTARUM, he was led to this by considering the great importance of these parts in vegetation. They alone are the essentials neces∣sary to fructification; all other parts, except the anthera and stigma, being wanting in some flowers; and the present philosophy of botany regards the former as the male, and the latter as the female organs of generation in plants. As such indeed they must be considered analogically, and in a phi∣losophical view; yet, perhaps, the Linnaean system, admirable as it is, would not have been less ac∣ceptable had the classical terms been expressive

only of number and situation, without regard to the offices of the parts in framing the terms. Ludwig, of Leipsic, who has endeavoured to com∣bine the systems of Rivinus and LINNAEUS, by taking his classes from the method of the former, and his orders from that of the latter, has avoided this mode of expression, in substituting the terms monantherae, monostylae, &c. &c.

The author begins the new and enlarged edition of the Systema Vegetabilium of 1767, by premising a compendious view of the philosophy of vege∣tation, and then proceeds to what he calls Delineatio Plantae, something analogous to what he had en∣titled, in the editions prior to the 10th, Methodus Demonstrandi Vegetabilia. Here he introduces all the terms he makes use of in describing plants, and, by a methodical and apt disposition of them, really explains them at the same time. After this, he gives the Clavis et Characteres Classium, and then comes to the system itself.

The prerogative of any artificial system in botany, is supposed to consist in its keeping toge∣ther, as much as possible, the genera, in what are called the natural classes or orders, and thus so far approaching to the system of nature. All artificial systems being founded on some, or other, or all the parts of fructification, without regard to habit, will be found in many instances to break the order of the natural classes, and disjoin genera, which nature seems to have classed. The more simple and uniform the classical characters of any system are, the more they are likely to interfere in this respect; nevertheless, it is pleasing to observe, how

well many of the natural classes are kept together in the Linnaean system; the characters of which enjoy the advantage of being very simple, and easy to retain in the memory, and of being found∣ed on the parts of plants as little subject to vari∣ation as any whatever: yet, like all other me∣thods, it has its defects; of which no one was more sensible than the author himself. There are many instances of particular species that break through the generical and classical characters of the system itself: but for these defects there is no other remedy, at present, than that which our au∣thor has applied, in the volume under considera∣tion, and which ought ever, in arrangements of this kind, to be rigidly observed. Wherever these anomalies take place, they are mentioned among the fictitious characters, under the class and order to which the number of stamina or pistils entitle them to a place.

The sexual system briefly is as follows:—All known plants are divided into 24 CLASSES; the characters of which are established upon the num∣ber, or different situation, or arrangement of the stamina or male organs; and the ORDERS, or sub∣divisions, of these classes, as far as possible, on a similar number, situation, or arrangement, of the pistils, or female organs.

The first twenty classes contain what the author calls hermaphrodite flowers, or such as have the sta∣mina and pistils both within the same cup or petals, or standing on the same receptacle, where those are wanting. Of these twenty, the first ten classes pro∣ceed in an uninterrupted series, from MONAN∣DRIA

to DECANDRIA; the plants of each having as many stamina as the title expresses.

The 11th class is DODECANDRIA, as there are no plants yet discovered which have only eleven stamina.

The 12th, ICOSANDRIA; such plants as have about 20 stamina, or more; but always arising from the calyx or corolla, and not from the recep∣tacle.

The 13th, POLYANDRIA; such as have from twenty to even a thousand stamina; but always arising from the receptacle.

The 14th class, DIDYNAMIA; such as have four stamina, two long and two short. The essential character of this class does not consist in the num∣ber of stamina, otherwise the plants might be re∣ferred to the tetrandria class; but, in having two of the stamina shorter than the other, one pistil only, and an irregularly-shaped corolla.

The 15th, TETRADYNAMIA; plants with six sta∣mina, four long and two short.

The 16th, MONADELPHIA; such as have the stamina not distinct at the base, but united into one body.

The 17th, DIADELPHIA; such as have the sta∣mina united at the base into two bodies.

The 18th, POLYADELPHIA; such as have the stamina united at the base into several bodies.

The 19th, SYNGENESIA; such as have the anthe∣rae, but not the filaments, coalescing together, so as to form a tube or cylinder, through which the pistil is commonly transmitted.

The 20th, GYNANDRIA; such as have the sta∣mina springing from the pistil itself.

The 21st, MONOECIA; such as have separate male and female flowers on the same plant.

The 22d, DIOECIA; such as have separate male and female flowers on separate plants.

The 23d, POLYGAMIA; such as have constantly, besides hermaphrodite flowers, others, either male or female, on the same plant.

The 24th, CRYPTOGAMIA; containing those plants the mode and organs of whose fructification are not yet sufficiently ascertained; heretofore called imperfect plants.

The secondary part of the system, the OR∣DERS, or subdivisions of the foregoing classes, are established on the number of the pistils or female parts, through a considerable part of the system; but in other parts, from various characters. Thus,

The arrangement from number is pursued no farther than through the first thirteen classes: that is, so long as the classical character, uninterrup∣tedly, depends on the number of stamina, so long the orders likewise depend on the number of pistils: but, when situation or different arrangement take place, the orders are most commonly founded on other distinctions, which we shall briefly specify.

The 14th class, or Didynamia, is divided into GYMNOSPERMIA and ANGIOSPERMIA: the former having four naked seeds; the latter having the seeds inclosed in a seed-vessel.

The 15th, Tetradynamia, has two orders, accor∣ding

to the size and shape of the pod or shale; SI∣LICULOSA, short; and SILIQUOSA, long.

The orders in the three next classes, Monadel∣phia, Diadelphia, and Polyadelphia, are formed from the NUMBER of the stamina.

Those of the Syngenesia class are six: in five of which the plants are POLYGAMIAE, and in the remaining one MONOGAMIAE; and the differences in the orders of the former, arise from the different structure or sex of the floscules, constituting the whole flower.

In the 20th class, Gynandria, the arrangement of the orders arises from the NUMBER of the sta∣mina, as in the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes.

In the 21st and 22d classes, the Monoecia and Dioecia, the classical characters of the foregoing parts of the system are adopted as characters of the orders, as far down as to the Monoecia class it∣self. Thus the first order of those classes contains MONANDROUS plants, and the last GYNANDROUS.

The 23d, the Polygamia class, is divided into three orders, as the plants are MONOECIOUS, DIOE∣CIOUS, or TRIOECIOUS.

The 24th and last class, Cryptogamia, is divided into four orders, containing the FILICES, MUSCI, ALGAE, and FUNGI.

Some Examples of Plants, throughout all the Classes and Orders of the Linnaean System; specifying also the Number of Genera under each Order, and the Number of Species in each Class, synonymed in the Species Plantarum.

Cl. 1. MONANDRIA. 34 species.

• Monogynia. 11 Genera; among which are, Canna, Indian Reed, Glass-wort, Mares Tail.
• Digynia. 4 Gen. Star-wort, Berried Orach.

2. DIANDRIA. 186.

• Monogynia. 29 Gen. Jasmine, Privet, Rosemary.
• Digynia. 1 Genus. Vernal Grass.
• Trigynia. 1 Genus. Pepper.

3. TRIANDRIA. 412.

• Monogynia. 29 Gen. Valerian, Saffron, Iris.
• Digynia. 29 Gen. Most of the Grasses and Grain, Sugar-cane.
• Trigynia. 11 Gen. Blinks, Minuartia, Polycarpon.

4. TETRANDRIA. 335.

• Monogynia. 61 Gen. Teasel, Scabious, Madder.
• Digynia. 6 Gen. Pursley Piert, Dodder.
• Tetragynia. 7 Gen. Holly, Pondweed, Pearlwort.

5. PENTANDRIA. 976.

• Monogynia. 138 Gen. Comfrey, Campanula, Hen∣bane, Buckthorn, Ivy, Periwincle.
• Digynia. 170 Gen. Gentian, Carrot, Hemlock.
• Trigynia. 16 Gen. Elder, Viburnum, Chickweed.
• Tetragynia. 2 Gen. Grass of Parnassus.
• Pentagynia. 9 Gen. Flax, Sun-dew.
• Polygynia. 1 Gen. Mouse-tail.

6. HEXANDRIA. 330.

• Monogynia. 56 Gen. Narcissus, Lilly, Tulip.
• Digynia. 2 Gen. Rice, Atraphaxis.
• Trigynic. 9 Gen. Dock▪ Colchicum.
• Tetragynia. 1 Gen. Petiveria, or Henweed▪
• Polygynia. 1 Gen. Water Plantain.

7. HEPTANDRIA. 6.

• Monogynia. 2 Gen. Horse Chesnut, Trientalis.
• Digynia. 1 Gen. Limeum.
• Tetragynia. 1 Gen. Saururus, or Lizard's Tail.
• Heptagynia. 1 Gen. Septas.

8. OCTANDRIA. 169.

• Monogynia. 31 Gen. Indian Cresses, Heath.
• Digynia. 4 Gen. Moehringia, Weinmannia.
• Trigynia. 5 Gen. Knotweed, Mangrove-grape.
• Tetragynia. 3 Gen. Paris, Moschatel.

9. ENNEANDRIA. 19.

• Monogynia. 4 Gen. Bay, Anacardium.
• Trigynia. 1 Genus. Rhubarb.
• Hexagynia. 1 Gen. Butomus, or Flowering Rush.

10. DECANDRIA. 425.

• Monogynia. 50 Gen. Rue, Bead-tree, Arbutus.
• Digynia. 12 Gen. Saxifrage, Soap-wort, Pink.
• Trigynia. 11 Gen. Bladder Campion, Catchfly.
• Pentagynia. 14 Gen. Sedum, Lychnis, Cockle.
• Decagynia. 2 Gen. Phytolacca, or Pokeweed.

11. DODECANDRIA. 131.

• Monogynia. 20 Gen. Asarabacca, Spiked Willow∣herb.
• Digynia. 2 Gen. Agrimony, Heliocarpus.
• Trigynia. 2 Gen. Dyers Weed, Spurge.
• Pentagynia. 1 Gen. Glinus.
• ...

• ... Dodecagynia. 1 Gen. House-leek.

12. ICOSANDRIA. 218.

• Monogynia. 10 Gen. Myrtle, Almond, Plumb.
• Digynia. 1 Gen. White-thorn and White Beam-tree.
• Trigynia. 2 Gen. Service-tree and Quicken-tree.
• Pentagynia. 6 Gen. Apple-tree, Medlar, Drop∣wort.
• Polygynia. 9 Gen. Rose, Strawberry, Cinquefoil.

13. POLYANDRIA. 269.

• Monogynia. 35 Gen. Poppy, Lime-tree, Cistus.
• Digynia. 4 Gen. Peony, Calligonum.
• Trigynia. 2 Gen. Lark-spur, Aconite.
• Tetragynia. 3 Gen. Bug-wort.
• Pentagynia. 3 Gen. Columbine, Nigella.
• Hexagynia. 1 Gen. Water-aloe.
• Polygynia. 18 Gen. Anemone, Ranunculus.

14. DIDYNAMIA. 465.

• Gymnospermia. 35 Gen. Mint, Hore-hound, Thyme.
• Angiospermia. 62 Gen. Eyebright, Toad-flax, A∣canthus.

15. TETRADYNAMIA. 215.

• Siliculosa. 14 Gen. Cresses, Scurvy-grass.
• Siliquosa. 17 Gen. Mustard, Rhadish, Kale.

16. MONADELPHIA. 181.

• Pentandria. 4 Gen. Hermannia, Melochia.
• Decandria. 3 Gen. European Geraniums.
• Endecandria. 1 Gen. Brownaea, or Porto Bello Rose.
• Dodecandria. 1 Gen. Pentapetes.
• Polyandria. 17 Gen. Mallow, Hibiscus.

17. DIADELPHIA. 512.

• Pentandria. 1 Gen. Monnieria.
• Hexandria. 2 Gen. Fumitory.
• Octandria. 2 Gen. Milk-wort.
• Decandria. 27 Gen. Broom, Furze, Lupin, Pease.

18. POLYADELPHIA. 37.

• Pentandria. 2 Gen. Monsonia, Cacao, or Cho∣colate.
• Icosandria. 1 Gen. Orange-tree.
• Polyandria. 7 Gen. St. John's Wort.

19. SYNGENESIA. 905.

• Polygamia equalis. Florets all hermaphrodite. 40 Gen. Lettuce, Dandelion, Thistle, Hemp, Agrimony.
• Polygamia superflua. Florets of the disk, hermaphro∣dite; of the radius, female. 37 Gen. Groundsel, Tansy, Aster, Chamomile.
• Polygamia frustranea. Florets of the disk, herma∣phrodite; of the radius, neutral. 7 Gen. Sun-flower, Rudbeckia, Centaurea, Knap∣weed.
• Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk, male; of the radius, female. 13 Gen. Marigold.
• Polygamia segregata. Florets in separate cups, with∣in a common calyx. 6 Gen. Globe Thistle.
• Monogamia. Simple flower. 7 Gen. Cardinal-flower, Violet, Balsam.

20. GYNANDRIA. 200.

• Diandria. 9 Gen. Orchis, Satyrium.
• Triandria. 4 Gen. Ferraria, Sisyrinchium.
• Tetrandria. 1 Gen. Nepenthes.
• Pentandria. 3 Gen. Ayenia, Passion-flower.
• ...

• ... Hexandria. 2 Gen. Birthwort.
• Decandria. 2 Gen. Helicteres.
• Dodecandria. 1 Gen. Cytinus.
• Polyandria. 8 Gen. Arum, Grass-wrack.

21. MONOECIA. 290.

• Monandria. 5 Gen. Horned Pond-weed, Elaterium.
• Diandria. 2 Gen. Anguria, Ducks-meat.
• Triandria. 12 Gen. Bur-weed, Sedge, Sea Laurel.
• Tetrandria. 8 Gen. Birch, Box, Nettle, Mulberry.
• Pentandria. 9 Gen. Xanthium, Amaranthus.
• Hexandria. 2 Gen. Zizania, Pharus.
• Heptandria. 1 Gen. Guettarda.
• Polyandria. 13 Gen. Arrow-head, Oak, Hasel.
• Monadelphia. 15 Gen. Pine-tree, Cypress, Ricinus.
• Syngenesia. 6 Gen. Gourd, Cucumber, Bryony.
• Gynandria. 2 Gen. Andrachne.

22. DIOECIA. 157.

• Monandria. 1 Gen. Najas.
• Diandria. 3 Gen. Vallisneria, Willow.
• Triandria. 5 Gen. Berry-bearing Heath.
• Tetrandria. 5 Gen. Misselto, Gale, Sea Buck∣thorn.
• Pentandria. 12 Gen. Spinach, Hemp, Hops.
• Hexandria. 6 Gen. Black Bryony, Poplar.
• Enneandria. 2 Gen. Mercury, Frog-bit.
• Decandria. 4 Gen. Schinus, Myrtle-leaved Sumach.
• Dodecandria. 2 Gen. Moon-seed, Cretan Hemp.
• Polyandria. 1 Gen. Cliffortia.
• Monadelphia. 6 Gen. Juniper, Yew.
• Syngenesia. 1 Gen. Butcher's Broom.
• Gynandria. 1 Gen. Clutia.

23. POLYGAMIA. 163.

• Monoecia. 22. Gen. White Hellebore, Orach, Maple.
• Dioecia. 10 Gen. Gleditsia, Ash-tree, Tupelo.
• Trioecia. 2 Gen. Fig-tree, Carob.

24. CRYPTOGAMIA. 657.

• Filices. 18 Gen. Horse-tail, Adders Tongue, Fern.
• Musci. 11 Gen. Wolfs-Claw Moss, Goldilocks.
• Algae. 12. Gen. Liverwort, Byssus, Fucus.
• Fungi. 10. Agarics, Mushrooms, Morels.

App. PALMAE. 11.

• 9 Gen. Date, Coco-nut, Cabbage-palm.

The GENERA are established upon the assem∣blage of all the parts of fructification compared together, according to their number, figure, pro∣portion, and situation. Of these we have spoken before, as they constitute a large volume in oc∣tavo, to which we refer.

But, besides these NATURAL CHARACTERS, or GENERA at large, our author has invented, for brevity's sake, two other kinds of characters, which he calls FACTITIOUS and ESSENTIAL. The former serve to distinguish each genus from other genera of the same artificial order only, by enume∣rating the most remarkable differences: these greatly facilitate the labour of a young botanist. The ESSENTIAL characters, could they be rendered perfect, are designed to distinguish the genera from each other in the natural orders; but they are not complete as yet, except in a few instances; and

possibly they exist but in a small number: never∣theless, they are attempted through the whole system, to save the trouble of turning over the na∣tural characters at large.

As this volume was intended to contain all the plants hitherto known, consequently the natural characters could not be introduced; but the fic∣titious and essential ones are placed, the former at the head of each class, and the latter before each genus. With each generical name the author refers to the number where it is exhibited at large, in the last edition of the Genera Plantarum in 1764, and to the page of the Species Plantarum of 1762, where the species are detailed and the sy∣nonyms added; as he gives in this volume only the specific name invented by himself.

In forming the last branch of the system, the SPECIFIC names, LINNAEUS has done more than all the writers on the subject had done before him, and taken the utmost pains to fix them upon distinctions as permanent and invariable as pos∣sible. This is indeed the ultimate object of all method; and on this plan he has given new spe∣cific names to all the plants that have come to his knowledge: names, not taken (as had been cus∣tomary before) from that of the discoverer, the likeness of the plant to other species, place of growth, time of flowering, its size, the colour of the flower, or of the plant, smell, taste, or vir∣tues in medicine, or any other such vague, in∣definite, or mutable circumstance; but from some remarkable difference in the root, trunk,

stalk, and particularly the leaf, foliation, ramifica∣tion, or some other abiding distinction.

Besides these specific names or descriptions, LIN∣NAEUS has invented, and, in all his works, after the first edition of the Species Plantarum in 1753, has applied what he calls TRIVIAL names to each plant, consisting of a single adjunct to the generical name, expressive, if possible, of some essential dis∣tinction of the species: as for instance, integrifo∣lia, laciniata, erecta, repens, aquatica, montana, &c.: sometimes, of the name of the inventor; and where, from the laws of his Fundamenta Botanica, he has been obliged to change the generical name of a plant well known before, and especially if it was an officinal one, he frequently retains the old generical name as his trivial epithet. Thus as the Penny-royal, or Pulegium, really belongs to the Mentha genus, according to his characters, he therefore calls it Mentha Pulegium. The Horse∣radish, known by the old name Armoracia, as it agrees with the Cochlearia genus, he calls Cochle∣aria Armoracia.

The VARIETIES of plants, which, for want of fixing true specific characters, had almost increased the number of plants double what LINNAEUS thinks they really are, in this work, as in the SPECIES, are totally excluded. Our author has indeed, in the opinion of many of his contemporary botanists, carried this matter too far, in disallowing the name of species to many plants that are thought to have sufficiently permanent distinctions.

To conclude, the space of time elapsed since the publication of the Genera and Species Plantarum, to∣gether

with the vast quantity of new materials ac∣quired from all parts of the world, enabled our author greatly to elaborate this last edition, and to amend very many generical and specific characters; as also to make many removes, tending greatly to the advancement and perfection of his work. Among these removes, many have taken place, particularly in the Monoecious, Dioecious, and Polyga∣mous classes; which is the less to be wondered at, since observations have confirmed, that there are plants of these classes which, in their younger state, have produced only male flowers, afterwards both male and female, and at length only female.

The Species Plantarum contains near seven thou∣sand three hundred plants. In this volume, the number is augmented by the addition of new plants, and such as were unknown by our author before, to above seven thousand eight hundred.

It is proper to remark, that this second tome of the System was immediately preceded by MAN∣TISSA PLANTARUM Generum, editionis sextae, et Specie∣rum editionis secundae. Holm. 1767, pp. 142. in which are described, as in the Genera Plantarum, the natural characters at large of forty-four genera, newly constructed. These are followed by an enu∣meration of upwards of four hundred and thirty new species, with their synonyms, as in the Species Plantarum. All these plants are included in the volume of the System of which we have just given the account.

TOM. III. The FOSSIL KINGDOM.

We are now to accompany our author into the Fossil kingdom; in which, though he very early gave a specimen of his method of classing, he did not fully exemplify, as in vegetables, until the year 1768, when the third tome of the 12th edition of the Systema was published, containing the REGNUM LAPIDEUM. This volume makes 222 pages, and is concluded with a short appendix of some unno∣ticed, or not well described animals and vegetables; together with a general index of the author's own generical names throughout every part of the System, distinguishing by a different type the subjects of the three kingdoms, the whole amounting to 1820 genera.

In arranging Fossils, there have been various me∣thods invented; each of which have had their pa∣trons, and, for different purposes, each have their advantage. Some have founded the basis of their system on the figure, colour, structure, and other ex∣ternal and visible characters; yet, scarcely ever trusting solely to these, they called in the aid of chemistry, so far at least, as the mineral acids would assist them. Others, as the professed che∣mists and metallurgists, have established their ar∣rangement chiefly on chemical principles, as more immediately leading to the origin of fossil bodies in general; on which it must be acknowledged, the best basis for a system must be built, when we are happy enough to get sufficient light for this pur∣pose: and at present, mineralogists throughout the world seem more intent on this view than ever:

and probably the due consideration and extension of the volcanic system, will open new sources of information in this way.

This volume begins with LINNAEUS'S own theory of the origin of fossil bodies in general, and their several combinations into those forms in which we meet with them in the body of the earth. The methodical and abbreviated manner in which our author has here given his philosophy of fossil bodies, renders it incapable of an ab∣stract. He then proceeds to give a synoptical or classical view of the several systems of arranging those bodies, as they stand exhibited in the best authors on the subject, beginning with Bromelius, who published in 1730, and enumerates Wal∣lerius in 1747, Woltersdorf in 1748, Cartheuser in 1755, Justi 1757, Anomymus [Cronstedt] in 1758, and concludes with Vogel in 1762. To each of these he has subjoined short remarks relating to their methods, and theory of fossil bodies, and concludes this introductory part with an ex∣planation of the terms of art used in his own work.

In these termini artis, our author, with his usual precision, has defined a set of terms equally new and curious, which are principally adapted to, and used in, the ultimate and most difficult part of the System, the specific characters. They are happily framed to express all differences in the figures of fossil bodies; in their crust, or outward appear∣ance; their superficies; their component particles, or fibres; in their texture, whether plated, fissile, &c.; in their hardness; or in their colour: the alterations

they undergo by solution, whether by acids, or by fire.

It has been doubted by some of the most respectable mineralogists, whether we ought to descend below what are called generical distinctions in the fossil kingdom, so infinitely do the subjects thereof vary, and so imperceptible in general is that gradation by which they run into each other, in the various combined forms, in which they are found in the earth. In the mean time, some distinctions of this kind seem quite necessary in systems established principally on external cha∣racters. Those which have for their basis the elementary or constituent principles of bodies, as ana∣lyzed, may stand with propriety in the form of synoptical tables, as exemplified in Cronstedt's mi∣neralogy. LINNAEUS and Wallerius were among the first who attempted the arduous task of fixing the specific characters: whether future mineralo∣gists will adhere to, and improve this part of the scheme, time only must shew.

In all systems of the fossil kingdom, writers have been more particularly embarrassed by the earths and stones, especially when those have been more or less reduced to the state of ores, by the admixture of metallic principles. Salts, inflamma∣bles, and metals, generally falling more easily, and almost naturally, into their several classes, or or∣ders. The chemical systematics and metallur∣gists, begin usually with the earths, considering them as the basis of stones: LINNAEUS begins with the latter, professing to take a middle way between the mere metallurgist, and those who

characterize from external appearance only. He divides the whole REGNUM LAPIDEUM into three classes, under the names of Petrae, Minerae, and Fossilia, each being subdivided into several orders, the whole comprehending 54 genera. We must only give a general account of his classical cha∣racters, and those of the orders; and enumerate the genera under each, with some of the most dis∣tinguished species.

Class I. PETRAE. STONES.

Fossil bodies originating from a terrene princi∣ple by cohesion:

Simple, as being destitute of saline, inflammable and metallic principles, as component parts there∣of:

Fixed, as not being entirely and intimately so∣luble: and,

Similar, as consisting of homogenous component parts.

Order I. HUMOSAE. Originating from vegeta∣ble earth: combustible, and leaving gross light ashes.

Order II. CALCARIAE. Originating from cal∣careous marine animal bodies: becoming light and porous in the fire, and falling into an impal∣pable powder.

Order III. ARGILLACEAE. Originating from the viscid sediment, of the sea: somewhat unctuous to the touch, and hardening in the fire.

Order IV. ARENATAE. Originating from the precipitation of rain-water: extremely hard, strik∣ing

fire with steel, and by triture yielding a very rough powder.

Order V. AGGREGATAE. Originating from a mixture of the foregoing, the interstices usually filled up with quartz, spar, or glimmer.

GENERA of STONES.

I. HUMOSAE. Slaty Stones.

• ...1. SCHISTUS, Slate.
  • Base; vegetable mould: breaking into,
  • Fragments; fissile, horizon∣tal, plane, opake, yield∣ing to the knife, and combustible.

II. CALCAREAE. Calcareous Stones.

• ...2. MARMOR. Marble.
  • Base; animal earth.
  • Fragments; indeterminate, irregular, yielding to the knife.
  • Effervescing with acids, though not completely soluble therein; but easily falling into lime.
• ...3. GYPSUM. Plaister.
  • Base; calcareous earth, sa∣turated with acid.
  • Fragments; indeterminate, irregular, yielding to the knife, component particles impalpable.

• ...
  • Fixed; not effervescing with nor soluble in acids.
• ...4. STIRIUM. Fibrous alabaster.
  • Base; gypseous earth.
  • Fragments; close, parallel, yielding to the knife.
• ...5. SPATUM. Spar.
  • Base; calcareous earth, from a dissolved state, form∣ed into,
  • Fragments; rhombeous, plane, and polished.

III. ARGILLACEAE. Argillaceous Stones.

• ...6.TALCUM. Soap-earth.
  • Base; indurated clay:
  • Particles; impalpable, yield∣ing to the knife, and somewhat unctuous to the touch; hardening in the fire.
• ...7. AMIANTUS. Asbest, earth-flax.
  • Base; clayey: Fragments; thready.
• ...8. MICA. Talc.
  • Base; clay from a dissolved state, formed into,
  • Particles; membranaceous shining, tough, sepa∣rable.

IV. ARENATAE. Sand Stones. Free Stone.

• ...9. Cos. Whetstone.
  • Base; sand conglutinated:
  • Fragments; irregular, sub∣opake, striking fire with steel: breaking into,

• ...
  • Particles; granulated.
• ...10. QUARTZUM. Quartz.
  • Originating from wa∣ter:
  • Fragments; indeterminately angular and acute:
  • Particles; uniform, and pellucid.
• ...11. SILEX. Flint.
  • Base; chalk or animal earth conglutinated into an uniform substance.
  • Fragments; indeterminate, but convex on one side, and concave on the other:
  • Particles; uniform.

V. AGGREGATAE. Compound Stones.

12.SAXUM. Rock-stone.

Base; heterogeneous; compounded of par∣ticles of the foregoing orders, variously con∣glutinated.

SPECIES OF STONES.

The PETRAE are divided into five orders.

I. HUMOSAE. Slaty Stones.

1. SCHISTUS. Slate. 13 species; among which are,

• 2. Tabularis; Table Slate.
• 3. Atratus; Black Shale.
• 5. Ardesia; Blue House Slate.
• 9. Nigrica; Black Crayon.

II. CALCARIAE. Calcareous Stones.

2. MARMOR. Marble. 15 species.

• 1. Schistosum; Black stay Marble.
• 2. Nobile; Parian Marble, and all its varieties in colour and va∣riegation.
• 3. Florentinum; Floren∣tine Marble.
• 6. Rude; White-grain Limestone.
• 7. Micans; Scaly Lime∣stone.

3. GYPSUM. Plaister Stone. 3 species.

• 2. Usuale; Common Plai∣ster.
• 3. Alabastrum; Ala∣baster.

4. STIRIUM. Fibrous Alabaster. 4 species.

• 1. Gypseum; Fibrous Gypsum, or English Talc.

5. SPATUM. Spar. 14 species.

• ...a. Soluble in aqua fortis.
  • 1. Speculare; Soft Spar; of different colours.
  • 2. Duplicans; Refracting Spar.
  • 5. Compactum; Sub-dia∣phanous compact Spar, of different colours.
  • ...

• ...
  • 6. Tinctum; Pellucid co∣loured Spar, as spu∣rious Topaz, Emerald, Sapphire.
• ...b. Not soluble in aqua fortis.
  • 12. Campestre; Felt-Spat.

III. ARGILLACEAE. Argillaceous Stones.

6. TALCUM. Soap-earth, 12 species.

• 3. Rubrica; Ruddle.
• 4. Smectis; French Chalk; Soap-earth.
• 6. Serpentinus; Serpent Stone.
• 7. Nephriticus; Nephri∣tic Stone.
• 9. Corneus; Horn-blend.

7. AMIANTUS. Earth Flax. 10 species.

• 1. Asbestus; Asbestos.
• 2. Plumosus; Plumose Asbest.
• 7. Suber; Mountain Cork.
• 9. Aluta; Mountain Lea∣ther.

8. MICA. Talc. 10 species.

• 1. Membranacea; Mus∣covy Glass.
• 4. Aurata; Gold Glimmer.
• 7. Talcosa; Green Talc.

IV. ARENATAE. Sand Stones.

9. Cos. Whetstone. 16 species.

• 1. Cotaria; Grind-stone.
• 10. Filtrum; Filtring Stone.
• 15. Molaris; Mill Stone.
• 16. Fundamentalis; Build∣ing Stone.

10. QUARTZUM. Quartz. 8 species.

• 1. Hyalinum; Pellucid Rock Quartz.
• 2. Coloratum; Coloured Rock Quartz, yel∣low, red, blue, &c.
• 3. Lacteum; Milky Quartz.
• 6. Cotaceum; Granulated Quartz.
• 8. Nobile; Pebble Quartz.

11. SILEX. Flint. 16 species.

• ...
  a. Vague or loose Flints.
  • 1. Cretaceus; Common Flint.
  • 2. Pyromachus; Gun Flint.
  • 4. Haemachates; Aegyp∣tian Pebble, Mocha Stone.
  • 6. Opalus; Opal.
  • 7. Onyx; Cameyeu.
  • 8. Chalcedonius; Chal∣cedony.
  • 9. Carneolus; Carne∣lian.
  b. Rock Flints.
  • 10. Achates; Agate.
  • 11. Petrofilex; Chert.
  • 13. Jaspis; Jasper.

V. AGGREGATAE. Rock Stones. Compound Stones.

12. SAXUM. Rock Stone. 39 species.

• 1. Porphyrius; Porphyry, of different co∣lours.
• 2. Trapezum; Trap Stone.
• 19. Granite; Granite.
• 20. Fusorium; Founder's Granite.
• 39. Silicinum; Pudding Stone.

These stones are composed of heterogeneous particles from the foregoing orders, conglutinated in a various manner.

Class II. MINERAE. MINERALS.

Fossil bodies originating from a saline principle by chrystallization,

Compound, as consisting of a base, united with saline, inflammable, or metallic principles,

Soluble, perfectly, in the appropriate menstruum.

Order I. SALIA. Sapid bodies soluble in water: distinguished from each other by their different effects on the organs of taste.

Under this order are arranged, to the great of∣fence of most mineralogists, all the Gems or pre∣cious stones, notwithstanding their texture and in∣solubility, as also many other lapidose chrystallized bodies. To this our author tells us he was led, by considering that all regular polyedrous figures or bodies in the mineral kingdom, are the result of chrystallization, which can only take place under re∣quisite and certain degrees of fluidity; and therefore, whether they are saline or lapidose chrystals, they must owe their figure to the same uniform prin∣ciple operating on them in either case, while in the fluid state; hence, from the similarity of the figure, with the chrystals of nitre, Mountain Chrystal hath a place in the same genus: the Topaz with the Borax: the Diamond and Ruby with Alum. LINNAEUS hath given his reasons more at large in a paper published in the first volume of the Amoenitates Academicae: and hath since added

Chrystallos quod subjecerim salibus ne quemquam offendat mutet vocem salis in chrystalli, si magis placeat, in verbis erimus faciles.

Order II. SULPHURA. Inflammable bodies; flaming and odorous while burning: soluble in oil: distinguished from each other by their different effect on the organs of smell.

Order III. METALLA. Metals; shining heavy bodies, fusible in the fire, and soluble in appro∣priated acid menstrua: distinguished from each other by inspection.

GENERA of MINERALS.

I. SALIA. Salts or Chrystals.

• ...13. NITRUM. Nitre.
  • Salt: atmospherical, pungent. A peculiar acid.
  • Chrystal: an hexaedral prism, with hexaedral pyramids.
  • Taste: cold and pungent.
  • In the fire: fusible and de∣tonating.
• ...14. NATRUM. Natron.
  • Salt: calcareous, sub-al∣kaline.
  • Chrystal: peculiar; a te∣traedal prism, of penta∣gonal planes, two broad and two narrow, alter∣nately vertical: each pyramid or extremity forming two plane pa∣rallelograms.
  • Taste: bitter.
  • In the fire: liquefying.
• ...15. BORAX. Borax.
  • Salt: alkaline (doubtful whe∣ther it is a natural salt.)
  • Chrystal: octaedral, pris∣matic; both pyramids truncated.
  • (Chrystal sometimes dif∣ferent.)
  • Taste: mild.
  • In the fire: bubbling: vi∣trescent.
• ...

• ... 16. MURIA. Sea Salt.
  • Salt: muriatic, neutral:
  • Chrystal: hexaedral; or cubic.
  • Taste: austere.
  • In the fire: crackling.
• ...17. ALUMEN. Alum.
  • Salt: earthy, acid.
  • Chrystal: octaedral, com∣posed of trigonal planes.
  • Taste: styptic.
  • In the fire: frothing.
• ...18. VITRIOLUM. Vitriol.
  • Salt: metallic, acid, earthy.
  • Chrystal: a polyedrous, rhombic tessera; but subject to variation.
  • Taste: styptic.
  • In the fire: calcinable.

II. SULPHURA. Inflammables.

• ...19. AMBRA. Ambergrease.
  • The Sulphur: inert.
  • Fume: In smell; ambrosiac.
  • In colour; grey.
• ...20. SUCCINUM. Amber.
  • The Sulphur: inert.
  • ...Fume: In smell; sweet.
  • In colour; brown.
• ...21. BITUMEN. Bitumen.
  • The Sulphur: inert.
  • Fume: In smell; unpleasant.
  • In colour; black.
• ...22. PYRITES. Sulphur.
  • The Sulphur: charged with vitriol.
  • Fume: In smell; pungent and acid.
  • In taste; salt.

• ...
  • In colour; yellow.
  • Flame: blue.
  • Soluble; in oil.
  • ...23. ARSENICUM. Arsenic.
    • The Sulphur: metallic.
    • Fume: In smell; like garlic.
    • In taste; sweet:
    • In colour; white.
    • Soluble; in heated water, and other liquors.

III. METALLA. Metals.

a. Semi-metals, not malleable.

• ...24. HYDRARGYRUM. Mercury.
  • Metal: fluid, dry, white.
  • In the fire: volatilizing before ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, white.
• ...25. MOLYBDAENUM. Wadd.
  • Metal: not fusible, grey, colouring the fingers. (scarcely a metal.)
  • In the fire: not fusible.
  • ...Solution:
  • Glass: sub-ferruginous co∣loured.
• ...26. STIBIUM. Antimony.
  • Metal: friable, white, fibrose.
  • In the fire: volatilizing after ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua regia, white.

• Glass: red with a yellow tinge.
• ...27. ZINCUM. Zinc, Tutenag.
  • Metal: somewhat malleable, but easily breaking; blueish, white; dull sound.
  • In the fire: melting before ignition, and burning with a yellowish green flame into a white light calx.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, white.
• ...28. VISMUTUM. Bismuth.
  • Metal: somewhat mal∣leable, but very fra∣gile, laminose, yellow∣ish white.
  • In the fire: fusible before ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, water coloured: in aqua regia, yellow.
  • Glass: yellowish brown.
• ...29. COBALTUM. Cobalt.
  • Metal: fragile, light grey.
  • In the fire: not fusible.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis and aqua regia, red.
  • Glass: blue.

b. Metals. Malleable.

• ...30. STANNUM. Tin.
  • Metal: easily malleable, white, crackling on flexure, not sonorous.

• ...
  • In the fire: fusible be∣fore ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua regia, yellow; (in aqua fortis it dissolves, and pre∣cipitates into a white powder.)
  • Glass: white and opaline, difficultly produced.
• ...31. PLUMBUM. Lead.
  • Metal: easily malleable, blueish-white: not so∣norous.
  • In the fire: fusible before ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, clear water colour.
  • Precipitate: white.
  • Glass: yellow.
• ...32. FERRUM. Iron.
  • Metal: very hard, and dif∣ficultly malleable; ob∣scure blueish grey co∣lour: sonorous.
  • In the fire: not fusible till after ignition, and throwing off sparks in a stronger fire.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, brown.
  • Glass: brown, with a slight greenish tinge.
• ...33. CUPRUM. Copper.
  • Metal: hard, malleable, red, sonorous.

• ...
  • In the fire: fusing after ignition, with a green flame.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, blue: in aqua regia, or the vegetable acids, green.
  • Glass: unmixed ferrugi∣nous coloured, other∣wise of a bright blue.
• ...34.ARGENTUM. Silver.
  • Metal: very malleable, bright white, sonorous, perfect, and indestruc∣tible.
  • In the fire: fusing after ignition.
  • Solution: in aqua fortis, white.
  • Glass: opaline.
• ...35.AURUM. Gold.
  • Metal: extremely malleable, yellow, not sonorous, perfect, and indestruc∣tible.
  • In the fire: fusing after ignition, with a blueish hue.
  • Solution: in aqua regia, yellow.
  • Glass: purple.

SPECIES of MINERALS.

The MINERAE are divided into three Orders.

I. SALIA. Salts or Chrystals.

13. NITRUM. Nitre. 9 species.

• ...
  a. Saline.
  • 1. Nativum; Native Salt Petre.
  b. Quartzose.
  • 2. Chrystallus montana; Mountain Chrystal.
  • 3. Fluor; Coloured Chry∣stal: from the va∣rieties of which are the true Hyacinth, the false Topaz, Ruby, Amethyst, Sapphire, Beryl, E∣merald.
  c. Calcareous.
  • 5. Truncatum; Hexago∣nal, truncated Spar.
  • 8. Suillum; Sparry Swine Stone.

14. NATRUM. Natron. 14 species.

• ...
  a. Saline.
  • 1. Antiquorum; Native, mineral Alkali.
  • 2. Murorum; Aphronitrum.
  • 3. Fontanum; Epsom Salt.
  b. Lapidose.
  • 6. Cristatum; Spatose, decaedrous Natron.
  • 8. Glaciale; Gypseous, pel∣lucid, fusiform Na∣tron.
  • 9. Selenites; Selenite; rhombic Natron.
  • 13. Hyodon; Pyramidal, or Dog-tooth Spar.

15. BORAX. Borax. 6 species.

• ...
  a. Saline.
  • 1. Tincal. Native Borax.
  b. Lapidose.
  • 2. Gemma Nobilis; La∣pidose, prismatic, pellucid Borax, with truncated pyramids: yellow, Topaz: pale green, Chryso∣lite: sea green, Beryl: deep green, Emerald.
  • 3. Basaltes; Cockle, or Shirl.
  • 4. Electricus; the Tour∣malin.
  • 5. Granatus; the Garnet.

16. MURIA. Sea Salt. 9 species.

• ...
  a. Saline.
  • 1. Marina; Sea Salt.
  • 3. Montana; Fossil Salt.
  b. Lapidose.
  • 6. Phosphorea; Bononian Stone.
  • 7. Chrysolampis; Sparry Fluor, or Derbyshire Spar.

17. ALUMEN. Alum. 6 species.

• ...
  a. Native.
  • 1. Nativum; Native Alum, Plumose, &c.
  b. Soluble.
  • 2. Commune; Alum Slate.
  • 3. Romanum; Stone Alum, or calcareous Alum Stone.

• ...
  c. Lapidose.
  • 5. Spatosum; Spatose Alum, or false Amethyst.
  • 6. Gemma pretiosa; Dia∣mond, Ruby, Sap∣phire.

18. VITRIOLUM. Vitriol. 8 species.

• ...
  a. Simple.
  • 1. Martis; of Iron.
  • 2. Cyprinum; of Copper.
  • 3. Album; of Zinc.
  b. Compound.
  • 5. Triplum; Vitriol of Iron, Zinc, and Copper.
  • 8. Atramentarium; Vi∣triols mineralized with friable Stone; such are, red Chal∣citis; grey Sory; black Melanteria; yellow Misy.
  c. Lapidose.
  • Tetraedrum; Spatose Vitriol of Zinc.

II. SULPHURA. Inflammables.

19. AMBRA. Ambergrease. 2 species.

• 1. Ambrosiaca; Grey.
• 2. Vulgatior; Brown.

20. SUCCINUM. Amber.

• 1. Electricum; Amber, diaphanous, o∣pake, white, yel∣low, brown.

21. BITUMEN. Bitumen. 10 species.

• 1. Naptha; Naphta.
• 2. Petroleum; Rock Oil.
• 3. Maltha; Jews Pitch.
• 5. Asphaltum; Fossil Pitch.
• 6. Ampelites; Peat.
• 7. Lithanthrax; Common Coal, or Schistose Bitumen.
• 8. Gagas; Jet.
• 9. Suillum; Calcareousfoe∣tid Bitumen, com∣pact, granulated, squamose, spati∣form, chrystalline.

22. PYRITES. Sulphurs. 7 species.

• 1. Nativum; Native Sul∣phur.
• 2. Auripigmentum; Or∣piment.
• 3. Chrystallinus; Chrys∣tallised Pyrites, Marcasite.
• 4. Figuratus; Figured Py∣rites.
• 5. Ferri; Iron Pyrites.
• 6. Cupri; Copper Pyrites.
• 7. Aquosus; Liver-co∣loured.

23. ARSENICUM. Arsenic. 8 species.

• 1. Testaceum; Solid tes∣taceous Arsenic.
• 4. Sandaraca; Red Arse∣nic, mineralized with Sulphur.
• 5. Sulphuratum; Arse∣nical Marcasite.
• 6. Albicans; Mineralized with Iron.

III. METALLA. Metals.

24. HYDRARGYRUM. Quicksilver. 5 species.

• 1. Virgineum; Native Quicksilver.
• 2. Chrystallinum; Cubic, chrystallized Quick∣silver.
• 3. Cinnabaris; Cinnabar, lamellated, granu∣lated, chrystalli∣zed.
• 5. Crepitans; pyritical, cupreous, Stone Mercury.

25. MOLYBDAENUM. Black Lead. 3 species.

• 1. Plumbago; Black Lead, or Wad, sulphur saturated with iron and tin.
• 2. Magnesia; Black Man∣ganese.
• 3. Spuma Lupi; Red Manganese, or Wol∣fram.

25. STIBIUM. Antimony. 4 species.

• 1. Nativum; Native Re∣gulus of Antimo∣ny.
• 2. Chrystallinum; Chrys∣tallized Stibium.
• 3. Striatum; Fibrous or common Antimo∣ny.
• 4. Rubrum; Red Anti∣mony, mineralized with Sulphur and Arsenic.

26. ZINCUM. Zinc. 8 species.

• 1. Chrystallinum; Chrys∣tallized Zinc.
• 2. Mineralisatum; Mi∣neralized, with Sul∣phur and Lead, or Iron.
• 3. Swabii; Mineralized with sulphurated Iron.
• 4. Stibiatum; Fibrose Zinc.
• 5. Calaminaris; Cala∣mine;

• ... Stone Zinc, or Zinc mixed with martial Ochre.
• 6. Sterilum; Blend; Mock-lead, black Jack, or semi-tes∣selated black Zinc.
• 8. Rapax; Red Zinc, or micaceous, liver∣coloured Zinc.

27. VISMUTUM. Bismuth. 4 species.

• 1. Nativum; Native Bismuth.
• 2. Commune; Common Bismuth, minera∣lized with Sul∣phur and Arsenic.
• 3. Martiale; Martial Bis∣muth.
• 4. Iners; Bismuth, mine∣ralized with Sul∣phur only.

28. COBALTUM. Cobalt. 4 species.

• 1. Chrystallinum; Chrys∣tallized Cobalt, with Sulphur, Arse∣nic, and Iron.
• 2. Arsenicale; Minera∣lized with Ansenic and Iron.
• 3. Pyriticosum; Pyriti∣cose Cobalt.
• 4. Scoriatum; Slag-Co∣balt.

30. STANNUM. Tin. 4 species.

• 1. Chrystallinum; Chrys∣tallized Tin, or Tin-Grains.
• 3. Amorphum; Tin Stone.
• 4. Spatosum; Spatose Tin.

31. PLUMBUM. Lead. 10 species.

• 1. Nativum; Native Lead.
• 2. Chrystallinum; Cubic Lead, chrystallized.
• 3. Galena; Cubic Lead, mineralized, with sulphurated Sil∣ver, Galena.
• ...

• ... 5. Stibiatum; Stibiated Lead Ore.
• 7. Virens; Greenish, Arse∣nical Lead Ore.
• 9. Spatosum; Sparry, Arsenical Lead Ore.

32. FERRUM. Iron. 27 species.

• A. 1. Nativum. Native Iron, in grains.
• ...
  B. Chrystallized.
  • 2. Tesselare. Chrystallized Iron.
  C. Such as obey the magnet.
  • 4. Chalybeatum; Steel∣grained Iron Ore.
  • 8. Selectum; Fine grain∣ed Iron Ore.
  • 10. Commune; Common Iron Ore.
  • 11. Molle; Pyriticose Iron Ore.
  • 12. Talcosum; Talky Iron Ore.
  • 13. Calcarium; Calcare∣ous Iron Ore.
  • 17. Smiris; Emery.
  D. Such as do not obey the magnet.
  • 18. Micaceum; Red mi∣caceous Iron Ore.
  • 22. Haematites; Blood∣stone.
  • 23. Rubricosum; Red Blood-stone.
  • 26. Spatosum; Spar-like Iron Ore.
  E. Magnetical.
  • 27. Magnes; the Magnet.

33. CUPRUM. Copper. 16 species.

• 1. Praecipitatum; Cop∣per precipitated up∣on Iron.
• 2. Nativum; Native Cop∣per.
• 3. Chrystallinum; Chrys∣tallized,

• ... octaedral Copper.
• 4. Fulvum; Pyriticose, yellowish-green Cop∣per Ore.
• 5. Purpureum; Pyriti∣cose, purple Copper Ore.
• 6. Vitratum; Soft, pyri∣ticose, grey Copper Ore.
• 7. Cinereum; Sooty, pyri∣ticose, arsenical Cop∣per Ore.
• 8. Albidum; White, arse∣nical, pyriticose Cop∣per Ore.
• 9. Rubrum; Indurated, ochraceous, red Cop∣per Ore; sometimes liver-coloured.
• 10. Cotaceum; Sandy, ochraceous Copper Stone.
• 11. Schistosum; green, and blue Copper Slate.
• 12. Lazuli; Lapis La∣zuli; doubtful, mixed with Silver and Iron.
• 14. Armenus; Lapis Ar∣menus; blue calcare∣ous Copper Stone.
• 15. Malachites; Mala∣chites, green gypse∣ous Copper Stone.
• 16. Nickelum; Nickel, or Copper minera∣lized with Sulphur, Arsenic, and Iron.

34. ARGENTUM. Silver. 9. Species.

• 1. Nativum; Native Sil∣ver, in various forms.
• 2. Corneum; Horn Silver Ore, shining, sub∣malleable, and somewhat diapha∣nous, mineralized with Sulphur and Arsenic.
• 3. Vitreum; Glass Silver Ore, lead-coloured malleable Silver Ore, mineralized with Sulphur.
• 4. Rubrum; Red Silver Ore, mineralized with Sulphur and Arsenic.
• 5. Album; White Silver

• ... Ore, mineralized with Arsenic, Cop∣per, and Sulphur.
• 6. Cinereum; Grey Sil∣ver Ore, minera∣lized with Sul∣phur, Antimony, Copper, and Iron.
• 7. Arsenicale; Silver Ore, mineralized with Arsenic and Iron.
• 8. Zincosum; Silver Ore, mineralized with Sulphur and Zinc.
• 9. Nigrum; Sooty Silver Ore, mineralized with Arsenic and Copper.

35. AURUM. Gold.

• 1. Nativum; Native Gold; found in various forms.
  • a. In thin plates or leaves.
  • b. Solid, or in thick pieces.
  • c. In a chrystalline form.

Gold is also found inbedded in Quartz, in Talc, and Cinnabar; and in Rivers, in loose grains and lumps, called Gold Dust.

• 2. Mineralisatum; Mi∣neralized pyritical Gold Ore.

Class III. FOSSILIA. FOSSILS.

Fossil bodies, originated from different modifi∣cations of the subjects, comprehended in the fore∣going classes.

Order I. PETRIFICATA. Such fossil bodies as represent in figure certain animals or vegetables, or parts thereof.

What are called Petrifactions are of various kinds:

1. The true petrifactions are such as have the texture and organic parts of the bodies en∣tirely filled up with stony particles, either of a calcareous nature, as is commonly the case: or flinty▪ and not unfrequently it is marcasitical.

2. Preserved only and unaltered, as seeming to have lost little except the animal gluten.

3. Others are only bodies incrustated with sta∣lactite or calcareous matter. And,

4. Frequently they are only impressions received in their soft state.

Order II. CONCRETA. Slight conglutinations of different kinds of earths.

The specific differences of these bodies arise from the nature principally of the component parts, whether ochraceous, calcareous, gypseous, spatose, argillaceous, arenaceous, &c.

Order III. TERRAE. Fossil substances not conglutinated, but usually in a slightly cohering or pulverized state.

GENERA of FOSSILS.

I. PETRIFICATA. II. CONCRETA.

The generical characters of these two orders are very brief, and they occur in the subsequent ar∣rangement of the species.

III. TERRAE.

• ...50. OCHRA. Ochres.
  • Earth: precipitated calx or earth of metals.
  • Particles: coloured, and extremely minute.
• ...51. ARENA. Sand.
  • Earth: originated from wa∣ter.
  • Particles: distinct, granu∣lated, hard, and sca∣brous: neither pene∣trable nor congluti∣nable by water. (Not soluble in acids.)
• ...52. ARGILLA. Clay.
  • Earth: originated from the viscid sediment, or mud, of the sea.
  • Particles: irregular, im∣palpable, soft, tough, and lubricous.
  • In water: becoming soft, unctuous, and plastic.
  • In the fire: hardening.
• ...53. CALX. Chalks.
  • Earth: of animal origin.
  • Particles: dry, farinace∣ous, friable, colouring the fingers: tinging water: mostly soluble in acids, and efferves∣cing therein, especially when calcined or burn∣ed.
• ...

• ... 54. HUMUS. Mould.
  • Earth: of vegetable ori∣gin.
  • Particles: dry, light, in the form of fine powder.
  • In water: swelling.
  • In fire: combustible, and leaving ashes.

SPECIES of FOSSILS.

The FOSSILIA are divided into three Orders.

I. PETRIFICATA. Figured or extraneous Fossils.

• ...36. ZOOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Mammalia.
  • 1. Hominis; Bones of Men; and in one instance of the whole body.
  • 2. Cervi; remains of the Cervus Tarandus, or Rein Deer, dug up in Ireland.—Vide Lowthorp's Abridgment, vol. ii. p. 432.
  • 3. Ebur Fossile; Fossil Ivory.
  • 4. Turcosa; Turquoise, teeth tinctured by Copper.
• 37. ORNITHOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Birds, and their Nests. These are scarce, and are usually stalactitical incrustations only.

• ...38. AMPHIBIOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Am∣phibia.
  • 1. Testudinis; of an en∣tire Tortoise.
  • 2. Ranae; of a Toad.
  • 3. Lacertae; Skeleton of a Crocodile.
  • 4. Serpentis; of an entire Serpent.
  • 5. Nantis; of various Nantes, as of the Raja, Balistes, &c.
  • 6. Glossopetra; Sharks Teeth, very com∣mon.
• ...39. ICTHYOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Fishes.
  • 1. Schisti; Entire Skele∣tons, with the Fins, in Slate, of several genera.
  • 2. Marmoris; in Marble, of various genera.
  • 3. Bufonites; Grinding Teeth of the Anar∣chichas, or Wolf∣fish.
• ...40. ENTOMOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Insects.
  • 1. Cancri; Petrified Crab, Lobster, &c.
  • 2. Paradoxus; of an un∣known Insect; per∣haps a Monocu∣lus.
  • 3. Succineus; Insects in∣closed in Amber, not proper petrifac∣tions.
• ...41. HELMINTHOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Vermes.
  • 1. Hammonites; Cornu Ammonis, various kinds.
  • 2. Orthocerotes; Straight Nautilus; both these unknown in the recent state.
  • 3. Conchidium; of an unknown bilocular shell; perhaps a Patella.
  • 4. Anomites; of various Anomiae, unknown in a recent state.
  • ...

• ...
  • 5. Hysterolithus.
  • 6. Craniolaris.
  • 7. Gryphites. Crow∣stone.
  • 9. Judaicus; Jews Stone, thought to be spines of Echini.
  • 10. Echinites.
  • 14. Madreporus; Ma∣drepores, of various kinds.
  • 17. Entrochus.
  • 18. Asteria Columnaris; Star Stones; parts of an Encrinus, late∣ly discovered in the recent state.—See Phil. Trans. vol. lii. p. 357.
  • 23. Belemnites.
• ...42. PHYTOLITHUS. Petrifactions of Plants.
  • 1. Plantae; of the entire Plant, in Coal Slate.
  • 2. Filicis; of Ferns, in Slate.
  • 3. Rhizolithus; of Roots, in Marble.
  • 4. Lithoxylon; of Wood, in various states; as, of Limestone, of Agate, of Flint, of Sand-stone, and of Slate.
  • 5. Folii; of Leaves, in Slate and Marble.
  • 6. Antholithus; of Flow∣ers, in Slate, re∣sembling the spike of a Phalaris, or Canary Grass.
  • 7. Carpolithus; of Fruits, in Coal strata; commonly cones of the Pine, Nuts, Acorns, &c.
• 43. GRAPTOLITHUS. Stones resembling Pictures. 8 species. Among which are,
  • 2. Ruderalis; Florentine Marble or Slate, representing ruins.
  • 3. Dendrites; represent∣ing woods, land∣scapes, &c. arising from vitriolic solu∣tions, insinuated between the plates of fissile stones, or in Marble. This process is now well imitated by art.

II. CONCRETA. Concretes of various kinds.

• ...44. CALCULUS. Animal Concretions. 8 species.
  • 1. Urinarius; Stone in the Kidney or Blad∣der.
  • 2. Salivalis; Tartar of the Teeth.
  • 3. Tracheae; of the Lungs.
  • 4. Bezoar; Bezoar Stones, formed in the Abo∣masus, or fourth stomach of the Pe∣cora, or ruminat∣ing animals.
  • 5. Aegagropila; Hair Balls, formed in the first stomach.
  • 6. Felleus; Bile Stones.
  • 7. Margarita; Pearls.
  • 8. Oculus♋; Crabs Eyes.
• ...45. TARTARUS. Vegetable Concretes.
  • 1. Faex; Yeast.
  • 2. Vini; White and Red Tartar.
• ...46. AETITES. Concretions within the Cavity of Stones.
  a. True Etites, having a loose Nucleus.
  • 1. Geodes; with an earthy Nucleus.
  • 2. Aquilinus; with a stony Nucleus.
  b. Spurious Etites.
  • 3. Haemachates; Flinty Aetites, with a fixed chrystalline Nucleus, of quartzose nitre; or Melon of Mount Carmel.
  • 4. Marmoreus; Marble Aetites, including Dog-tooth Spar.
  • 5. Cretaceus; echinited Aetites, including Fluor Chrystals.
• ...

• ...47. PUMEX. Concretions by Means of Fire.
  • 1. Vulcani; Black Slate Pumice.
  • 2. Ferri; White Pumice, of Iron Furnaces.
  • 3. Cupri; Red Copper Pumice.
  • 4. Fuligo; Soot.
  • 5. Cinerarius; Ashes of Volcanos.
  • 5. Molaris; Rhenish Mill∣stone.
  • 7. Vitreus; Vitreous Pu∣mice, or black and green Iceland Agate.
• ...48. STALACTITES. Concretions by Means of Air.
  • 1. Incrustatum; Vege∣table Incrustations.
  • 2. Stillatitius; Drop∣stone.
  • 3. Solidus; Solid marmo∣reous Stalactite.
  • 4. Flos Ferri; Branched marmoreous Stalac∣tite.
  • 7. Spatosus; Solidspatose Stalactite.
  • 9. Quartzosus.
  • 10. Pyriticosus.
  • 11. Plumbiferus.
  • 12. Zeolithus; Red spa∣tose Stalactite or Zeolite.
• ...49. TOPHUS. Concretions in Water. 22 species.
  a. Metallic Tophs.
  • 1. Ludus; Marly Toph-stone.
  • 2. Pertusus; Tubular, marly, ochraceous Toph-stone.
  • 3. Marinus; Sandy ochra∣ceous Sea Toph-stone.
  • 5. Tubalcaini; Bog Iron Ore, in various forms.
  b. Simple Tophs.
  • 10. Aluminaris; Alum Toph.
  • 12. Lebetinus; Concre∣tions of Tea Kettles.
  • ...

• ...
  • 14. Oolithus; Pea-stone, of Hot Springs.
  • 16. Osteocolla; Bone∣binder. Vide Phil. Trans. 1745, p. 378.
  • 21. Lenticularis; Solid black schistose Toph.

III. TERRAE. Earths.

• ...50. OCHRA. Ochres. Earths of Metals. 15 species.
  a. In the form of Powder.
  • 1. Ferri; Ochre of Iron.
  • 3. Aeris; Green Ochre of Copper.
  • 4. Cupri; Blue Ochre of Copper.
  • 7. Plumbi; Native Ce∣russ.
  • 8. Cobalti; Ochre of Co∣balt.
  b. Plumose, or germinating Ochres.
  • 12. Cuprigo; Copper Blue, Plumose Copper.
  • 13. Stibigo; Flowers of Antimony.
  • 14. Argentigo; Plumose Silver Ore, with sulphurated Anti∣mony and Arse∣nic.
• ...51. ARENA. Sands. 14 species.
  • 1. Mobilis; Sea Sand.
  • 2. Colorata; Coloured Sands.
  • 6. Glarea; Sand of Heaths.
  • 9. Sabulum; Common Sand.
  • 11. Micacea; Micaceous or Glittering Sand, writing Sand.
  • 12. Aurea; Gold Sand.
  • 13. Ferrea; Iron Sand.
  • 14. Silicea; Flint Sand.
• ...

• ... 52. ARGILLA. Clays, Boles, Marles. 21 species.
  a. Simple.
  • 1. Apyra; Porcellain Clay.
  • 2. Leucargilla; Tobacco∣pipe Clay.
  • 3. Porcellana; China Por∣cellain Earth.
  • 6. Lemnia; Lemnian Earth.
  • 7. Fullonica; Stone Mar∣row, Fullers Earth.
  • 8. Tripolitana; Tripoli, or Rotten Stone.
  • 9. Communis; Brick Clay.
  • 10. Figulina; Potters Clay.
  • 13. Bolus; Boles of diffe∣rent colours.
  b. Mixed.
  • 15. Tumescens; Fer∣menting Clay.
  • 17. Marga; Marle.
  • 18. Umbra; Umbre.
  • 19. Nilotica; Marle of the Nile.
• ...53. CALX. Chalks. 9 species.
  a. Soluble in acids.
  • 1. Creta; Chalk.
  • 2. Marmorea; Mineral Agaric.
  • 3. Conchacea; Shell Chalk, or moulder∣ed Shells.
  b. Not soluble in acids.
  • 5. Palustris; True Mi∣neral Agaric.
  • 6. Gur; Gypseous Gur, or Lac Lunae.

• ...
  c. Granulated, or sandy.
  • 7. Alabastrina; Alabaster Chalk.
  • 8. Testudinea; Soluble Arenaceous Calx of the Isle of Ascen∣sion.
  • 9. Lenticularis; Lenticu∣lar granulated Calx.
• ...54. HUMUS. Moulds. 14 species.
  • 1. Daedalea; Impalpable Vegetable Mould.
  • 2. Ruralis; Common Black Mould.
  • 3. Pauperata; Depaupe∣rated Mould of Heaths.
  • 4. Effervescens; Spongy Mould of Marshes.
  • 5. Alpina; Alpine Earth.
  • 6. Turfa; Turf.
  • 7. Lutum; Mould of Lakes, Mud-mould.
  • 10. Damascena; Red Mould.
  • 14. Animalis; Animal Mould.

Three very instructive tables, exhibiting diffe∣rent views of the several saline and other chrystal∣lized bodies, are subjoined, accompanied by copious and methodical descriptions of the figures of each; and references to these bodies, as they occur in the work itself.

GENERA MORBORUM, or CLASSIFICATION of DISEASES.

WE must now look backwards a few years, to consider our author in another part of his Profes∣sorial character. It has been observed, that after his establishment at Upsal, one of his departments, as a professor, was that of teaching the Diagnosis Morborum; and to this end he drew up a system,

in which, as in natural history, all diseases were disposed into classes, orders, and genera, founded on distinctions taken from the symptoms alone, no regard being had either to remote, or proximate causes. Before we proceed to a particular view of LINNAEUS'S method of classing diseases, it will be proper to premise, that a nosology on this plan, the great object of which is to fix pathognomonics to every disease, had been long wished for by some writers of the first character in the profession: such were Baglivi, Boerhaave, Gorter, Gaubius, and Syden∣ham; the latter of whom has thus expressed himself on this subject, in the preface to his works:

Expe∣dit ut morbi omnes ad definitas ac certas species revo∣centur, eadem prorsus diligentia ac 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, qua id factum videmus à botanicis scriptoribus in suis phytologiis.

Yet, amidst that almost infinite variety and complication of appearances which are seen in diseases, the difficulty of obtaining suf∣ficient distinctions, by which the genus and species may be accurately discriminated, must be allowed to be very great; and possibly is in many instances unsurmountable. Hence, some of the most emi∣nent physicians have been led to reject all such arrangements as futile, and impracticable. This, however, hath not deterred others from paying attention to the subject, more especially some of those, who, from their province as professors, are led to teach the rudiments of the art; and to whom method, in some form, is absolutely neces∣sary. Systematic writers had used various me∣thods in the disposition of their subject. Some

had chosen the alphabetic; if that deserves the name of an arrangement: others, after the ex∣ample of Aretaeus, and Caelius Aurelianus, had di∣vided diseases, from their duration, into acute, and chronical. Some had preferred the anatomical order; which, as it presupposes a knowledge of the seat of the disease, must, not unfrequently, prove fallacious: Sennertus's is an instance of this kind. However, the äitiological arrangement has been most followed by the best writers among the moderns; such as Hoffmann, and Boerhaave; al∣though perhaps not much less fallacious than the anatomical, since it is in many instances founded on an hypothesis of the writer: and though Felix Platerus, in his Praxis Medica, published in 1602, had given an imperfect sketch of a nosology on the symptomatic plan, yet no writer ventured to pursue his idea, for more than a century after his time; discouraged as it should seem by the diffi∣culty of the attempt. At length the late profes∣sor M. SAUVAGES of Montpelier, after communi∣cating his scheme to Boerhaave, published in 1731, in 12^mo. the outlines of such a work, under the title of Nouvelles Classes des Maladies, in which he professes to define diseases, from their constant and evident symptoms only. In the year 1763, the au∣thor augmented his work, by the addition of the species under each genus, into 5 volumes in 8^vo. Sauvages may be considered as having spent his life in giving to this design a certain degree of perfec∣tion, having enlarged it into 2 quarto volumes, in which form it was published after his death in

1768: A work, it is to be presumed, now in the hands of most physicians.

It will easily be imagined, that an arrangement of this kind was too congenial to LINNAEUS to be neglected by him. In fact, it appears that he very early corresponded with Sauvages on this subject, that he soon adopted it, and framed a set of institutes, under the title of GENERA MOR∣BORUM, as a basis of his lectures in this depart∣ment. LINNAEUS'S scheme was first published in a thesis in 1759; but he had taught it in his class for ten years preceding that time. In 1763, he published it himself in a small quarto; though we do not find that he ever enlarged it by the addition of the species.

The symptomatic plan of arranging diseases has since been followed by some other professors of physic; Dr. Vogel of Gottingen having published, in 1764, his Definitiones Generum Morborum. Dr. Cullen also, who at this time fills the practical chair at Edinburgh with such deserved reputation, has published a Synopsis nosologiae methodicae, and has made it the basis of his First Lines of the Practice of Physic. In 1776, Dr. Sagar, a physician at Ig∣law in Moravia, published a Systema Morborum sym∣tomaticum. 8vo. Vien. pp. 756. His work, allow∣ing for some alterations and additions, may be ac∣counted an useful abridgement of Sauvages's: the author, all theory apart, has described the species under every genus, and subjoined the method of cure. Dr. Cullen, by omitting many genera, and reducing others to the rank of species only, has so

considerably abridged the whole, as not to have retained more than half the number of genera, that the foregoing writers enumerate; and in this form he has published it, annexed to those of the four abovementiond, by which display of each, their several merits may be compared, and a judg∣ment formed of the practicability, and use of the scheme in general, which, it must be confessed, af∣fords a very ample field for cultivation; yet, from that reform which Dr. Cullen has already made in various parts, it is not, perhaps, too much to hope, that it is capable of receiving a much higher degree of improvement, in the hands of those whose genius and industry may prompt them to extend the design of these writers.

Of LINNAEUS'S method we are led by our plan to exhibit a general view; to which end, although our prescribed brevity will not admit of giving his definitions at length, yet it will be necessary to enumerate the names of all his genera, since no∣thing short of a view of the whole collectively, could enable the reader to form a just idea of the author's scheme. Under each class we shall ob∣serve wherein LINNAEUS differs materially from Sauvages, and note the alterations which Dr. Cullen has made in the disposition of the same genera.

LINNAEUS, in the classification of diseases, has pretty nearly retained the arrangement of M. Sau∣vages, although he has altered his terms, and con∣stituted one more class, with which he begins his method; the Exanthematic, or eruptive fevers, which, in the systems of Sauvages and Dr. Cullen,

form only an order, or subdivision of a class. He has also changed the order of the classes, and re∣ferred the Vitia, or local external disorders, which are principally the objects of surgery, to the end of his system. In this he has been followed by the two succeeding nosologists, Dr. Vogel and Dr. Cullen. The classical distribution is, however, confessedly not the primary consideration; that of fixing the generical character, and determining what shall constitute the specifical, being the first object of every system. To this end a still farther reduction of the number of genera and species, will probably not a little contribute.

Class I. EXANTHEMATICI. Fevers attended with eruptions on the skin.

• ...1. CONTAGIOSI. Contagious.
  • 1. Morta. Vesiculary Fe∣ver.
  • 2. Pestis. The Plague.
  • 3. Variola. Small pox.
  • 4. Rubeola. Measles.
  • 5. Petechia. Spotted Fe∣ver.
  • 6. Siphylis. Venereal Dis∣ease.
• ...2. SPORADICI. Sporadic fevers; not conta∣gious.
  • 7. Miliaria. Miliary Fe∣ver.
  • 8. Uredo. Nettle Fever.
  • 9. Aphtha. Aphthous Fe∣ver.
• ...3. SOLITARII. Affecting a part of the body only.
  • 10. Erysipelas. St. Anthony's Fire.

In this class, as the disease is complicated of fever and eruption, the genus is defined from the nature of each. To instance, the Variola, or Small pox, is defined,

A disease attended with pus∣tules of an erysipelatous, suppurating, escha∣rotic kind; at length drying off, and leaving a cicatrix; accompanied by a fever of the ardent, and malignant kind, with head-ach and pain of the loins.

The term Pustula, and the others in this class, expressive of the different kinds of eruption, have their definition in another part of the system. Such as appear in the Morta, are called Phlyctenae; in the Pestis, Anthraces, or Bu∣bones; in the Variola, Pustulae; in the Rubeola, Papulae; in the Petechia, Sudamina.

This class constitutes the first order of Dr. Sau∣vages's PHLEGMASIAE, and the third of Dr. Cullen's PYREXIAE class. In both, these genera are preserved nearly alike, except that the Morta of LINNAEUS is the Pemphigus of those authors, and the Petechia is considered by Dr. Cullen as only a symptom.

Our author stands alone in bringing the Syphilis into the febrile exanthematic class. He thinks himself justified, by considering it as attended, in the advanced state at least, by fever and eruptions. It certainly however ranks better with the IM∣PETIGINES.

Class II. CRITICI. Critical Fevers.

• ...1. CONTINENTES. Continual Fevers.
  • 11. Diaria. Diary Fever.
  • 12. Synocha. Ardent Fever.
  • 13. Synochus. Malig∣nant Fever.
  • 14. Lenta. Slow Fever.
• ...2. INTERMITTENTES. Intermitting Fevers.
  • 15. Quotidiana. Quoti∣dian.
  • 16. Tertiana. Tertian.
  • 17. Quartana. Quartan.
  • 18. Duplicana. Double Tertian.
  • 19. Errana. Erratic Fe∣ver.
• ...3. EXACERBANTES. Remitting Fevers.
  • 20. Amphimerina. Con∣tinued Quotidian.
  • 21. Tritaeus. Continued Tertian.
  • 22. Tetartophya. Con∣tinued Quartan.
  • 23. Haemitritaea. Semi-Tertian.
  • 24. Hectica. Hectic Fe∣ver.

The Genera of the CONTINENTES are determin∣ed from the different duration of each simply.

Those of the INTERMITTENTES from the dura∣tion of the intermissions.

The EXACERBANTES, supposed to be compound∣ed of the two foregoing, have their characters acordingly.

Our author allows the Tertian to be the root of all the FEBRES CRITICI, although he has, in the foregoing division, kept pretty close to Dr.

Sauvages's method in retaining the distinctions. In this they are not followed by Dr. Cullen, who denies the existence of a continent fever, and has greatly simplified this division, having reduced all the CRITICAL fevers to six genera, and allowing the Hectic to be symptomatic only.

Class III. PHLOGISTICI. Inflammations.

• ...1. MEMBRANACEI. Membranous Inflamma∣tions.
  • 25. Phrenitis. Of the Meninges of the Brain.
  • 26. Paraphrenitis. Of the Diaphragm.
  • 27. Pleuritis. The Pleu∣risy.
  • 28. Gastritis. Of the Sto∣mach.
  • 29. Enteritis. Of the Bowels.
  • 30. Proctitis. Of the Anus.
  • 31. Cystitis. Of the Bladder.
• ...2. PARENCHYMATICI. Visceral Inflammations.
  • 32. Sphacelismus. Of the Brain.
  • 33. Cynanche. Quinsey.
  • 34. Peripneumonia. Of the Lungs.
  • 35. Hepatitis. Of the Liver.
  • 36. Splenitis. Of the Spleen.
  • 37. Nephritis. Of the Kidneys.
  • 38. Hysteritis. Of the Uterus.
• ...3. MUSCULORI Muscular, or external Inflam∣mation.
  • 39. Phlegmone. In∣flammation of an external part.

LINNAEUS defines the Phlegmon to be

a tense throbbing tumour, or enlargement of a part, accompanied by fever, and attended with heat and redness.

This he considers as suggest∣ing also the idea of all the foregoing internal in∣flammations.

The generical character in the Phlogistic class of our author, does not arise wholly from the part affected supposed to be the seat of the disease, but from the genus of the attending fever also. Thus he defines

the Hepatitis to be the Amphi∣merina, attended with a difficult respiration, cough without expectoration, hiccup, and a sense of heat and tension in the right hypo∣chondre.

The Nephritis is a Synochus, attend∣ed with nausea, hiccup, eructation, urine vari∣ous, costiveness, burning lumbago, and numb∣ness down the thigh.

In this class LINNAEUS has followed Sauvages in dividing the diseases into MEMBRANACEI, and PARENCHYMATICI, a division neglected by Dr. Cullen, from the difficulty of determining the seat of the inflammation.

The Phlegmone, being external, is ranked by Sauvages among his VITIA. On the other hand, Dr. Cullen gives it the first place in his order PHLEG∣MASIAE; and has reduced thirteen genera of LIN∣NAEUS'S, and twelve of Sauvages's, to the rank of species, under the term Phlogosis; further, account∣ing Abscess, Pustule, Gangrene, and Sphacelus, as effects only of Phlogosis, and therefore not entitled

to the separate character of genera. Numerous instances of this kind afford a striking proof of the difficulties attending these arrangements, in de∣termining what distinctions shall take place be∣tween genus and species.

Class IV. DOLORES. Painful Diseases.

• ...1. INTRINSECI. Of the internal Parts.
  • 40. Cephalalgia. Head∣ach.
  • 41. Hemicrania. Me∣grim, or pain of one side of the head only.
  • 42. Gravedo. Dull pain of the Forehead.
  • 43. Ophthalmia. Pain of the Eye.
  • 44. Otalgia. Ear-ach.
  • 45. Odontalgia. Tooth∣ach.
  • 46. Angina. Pain in the Fauces, with a sense of choaking.
  • 47. Soda. Burning pain in the Throat, with rancid Eructations.
  • 48. Cardialgia. Pain at the Heart.
  • 49. Gastrica. Pain of the Stomach.
  • 50. Colica. Colic.
  • 51. Hepatica. Pain of the right Hypo∣chondre.
  • 52. Splenica.—of the left Hypochondre.
  • 53. Pleuritica. Pain of the Side.
  • 54. Pneumonica. Weight, or load on the Chest.
  • 55. Hysteralgia. Pain of the Uterus.
  • 56. Nephritica. Pain of the Kidneys.
  • 57. Dysuria. Pain in the Bladder.
  • 58. Pudendagra. Pain in the genital Parts.
  • 59. Proctica. Pain of the Anus.

• ...2. EXTRINSECI. Of the Limbs.
  • 60. Arthritis. The Gout.
  • 61. Ostocopus. Fixed Pain in the Bones.
  • 62. Rheumatismus. The Rheumatism.
  • 63. Volatica. Flying Pain of the Limbs.
  • 64. Pruritus. Excessive Itching.

Our author does not take into the characters of these genera the idea of fever; and there are several of them used by him as auxiliary terms, in the de∣finition of other genera.

Dr. Sauvages has a class of five orders under the term DOLORES, disposed in the anatomical method; under which, most of the foregoing genera are comprehended.

Dr. Cullen having no such class as the DOLO∣ROSI, is necessarily led to arrange these genera in different parts of his system; but, with him, the greater number are either species only, or symptoms, he having admitted only three to the character of genera, in his PHLEGMASIA. These are the Oph∣thalmia, Arthritis or Podagra, and Rheumatismus.

Class V. MENTALES, Diseases in which the Functions of the Mind are disturbed.

• ...1. IDEALES. Those in which the Judgment is principally affected.
  • 65. Delirium. Sympto∣matic, or febrile Delirium.
  • 66. Paraphrosyne. Tran∣sitory Insanity with∣out Fever.
  • ...

• ...
  • 67. Amentia. Idiotic Insanity.
  • 68. Mania. Madness.
  • 69. Demonia. Melan∣choly, with Idea of Possession.
  • 70. Vesania. Tranquil, partial Melancholy.
  • 71. Melancholia. Fixed Melancholy.
• ...2. IMAGINARII. Those in which the Imagi∣nation is principally affected.
  • 72. Syringmos. Imagi∣nary Sound in the Ear.
  • 73. Phantasma. False Vision.
  • 74. Vertigo. Giddiness, or false Idea of Gyration in Objects.
  • 75. Panophobia. False fear of Evil.
  • 76. Hypochondriasis. Hypochondriac Dis∣ease.
  • 77. Somnambulismus. Night-walking, or Noctambulation.
• ...3. PATHETICI. Those in which the Appetites and Passions are principally affected.
  • 78. Citta. Unnatural Longings.
  • 79. Bulimia. Voracious Appetite.
  • 80. Polydipsia. Exces∣sive Thirst.
  • 81. Satyriasis.
  • 82. Erotomania.
  • 83. Nostalgia. Swiss Ma∣lady.
  • 84. Tarantismus.
  • 85. Rabies. Canine Mad∣ness.
  • 86. Hydrophobia. Hor∣ror of Drinking, with Rigor and Sardiasis.
  • 87. Cacositia. Fixed A∣version to Food.
  • 88. Antipathia. Aversion to particular Objects.
  • 89. Anxietas. Restlessness.

In this class, which answers to the VESANIAE of Dr. Sauvages, the genera stand nearly the same as in that author's arrangement.

They constitute, after great reduction, the fourth order, under the term VESANIAE, of the class NEUROSES, in Dr. Cullen's system, com∣prehending four genera.

Of the IDEALES of LINNAEUS, Dr. Cullen only ranks the Amentia, the Mania, and the Melancholia, as genera; the Delirium and Paraphrosyne being symp∣tomatic. The Demonia, Vesania, and Panopho∣bia, rank with Melancholy; under which he has also brought the Erotomania and Nostalgia, from the PATHETICI. Of the remaining genera only the Hypochondriasis, and the Hydrophobia, are ad∣mitted as such; the former in the ADYNAMIAE, and the latter among the SPASMI. The Syrigmus, and Phantasma, are referred to the LOCALES class; and the Somnambulismus to the Oneirodynia, in the order VESANIAE. The Citta, or Pica, the Polydipsia, Satyriasis, and Bulimia, belong also to the LOCALES, in the order DYSOREXIAE. It is justly doubted whether the Tarantismus exists; and the Rabies can scarcely be separated from the Hydrophobia.

Class VI. QUIETALES. Diseases in which the voluntary, and involuntary Motions, and the Senses, suffer a Diminution.

• ...1. DEFECTIVI. Defects of the vital Powers.
  • 90. Lassitudo. Muscular Debility.
  • 91. Languor. Debility of Spirits.
  • ...

• ...
  • 92. Asthenia. Extreme Debility.
  • 93. Lipothymia. Faint∣ing.
  • 94. Syncope. Swooning.
  • 95. Asphyxia. Long fai∣lure of vital and animal Power; as from Drowning, Mephitism, &c.
• ...2. SOPOROSI. Soporose Affections; or Di∣minution of Sense and Motion.
  • 96. Somnolentia. Som∣nolency.
  • 97. Typhomania. Coma Vigil, of authors.
  • 98. Lethargus. Lethar∣gy; febrile Som∣nolency.
  • 99. Cataphora. Coma Somnolentum, of authors.
  • 100. Carus. Sopor and Insensibility, with quiet Respiration.
  • 101. Apoplexia. Apo∣plexy; Sopor, and Insensibility, with Snoring.
  • 102. Paraplegia. Palsy, of all the Limbs.
  • 103. Hemiplegia. Palsy, of one Side.
  • 104. Paralysis. Palsy, of a particular Part.
  • 105. Stupor. Transitory Numbness.
• ...3. PRIVATIVI. Diminutions of the Senses.
  • 106. Morosis. Defect of Imagination.
  • 107. Oblivio. Defect of Memory.
  • 108. Amblyopia. Ob∣scure Vision, without apparent Defect in the Organ.
  • 109. Cataracta. Priva∣tion of Sight, with apparent Defect in the Organ.
  • 110. Amaurosis. Priva∣tion of Sight, with∣out apparent Defect of the Organ.
  • 111. Scotomia. Transitory Blindness.
  • 112. Cophosis. Deaf∣ness.
  • ...

• ...
  • 113. Anosmia. Defect of Smelling.
  • 114. Ageustia. Defect of Taste.
  • 115. Aphonia. Defect of Voice.
  • 116. Anorexia. Want of Appetite.
  • 117. Adipsia. Want of Thirst.
  • 118. Anaesthesia. Defect of Feeling.
  • 119. Atecnia. Defect of venereal Appetite.
  • 120. Atonia. Atony; Defect of muscular Power.

The diseases of this class very nearly correspond with the DEBILITATES of Sauvages; and the two first orders, the DEFECTIVI and SOPOROSI, with the COMATA and ADYNAMIAE, of the class NEUROSES, in Dr. Cullen's system.

The three first genera of the DEFECTIVI, Dr▪ Cullen takes no notice of; the three last he in∣cludes under his Syncope, as different degrees only of the same diminished power of the functions.

Among the SOPOROSI of our author, Dr. Cullen ranks the Carus and Cataphora under the Apo∣plexia; and also considers the Typhomania and Le∣thargus, as symptomatic of the same. For the like reasons he accounts the Paraplegia, and Hemiple∣gia, as different degrees of the same disease, in∣cluding them all under Paralysis.

The PRIVATIVI rank under the two first orders of Dr. Cullen's LOCALES, as far as he allows them to hold the character of genera. The Morosis and Oblivio he refers to his Amentia. The Scoto∣mia he does not notice. The Cophosis he calls Dysoecia; the Anorexia stands under his Dyspepsia

genus, among the ADYNAMIAE; the Atonia as a species of Palsy. The Amblyopia under Amaurosis; the Cataracta under his Caligo. The Anosmia, Ageustia, Aphonia, Anosexia, Adipsia, and Anaesthe∣sia, under their respective names separately; and the Atecnia under that of Anaphrodisia.

Class VII. MOTORII. Spasmodic Diseases; Diseases attended with involuntary Motion.

• ...1. SPASTICI. Spastic, or Tonic Diseases.
  • 121. Spasmus. Cramp.
  • 122. Priapismus. Pria∣pism.
  • 123. Borborygmi. Rum∣bling of the Bowels.
  • 124. Trismos. Locked Jaw.
  • 125. Sardiasis. Involun∣tary or convulsive Laughing.
  • 126. Hysteria. Hysteric Affection.
  • 127. Tetanos. Rigidity of the Spine, with Sensibility.
  • 128. Catochus. Rigidity of the Body with∣out Sensibility.
  • 129. Catalepsis. Cata∣lepsy.
  • 130. Agrypnia. Intense Watching. The Pervigilium of Authors.
• ...2. AGITATORII. Convulsive or Clonic Diseases.
  • 131. Tremor. Trem∣bling, without the Sensation of Cold.
  • 132. Palpitatio. Palpi∣tation of the Heart.
  • 133. Orgasmus. Subsul∣tus of the Arteries.
  • 134. Subsultus. Twitch∣ing of the Ten∣dons.
  • 135. Carpologia. Deli∣rious Fumbling.
  • 136. Stridor. Grating of the Teeth
  • ...

• ...
  • 137. Hippos. Morbid Nictitation.
  • 138. Psellismus. Stam∣mering.
  • 139. Chorea. St. Vitus's Dance.
  • 140. Beriberi. Tre∣mor of the Limbs and Body, with contracted Knees, attended with Stu∣por and Hoarseness.
  • 141. Rigor. Shaking or Tremor, with a Sense of Cold.
  • 142. Convulsio. Convul∣sion.
  • 143. Epilepsia. Epilepsy. Convulsions attend∣ed with Insensibility, opposed to the foregoing.
  • 144. Hieranosos. Conti∣nued Convulsions without Pain, or Loss of Sensibility.
  • 145. Raphania. Spastic Contraction of the Limbs, with Con∣vulsions and Pain.

Most of the diseases of this class stand in the corrseponding one of Sauvages, called SPASMI, except the Borborygmus, and the Agrypnia, the lat∣ter of which is referred to the anomalous VESA∣NIAE. He also considers the Sardiasis and Stridor of LINNAEUS as species only of the Trismos; and the Subsultus he calls Carpologia.

In Dr. Cullen's system the MOTORII of LIN∣NAEUS make the third order of his NEUROSES, called SPASMI. Of the Spastici he has the Trismos, Hysteria, and Tetanos, only as distinct genera, un∣der their respective terms. The Catochus he refers to the Tetanos, and the Catalepsis is his Apoplexia Cataleptica. The others are not noticed by him.

Of the AGITATORII, the Tremor Dr. Cullen ac∣counts rather as a symptom of various disorders. The Beriberi, which he had heretofore ranked with

the Paralysis, he has omitted in the last edition of his Synopsis: the Chorea is admitted as a genus, and the Hieranosos stands under the idiopathic Convul∣sio. The Psellismus is removed to the LOCALES class; and of the remainder, the Palpitatio, Epi∣lepsia, and Raphania only, retain their place in his system, under their respective names.

Class VIII. SUPPRESSORII. Affections and Diseases arising from, or attended with Oppres∣sion of the Organs, and impeded Excretions.

• ...1. SUFFOCATORII. Diseases attended with a Sense of Suffocation.
  • 146. Raucedo. Hoarse∣ness.
  • 147. Vociferatio. Squeal∣ing.
  • 148. Risus. Laughing.
  • 149. Fletus. Weeping.
  • 150. Suspirium. Sighing.
  • 151. Oscitatio. Yawn∣ing.
  • 152. Pandiculatio. Stretching.
  • 153. Singultus. Hiccup.
  • 154. Sternutatio. Sneez∣ing.
  • 155. Tussis. Coughing.
  • 156. Stertor. Snoring.
  • 157. Anhelatio. Pant∣ing.
  • 158. Suffocatio. Difficult Respiration from Narrowness of the Fauces.
  • 159. Empyema.—from an Abscess in the Thorax.
  • 160. Dyspnoea. Labori∣ous, panting Respi∣ration, without a Sense of Narrow∣ness in the Fauces.
  • 161. Asthma. Chronic, laborious, wheez∣ing Respiration.
  • 162. Orthopnoea. Acute, sighing, suffocating Respiration.
  • 163. Ephialtes. Night∣mare.
• ...

• ... 2. CONSTRICTORII. Diseases attended with Constriction.
  • 164. Aglutitio. Impeded Deglutition.
  • 165. Flatulentia. Fla∣tulence.
  • 166. Obstipatio. Cos∣tiveness.
  • 167. Ischuria. Impeded or suppressed Mic∣turition.
  • 168. Dysmenorrhoea. Suppression of the Menses.
  • 169. Dyslochia. Suppres∣sion of the Lochia.
  • 170. Aglactatio. Defect of Milk.
  • 171. Sterilitas. Barren∣ness.

Under the genera of the SUFFOCATORII our au∣thor has departed from his usual rule, in having subjoined to each a note expressive of the intention of Nature in exciting these affections. Thus, to instance, after defining Suspirium to be

a deep, slow, agitating inspiration,

he adds, that the effect is, "that of expelling the blood from the lungs." Most of the SUFFOCATORII have a place in Sau∣vages's system among the ANHELATIONES, but the CONSTRICTORII are scattered in various parts of his system.

Dr. Cullen hath not introduced into his system the lighter affections under the SUFFOCATORII; which seem to have been defined and explained by LINNAEUS, principally to use them as auxili∣aries in other parts of the work.

In Dr. Cullen's system the Raucedo has a place, as symptomatic only, under the Catarrh; and again, in another part, as a species of Para∣phonia.

The Tussis is also received under the Ca∣tarrh; and the Empyema is considered as a conse∣quence of Pleurisy or Peripneumony. The Ortho∣pnoea, as a genus, is not noticed by Dr. Cullen. The Dyspnoea is admitted in the last edition, which, with the Asthma, are the only genera he receives from this order, as he has made the Ephialtes a species of his Oncirodynia, under the VESANIAE in the class NEUROSES.

In the CONSTRICTORII order, the Flatulentia of LINNAEUS comes under the Dyspepsia of Dr. Cullen; and the Obstipatio, Ischuria, and Dysmenor∣rhoea, enter into the fourth order of the LOCA∣LES, called EPISCHESES; the latter under the term Amenorrhaea.

Class IX. EVACUATORII. Diseases attended with increased Excretion and Discharges.

• ...1. CAPITIS. Of the Head.
  • 171. Otorrhoea. Puru∣lent Discharge from the Ear.
  • 172. Epiphora. Lachry∣mal Flux.
  • 173. Haemorrhagia. Bleeding of the Nose.
  • 174. Coryza. Mucous Discharge from the Nose.
  • 175. Stomocace. Bleed∣ing of the Gums.
  • 176. Ptyalismus. Saliva∣tion.
• ...2. THORACIS. Of the Breast.
  • 177. Screatus. Hawking.
  • 178. Expectoratio. Ex∣pectoration.
  • 179. Haemoptysis. Spit∣ting of Blood, with Coughing.
  • ...

• ...
  • 180. Vomica. Purulent Discharge from the Lungs.
• ...3. ABDOMINIS. Of the Belly.
  • 181. Ructus. Eructa∣tion.
  • 182. Nausea. Nausea.
  • 183. Vomitus. Vomiting.
  • 184. Haematemesis. Vo∣miting of Blood.
  • 185. Iliaca. Iliac Passion.
  • 186. Cholera. Vomiting, with Colic and Purging.
  • 187. Diarrhoea. Dejec∣tion of liquid Faeces.
  • 188. Lienteria. Dejec∣tion of undigested Aliment.
  • 189. Coeliaca. Dejection of Chyle.
  • 190. Cholerica. Bloody Flux, without Co∣lic.
  • 191. Dysenteria. Bloody Flux, with Colic and Tenesmus.
  • 192. Haemorrhois. Bleed∣ing Piles.
  • 193. Tenesmus. Need∣ing and frequent Dejection of Mucus.
  • 194. Crepitus. Dejection of Flatus.
• ...4. GENITALIUM. Of the Genital Passages.
  • 195. Enuresis. Involun∣tary Micturition.
  • 196. Stranguria. Stran∣gury.
  • 197. Diabetes. Diabetes.
  • 198. Haematuria. Bloody Urine.
  • 199. Glus. Mucous U∣rine.
  • 200. Gonorrhoea. Gleet. Mucous Flux from the Urethra.
  • 201. Leucorrhoea. Whites.
  • 202. Menorrhagia. Inor∣dinate Flux of the Menses.
  • 203. Parturitio. Labo∣rious Parturition.
  • 204. Abortus. Abor∣tion.
  • 205. Mola. False Con∣ception.
• ...

• 5. CORPORIS EXTERNI. Of external Parts.
  • 206. Galactitia: Over∣flowing of Milk.
  • 207. Sudor. Inordinate Sweating.

This class stands nearly the same as our au∣thor found it in Sauvages's arrangement, under the term FLUXUS; except that LINNAEUS has introduced three or four genera not in that author; such are the Screatus; Vomica, which is a species of Sauvages's Anacatharsis; the Ructus; Glus, a spe∣cies of his Pyuria; Parturitio, and Mola. He has also taken his orders from the anatomical division of the parts; whereas Sauvages divides them accord∣ing to the nature of the discharge, whether bloody or serous, which must be allowed to be equivocal in many instances. It has been objected, that Par∣turition is not a disease; LINNAEUS however seems only to consider it as such when it proves labori∣ous, protracted, or unnatural.

Dr. Cullen does not admit more than about a third part of the diseases of this class into his sys∣tem. He has the Epiphora, Ptyalismus, Enuresis, and Gonorrhoea, under their respective names, in an order, called APOCENOSES, belonging to the class LOCALES. Haemorrhagia is synonymous to his Epistaxis; Coryza to his Catarrhus; under which he considers Expectoratio as only symptoma∣tic; and Vomica as the effect of Pleurisy, or Peri∣pneumony. Nausea, and Vomitus, come under Dys∣pepsia; the Iliaca, under Colica; the Cholerica, Coe∣liaca, and Lienteria, as different species of Diar∣rhoea;

Leucorrhoea, and Abortus, under Menor∣rhagia; Stomacace, Haematemesis, and Haematuria, as symptomatic only. Haemoptysis, Cholera, and Haemorrhois, form distinct genera in both systems.

Class X. DEFORMES. Diseases occasioning external Deformity of the Body.

• ...1. EMACIANTES. Such as emaciate the Body.
  • 208. Phthisis. Consump∣tion. Wasting with hectic Fever, Dys∣pnoea, and puru∣lent Expectora∣tion.
  • 209. Tabes. Wasting, with hectic Fe∣ver, but without Expectoration.
  • 210. Atrophia. Atro∣phy. Wasting, with Atony, without Hectic, or Ex∣pectoration.
  • 211. Marasmus. Wast∣ing, without Ato∣ny, Hectic, or Ex∣pectoration.
  • 212. Rachitis. Rickets. Wasting of the Flesh, with En∣largement of the Head and Joints, attended some∣times with Flexi∣lity of the Bones.
• ...2. TUMIDOSI. Such as enlarge the Body, or Parts thereof.
  • 213. Polysarcia. Corpu∣lency.
  • 214. Leucophlegmatia. Emphysematose In∣tumescence.
  • 215. Anasarca. Oedema∣tose Intumescence.
  • 216. Hydrocephalus. Oedematose Enlarge∣ment of the Head, with Gaping of the Sutures.
  • ...

• ...
  • 217. Ascites. Dropsy; Oedematous En∣largement of the Abdomen.
  • 218. Hyposarca. Fixed, partial Tumour of the Abdomen.
  • 219. Tympanites. Wind-Dropsy.
  • 220. Graviditas. Extra∣ordinary Distention of the Abdomen du∣ring Pregnancy.
• ...3. DECOLORES. Such as deform, and change the Colour of the Skin.
  • 221. Cachexia. Cachexy. Oedematose Pale∣ness.
  • 222. Chlorosis. Green∣sickness.
  • 223. Scorbutus. Scurvy.
  • 224. Icterus. Jaundice.
  • 225. Plethora. Redness of the Skin from Fullness of Blood, attended with Dys∣pnoea.

This class answers to the CACHEXIAE of Sau∣vages, and Dr. Cullen; and most of the genera are admitted into the system of the latter under three corresponding orders also. The Marasmus is not distinguished by Dr. Cullen from the Atrophy. The Phthisis has been classed before as the consequence of Haemoptysis. The Chlorosis stands in the ADY∣NAMIAE order, in the class NEUROSES: The Graviditas, Cachexia, and Plethora, have no place in Dr. Cullen's system.

Class XI. VITIA. Cutaneous, external, or pal∣pable Diseases.

The class which corresponds to this in the Sau∣vagesian system, stands first under the same term,

and is there professedly intended to contain such disorders as are more immediately the objects of surgery. This character is not so strictly appli∣cable to that of LINNAEUS'S, or of Dr. Cullen's LOCALES, since both these contain genera which come under the province of the physician, inde∣pendent of manual operation or assistance. In all the systems it is the most comprehensive class. The congruity of the orders will be noted in our progress through the class.

• ...1. HUMORALIA. Diseases attended with vi∣tiated, or extravasated Fluids.
  • 226. Aridura. Wasting and withering of a Part, or Limb.
  • 227. Digitium. Dry Whitlow.
  • 228. Emphysema. Windy Tumour.
  • 229. Oedema. Watery Tumour.
  • 230. Sugillatio. Ec∣chymosis.
  • 231. Inflammatio. In∣flammation.
  • 232. Abscessus. Abscess.
  • 233. Gangraena. Gan∣grene.
  • 234. Sphacelus. Mortifi∣cation.

In the genera of this order, the appearance of the external part, and that of the contained fluid, conjointly form the character.

In Sauvages the Aridura, Gangraena, and Sphace∣lus, or Necrosis, belong to his class of CA∣CHEXIAE. The Digitium is a species of his Pa∣ronychia, and stands with the remaining genera of this order among the VITIA.

Dr. Cullen neglects the Aridura and Digitium: the Emphysema is his Pneumatosis; the Sugillatio his Ecchymoma; and the four remaining genera of LINNAEUS come under his Phlogosis.

• ...2. DIALYTICA. Solutions of Continuity; Fractures, Wounds, &c.
  • 235. Fractura. Frac∣ture; and,
  • 236. Luxatura. Dislo∣cation of a Bone.
  • 237. Ruptura. Rupture of a Tendon.
  • 238. Contusura. Con∣tusion.
  • 239. Profusio. Flux of Blood from Disso∣lution of Substance.
  • 240. Vulnus. A Wound.
  • 241. Amputatura. A Wound from the entire Separation of a Part from the Body.
  • 242. Laceratura. Lace∣ration.
  • 243. Punctura. Punc∣ture of a Tendon.
  • 244. Morsura. A Ve∣nomous Bite.
  • 245. Combustura. A Burn.
  • 246. Excoriatura. Ex∣coriation, or Abra∣sion of the Skin.
  • 247. Intertrigo. Erosion of the Cuticle.
  • 248. Rhagas. Dry Fis∣sure of the Skin.

This order nearly constitutes the seventh of the VITIA class in Sauvages's system, called PLAGAE; and the seventh of the LOCALES class in Dr. Cullen's, under the name of DIALYSES. Under Vulnus are comprehended the three succeed∣ing genera also of LINNAEUS'S. The Fractura consti∣tutes a separate genus: the Luxatura belongs to the ECTOPIAE order of Dr. Cullen's; the Profusio

to the APOCENOSES; the Intertrigo and Combustura to the PHLOGOSIS genus: the remaining genera are not noticed in the Cullenian system.

• ...3. EXULCERATIONES. Ulcers; purulent or ichorous Solutions of Continuity.
  • 249. Ulcus. A suppu∣rated Wound of a fleshy Part.
  • 250. Cacöethes. A spreading, superfi∣cial, weeping Ulcer.
  • 251. Noma. A deep, es∣charotic, cicatriz∣ing Ulcer.
  • 252. Carcinoma. Cancer.
  • 253. Ozaena. An Ulcer of the Antrum Highmori.
  • 254. Fistula. A sinous, vaginating Ulcer, with Callosity.
  • 255. Caries. An Ulcer of the superficies of the Bone.
  • 256. Anthrocace. An Ulcer of the Cavity of the Bone, with Caries.
  • 257. Cocyta. Pungent Pain, from an Ani∣malcule lodged in the Part.
  • 258. Paronychia. Whit∣low.
  • 259. Pernio. Kibes.
  • 260. Pressura. Phleg∣mon of the Finger End: from the ef∣fect of Cold.
  • 261. Arctura. Inflam∣mation of the Nail, from Curvature thereof.

Most of these genera rank with the PLAGAE of Dr. Sauvages's class. The Paronychia however comes in among the PHYMATA; and the Pressura and Arctura of LINNAEUS are species only of the Paro∣nychia, as the Pernio is of the Erythema in the same system.

The first six genera in this order are classed in Dr. Cullen's system under Ulcus; the Caries is a distinct genus; the Arthocace, Paronychia, and Pernio, rank under the Phlogosis; and the others are not noticed.

• ...4. SCABIES. Cutaneous Diseases.
  • 262. Lepra. Leprosy.
  • 263. Tinea. Scald Head.
  • 264. Achor. Crusta Lac∣tea, of Authors.
  • 265. Psora. Itch.
  • 266. Lippitudo. Blear-eyedness.
  • 267. Serpigo. Tetters; Ring-worm.
  • 268. Herpes. Shingles.
  • 269. Varus. Pimples.
  • 270. Bacchia. Ruby-face, Gutta Rosea.
  • 271. Bubo. A Bubo.
  • 272. Anthrax. A Car∣buncle.
  • 273. Phlyctaena. A wa∣tery Pimple.
  • 274. Pustula. A Pustule.
  • 275. Papula. A hard in∣flamed Pimple.
  • 276. Hordeolum. A Stian.
  • 277. Verruca. A Wart.
  • 278. Clavus. A Corn.
  • 279. Myrmecium. A moist, soft Wart.
  • 280. Eschara. An Eschar.

In Sauvages's system most of these genera stand in the corresponding class under the orders PHYMATA and EFFLORESCENTIAE; but the Lepra, Tinea, and Psora, are referred to the IMPETIGINES, in the class CACHEXIAE.

The following are distinct genera in Dr. Cullen's system: the Lepra under the IMPETIGINES; the Tinea, Psora, and Herpes, under the DIALYSES. The Bubo, Verruca, and Clavus, form distinct ge∣nera, in the same order with the Phlyctena or Hydatis,

being all referred to the TUMORES. Almost all the others rank under the Phlogosis, as different species of that genus. Lippitudo, Serpigo, Myrmecium, and Eschara, have no place in the Cullenian system.

The characters of the genera in this order are well adapted to distinguish the different kinds of Pustules; and are of great use as auxiliary terms, in defining other genera in different parts of the system.

• ...5. TUMORES. Tumours.
  • 281. Aneurisma. Aneu∣rism.
  • 282. Varix. Varix.
  • 283. Schirrus. Schirrus.
  • 284. Struma. Struma.
  • 285. Atheroma. Wen.
  • 286. Anchylosis. A stiff Joint.
  • 287. Ganglion. Tumour of a Tendon.
  • 288. Natta. Tumour root∣ed in a Muscle.
  • 289. Spinola. Spina bi∣fida.
  • 290. Exostosis. Bony Tumour.

The three first, and the last of these genera, stand in the corresponding class of the systems of Sauvages and Dr. Cullen under the same names. LINNAEUS'S Struma is their Scrofula, and his Spi∣nola the Hydrorachitis. The Atheroma is the Lupia of Dr. Cullen. The Ganglion is a Condyloma of Sau∣vages, but stands in the Cullenian system under LINNAEUS'S term. The Natta is neglected by Dr. Cullen, but belongs to the Sarcoma of our other nosologist.

• ...6. PROCIDENTIAE. Tumours arising from Dis∣location of fleshy or membranous Parts.
  • 291. Hernia. Rupture.
  • 292. Prolapsus. Pro∣lapsus.
  • 293. Condyloma. Con∣dyloma.
  • 294. Sarcoma. Fungus Flesh.
  • 295. Pterygium. Web in the Eye.
  • 296. Ectropium. Re∣version of the under Eye-lid.
  • 297. Phymosis. Swell∣ing of the Prepuce.
  • 298. Clitorismus.

The Hernia, Prolapsus, and Ectropium, called Blepharoptosis by Sauvages, stand among the ECTO∣PIAE of his system; the Phymosis with the Phymata; and the remaining genera among the EXCRESCEN∣TIAE.

Dr. Cullen receives into his ECTOPIAE only the Hernia, and Prolapsus. The Sarcoma he refers to the TUMORES, and the other genera are not admitted into his system as such.

• ...7. DEFORMATIONES. Distortions of particu∣lar Parts, and other Deformities.
  • 299. Contractura. Ri∣gidity of a Joint
  • 300. Gibber. Gibbosity of the Chest.
  • 301. Lordosis. Incur∣vation of the Bones.
  • 302. Distortio. Distor∣tion of the Bones.
  • 303. Tortura. Wry∣mouth.
  • 304. Strabismus. Squint∣ing.
  • 305. Lagopthalmia. Re∣traction of the up∣per Eye-lid.
  • ...

• ...
  • 306. Nyctalopia. Night∣sight.
  • 307. Presbytia. Long∣sight.
  • 308. Myopia. Near∣sight. Pore-blind∣ness.
  • 309. Labarium. Loose∣ness of the Teeth; as in the Scurvy, &c.
  • 310. Lagostoma. Hare∣lip.
  • 311. Apella. Abbrevia∣tion of the Prepuce.
  • 312. Atreta. Imperfora∣tion of a natural Passage.
  • 313. Plica. Plica polonica.
  • 314. Hirsuties. Unnatu∣ral Hairyness of the Body.
  • 315. Alopecia. Baldness.
  • 316. Trichiasis. Distor∣tion and Inversion of the Eye-lashes.

These genera are placed in very different parts of his system by M. Sauvages: the Contractura, for instance, and the Strabismus, very improperly, as it should seem, among spasmodic diseases; the Gibber, or Gibbosites, and the Lordosis, among the EXCRESCENTIAE of the VITIA class; the Nyctalo∣pia, and the two genera succeeding it, as species of Amblyopia, in the class of DEBILITATES, as is the Lagostoma, as a species of Psellismus; the Plica under the name of Trichoma, with the CA∣CHEXIAE; and the Trichiasis, as a species of Op∣thalmia.

Dr. Cullen receives only five of these genera: the Contractura, Strabismus; the Presbytia, and My∣opia; the two latter as species of his Dysopia, all under the LOCALES class: the Plica under his genus Trichoma, among the IMPETIGINES in the CACHEXIAE class.

• ...8. MACULAE. Blemishes on the Skin.
  • 317. Cicatrix. A Scar.
  • 318. Naevus. A Mole.
  • 319. Morphaea. Scurf.
  • 320. Vibex. Purple Spots and Wheals; under the Skin.
  • 321. Sudamen. Transi∣tory, red, stinging Spots on the Skin.
  • 322. Melasma. Black Blotches; on the Legs, or other Parts unexposed to the Air.
  • 323. Hepatizon. Brown itching Morphew.
  • 324. Lentigo. Freckles.
  • 325. Ephelis. Sun-burn.

These lighter affections stand in Sauvages's sys∣tem either among the MACULAE or EFFLORESCEN∣TIAE, but he does not allow them all the rank of genera. The Cicatrix is a species of his Leucoma, as the Morphaea and Melasma are of his Vitiligo; and the Vibex, and Sudamen, of the Ecchymoma. The Naevus stands under the same generic name in both; but the Lentigo of LINNAEUS is a species of Sauvages's Ephelis.

Dr. Cullen has not given a place to these genera in his system.

Our author has subjoined to this distribution of diseases, a brief view of his Theory of Physic, de∣livered in that terse, concise, and methodic man∣ner, so peculiar to himself; and which, as it ap∣pears to have been intended entirely for the use of his pupils, nothing less than the author's own comment can do sufficient justice to. We should not therefore have taken notice of it, in our plan, had it not been necessary in order to explain several

papers hereafter to be mentioned in the Amoenitates Academicae. Briefly, therefore, the Linnaean prin∣ciples of physic suppose the human body to consist of a cerebrose medullary part, of which the nerves are so many processes, and which we call the ner∣vous system; and, a cortical or vital part, includ∣ing the vascular system and contained fluids: the former, being the animated part, or that in which the sentient, moving principle peculiarly resides, is considered as deriving its nourishment from the subtlest fluids of the vascular system, and its energy from an electrical principle inhaled by the lungs. Farther, this theory supposes the cir∣culating fluids to be capable of being vitiated, by principles which the author chuses to consider either as acescent, or putrid ferments; the former acting on the serum, and being the exciting cause of critical fevers; the latter, on the blood pro∣perly, or crassamentum, and exciting phlogistic dis∣eases. The exanthematic class is supposed to be excited by some external causes, which we call Contagion, and which hypothetically he proposes as being animalcula. From the incessant attrition of the cortical or vascular system, it requires perpe∣tual reparation; this is to be effected by an appro∣priate diet. From an impropriate diet, or regi∣men, spring the diseases of this part of the system, originally and more particularly; these are to be remedied by sapid medicines, as those of the medul∣lary system are by olids. Hence arises the author's general division of all medicines, as discoverable by their sensible qualities, to the taste, and smelling.

The Sapids, according to this theory, acting pecu∣liarly on the cortical part, as the Olids do immedi∣ately on the medullary, or nervous system. In or∣der however to obtain a more complete idea of the effects of each of these general classes of medicines, each must be viewed in its most simple state, by which Sapids will appear to be rather what we call Nutritives; and Olids, more strictly speaking, Me∣dicines. A table of of the several qualities of medi∣cines, acording to these two general divisions, closes the Genera Morborum.

In 1766, LINNAEUS published a small piece, un∣der the title of CLAVIS MEDICINAE duplex, exterior et interior. Holm. 8vo. pp. 29. This small tract may be considered as a syllabus of his lectures. It is an enlarged view of the theory just mentioned, connecting it with general Pathology, and the the∣rapeutic part of physic. In the latter part all simples are arranged in thirty orders, according to their sensible qualities, agreeably to the theory; which is displayed more at large in two papers printed in the Amoenitates Academicae, under the titles of Sapores, et Odores Medicamentorum.

It appears from several parts of the writings of LINNAEUS, that the dietetic part of physic had been an object to which he had paid much atten∣tion; and he has explained himself in the follow∣ing manner relating to it:—In his meae deliciae, in his plura collegi, quam quod novi alius ullus:—but, whether our author's observations on this sub∣ject may hereafter be published, we are yet to learn.

In 1771 was published LINNAEUS'S last work, being the continuation of the Mantissa, in which the work is carried on to 588 pages, under the title of MANTISSA ALTERA. Near one half of this volume comprehends additional new genera and species, and the remaining part a variety of emendations, with some considerable augmentation to the animal kingdom. These will greatly enrich a future edition of his works; and in the preface he has earnestly intreated succeeding editors to pay a pro∣per regard to them.

Besides his separate works, which we have now brought to a conclusion, LINNAEUS wrote a great number of papers on the subjects of physic and natural history, which were published in the Acta Literaria Upsaliensia, and in the Stockholm Acts. The first of these works was begun by Olaus Celsius in 1720, and continued to the year 1750, and is in Latin, in 5 volumes, quarto. The lat∣ter publication is in the Swedish language, in the octavo form, and has been continued ever since the establishment of the academy at Stockholm, in 1739, by king Adolphus. Many of these papers are superseded by the subsequent works of our author, neither would it be within our plan to give a particular detail of them: we are therefore only to subjoin a catalogue of these detached pieces, and regret that it is not in our power to make it more complete; or to add such, if there be any, as may have been given by LINNAEUS to foreign academies.

In the Acta Upsaliensia are the following papers, written by LINNAEUS.

Florula Lapponica, in 1732. This, as is before observed, was our author's first publication, and consists only of a bare catalogue of the Lapland plants, digested into the order of the sexual system, of which it is the first specimen. The second part of this list appears not till the year 1734.

Animalia Regni Sueciae, in 1736.

Orchides iisque affines, in 1740. This catalogue is accompanied by a copious collection of syno∣nyms to each species.

Genera Plantarum Nova, in 1741.

Euporista in Febribus intermittentibus. This pa∣per, as likewise several others, if we mistake not, was published, agreeably to a laudable custom of that country, in the yearly Kalendars, by which means useful intelligence finds its way into the most remote and obscure recesses of every king∣dom, in 1742.

Euporista in Dysenteria, in 1745.

Pini usus oeconomicus, in 1743.

Abietis usus oeconomicus, in 1744.

The manifold uses of these trees, some of which were not sufficiently known in divers parts of the kingdom of Sweden, induced our author to throw together all that his extensive journeys had enabled him to collect thereon, in these two papers.

Sexus Plantarum, in 1744.

Sexus Plantarum usus oeconomicus, in 1745. The practical use of this paper is more particularly an object of all who have the care of gardens, to

whom the sex of plants is no longer a matter of mere speculation.

Theae Potus, in 1746.

Scabiosae novae Speciei Descriptio, in 1744, after∣wards called by our author, in his Species Planta∣rum, Scabiosa Tatarica.

Penthorum, a new genus of plants, from Virgi∣nia, described and figured, in 1744.

Cyprini pinnae ani radiis xi. pinnis albentibus, de∣scriptio. (Cyprinus Grislagine, Syst. p. 529.) A fish of the lakes of West Bothnia.

After the institution of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, of which LINNAEUS was the first president, his communications were chiefly made in the Acts of that body. In these the fol∣lowing papers occur.

Cultura Plantarum Naturalis. Vol. I. for the years 1739 and 1740. This is an attempt to re∣duce the art of gardening to scientific principles.

Gluten Lapponum e Perca. ib. p. 221.

Oestrus Rangiferinus, in 1740, p. 121. A de∣scription, accompanied with figures, of the Gad∣sly, (Oestrus Tarandi, Syst. Nat. p. 969.) which is bred under the skin on the backs of the rein∣deer, and from which a third of the fawns not un∣frequently perish.

The Glue of the Perch is made from the skins, which are scraped off, put into a bladder, and boiled to a proper consistence.

Picus pedibus trydactylis. ib. p. 222. A descrip∣tion of the three-toed Wood-pecker, before that time unnoticed, since figured by Edwards, tab.

114, and named by our author, in his System, Picus tridactylus, p. 177. It is found also in Hudson's Bay, and described by Mr. Forster, Phil. Trans. Vol. lxii. p. 388.

Mures Alpini Lemures. ib. p. 326. The Mus Lemmus of the System, p. 80, or Leming, the well∣known pest of the North.

Passer Nivalis. ib. p. 368. (Emberiza Nivalis, Syst. p. 308.) Greater Brambling, or Snow Bunt∣ing; since more fully known and described.

Piscis Aureus Chinensium. ib. 403. The Gold∣fish, or Cyprinus Auratus, Syst. 527.

Fundamenta Oeconomiae. ib. p. 411.

Formicarum Sexus. Vol. II. 1741, p. 37. This paper contains the description and history of five species of Ants found in Sweden, and throws much light on the oeconomy of those insects.

Officinales Suecicae Plantae. ib. p. 81. In this paper our author informs his countrymen of seve∣ral articles of the Materia Medica growing indi∣genously in Sweden, and which they had unneces∣sarily imported.

Centuria Plantarum in Suecia rariorum. ib. p. 179. These were all rare plants not observed in Sweden before.

Plantae Tinctoriae indigenae. Vol. III. 1742, p. 20. The discovery of plants adapted to the art of dye∣ing was one of LINNAEUS'S objects professedly, in his Iter Gothlandicum, of which we have spoken before.

Amaryllis Formosissima. ib. p. 93. The Jacobaea Lilly described and figured.

Gramen Saelting. ib. p. 146. A description of, and persuasive to, the culture of the Triglochin Maritimum, Spec. Plant. p. 483, or Sea spiked Grass, which is the delight of horned cattle.

Faenum Suecicum. ib. p. 191. A recommenda∣tion also of the culture of the Medicago falcata, Sp. Pl. p. 1096; or Yellow Medic, as a substitute for Lucern in Sweden.

Phaseoli Chinensis species. ib. p. 206.

Epilepsiae Vernensis causa. ib. p. 279.

Jackas Hapuch. Vol. IV. 1743, p. 291. (Ar∣butus Uva Ursi, Sp. Pl. p. 566.) Bear-berries. A plant of use in Sweden, both in dyeing and tan∣ning, and frequently smoked with tobacco; bet∣ter known since in other parts of Europe, by the reputation it acquired, for some time, in calculous cases.

Fagopyrum Sibiricum. Vol. V. 1744, p. 117. Polygonum tataricum, Sp. Pl. 521. A kind of Buck-wheat, which is cultivated, and supplies the want of other grain for bread, in divers parts of Tartary and Sibiria.

Petiveria. ib. p. 287. Petiveria alliacea, Sp. Pl. p. 486, described and figured. An acrid, and even caustic plant, of which the Guinea-hens, in the West Indies, are said to be extremely fond; thence called Guinea-henweed.

Passer procellarius. Vol. VI. 1745, p. 93. A description of the Procellaria pelagica, Syst. p. 212. The Little Peterel of Edwards, t. 90. or Storm∣finch.

Limnia. Vol. VII. 1746. p. 130. Claytonia Sibirica, Sp. Pl. 294. A curious plant, discover∣ed by Steller in the most eastern parts of Sibiria, and in the islands which lie scattered between that part of Asia and North America.

Coluber (Chersea) scutis abdominalibus 150 squamis subcaudalibus 34. Vol. X. 1749. p. 246, t. 6. A most venomous small Snake, found in ofieries and willow∣holts, the bite of which is frequently fatal, and much dreaded, particularly in Smoland. It is a small animal, not more than six inches long, and is called by the Smolanders, Asping.

Avis Sommar Guling appellata. Vol. XI. 1750, p. 127. The Oriolus Galbula, Syst. p. 160, or Golden Thrush; described and figured: singular in being a native both of northern Europe and of Bengal.

Insectum quod frumenti grana interius exedit; de∣scribed afterwards in the System, under the name of Musca Frit, N^o 994. ib. p. 179. Our author thinks that every tenth grain of barley is destroyed in Sweden by this insect; and that the damage occa∣sioned thereby, cannot amount to less than an hundred thousand ducats annually.

Emberiza Ciris, Syst. p. 313, or Painted Finch of Catesby. I. t. 44; described and figured. ib. p. 278.

De Characteribus anguium. Vol. XIII. 1752, p. 206. It has been observed before, that LINNAEUS first attempted to fix the characters of the Serpentes from the number of the shields and scales of the ab∣domen and tail. He here observes, that this cha∣racter

is not sufficiently permanent; but that what is wanting to complete the number in one, will usually be found in the other.

Novae duae Tabaci species. Vol. XIV. 1753, p. 37; described and figured. They stand in the Species Plant. p. 259, under the names of Nicotiana, paniculata and glutinosa.

De Plantis, quae Alpium Suecicarum indiginae fieri possint. Vol. XV. 1754, p. 182. An enumera∣tion of such plants, as the author thought might usefully be cultivated on the Lapland and Swedish Alps.

Simiae, ex Cercopithecorum genere, descriptio. ib. p. 210; called in the System, Simia Diana, p. 38.

Mirabilis longiflorae (Syst. p. 252.) descriptio. A Mexican plant, now well known in our English gardens. Vol. XVI. p. 176.

Lepidii (Cardamines, Syst. 899.) descriptio. A new plant, sent to our author from Spain, where it was found by M. Loefling. ib. p. 273.

Ayeniae (Pusillae, Spec. 1354.) descriptio. Vol. XVII. 1756, p. 23. An elegant plant, sent by Mr. Miller to our author. It is figured by Miller, tab. 118; and by Sloane, tab. 132.

Gaurae (biennis, Spec. Pl. 493.) descriptio. A new plant, from seeds sent by Mr. Collinson. ib. p. 222.

Loeflingia et Minuartia. Vol. XIX. p. 15. Two new genera of plants, sent by M. Loefling from Spain.

Entomolithus paradoxus (Syst. Natur. III. p. 160.) descriptus. Vol. XX. 1759. p. 19. accompanied

with figures. A curious fossil, from Count Tes∣sin's museum.

Gemma, Penna pavonis, dictum. ib. p. 23. Our author thinks this fossil is formed from the carti∣lage or hinge of the Pearl Muscle. He has called it in the System, Helmintholithus (Androdamas) Mytili margaritiferi cardinis, viridis, p. 165.

Coccus Uvae Ursi, (Syst. p. 742.) ib. p. 28. This cochineal-insect is very like the Polish kind, found at the roots of the Knawel, but is double the size, and yields a very fine red colour.

De Rubo arctico plantando. Vol. XXIII. 1762. p. 192. The Rubus arcticus, Sp. Pl. p. 708, much valued for the sake of the berries; is difficultly cultivated in the southern parts of Sweden. This paper contains the result of some trials made to inure it to a more southern clime: they are too operose to prove of general use.

Observationes ad Cerevisiam pertinentes. Vol. XXIV. 1763. p. 50.

Animalis Brasiliensis, (Muris Aguti, (Syst. p. 80.) descriptio. Vol. XXIX. 1768. p. 26. Long∣nosed Cavy of Pennant.

Viverrae naricae, (Syst. p. 64.) descriptio. ib. p. 140. An American animal, nearly allied to the Coati-mondi of Brasil.

Simia Oedipus. (Syst. p. 41.) The Little Lion∣monkey, described. ib. p. 146.

Gordius Medinensis, (Syst. p. 1075;) or Guinea∣worm. One of these animals, half an ell long, was discovered in a living state at Gottenburgh, and

communicated by the King of Sweden to our au∣thor. ib.

Calceolariae pinnatae (Syst. Nat. ed. 13. p. 60.) descriptio. Vol. XXXI. 1770. p. 286. A Peru∣vian plant, of the Diandrous class, with a labiated flower.

It has been before mentioned, that our author has interspersed, in the Flora Lapponica, a great variety of curious particulars, relating to the country, and its inhabitants, their manners, their economy, diseases, &c.: and in the preface he tells us, that he had it in meditation to give the remaining part of the natural history. This was to have appeared under the title of Lachesis Lappo∣nica; but it is with great regret that we must now give up the expectation of this work. Mr. Pen∣nant has informed us, that he once reminded him of it, and received for answer,—nunc nimis sera nciperem:

Me quoque debilitat series immensa laborum, Ante meum tempus cogor et esse senex. Firma sit illa licet, solvetur in aequore navis, Quae nunquam liquidis sicca carebit aquis.

We know not of any other publication of LINNAEUS'S after the Mantissa altera, in 1771; and indeed, the preface to that work is sufficient to preclude the expectation of any new performance, if his advanced age had not, of itself, rendered it sufficiently improbable after that period.

In the spring of the year 1772, Dr. Murray, Professor of Physic and Botany at Gottingen, a Swede by birth, who had been educated under LINNAEUS, and had long enjoyed a great share of his confidence and esteem, paid his Preceptor a visit: he found his faculties unimpaired, and his ardor for the improvement of science as strong and vigorous as ever. He speaks with great de∣light of the satisfaction he received from his com∣pany, and in the contemplation and inspection of his museum at Hammarby; but regretted much to find, that LINNAEUS had no farther thoughts of publishing a new edition of his System of Nature; purposing only to give a supplement. However, before Dr. Murray left Upsal, he prevailed on him to promise that he would transmit to him his ad∣ditional observations to the Systema Vegetabilium, in order to enable him to give a complete edition of that work. This the Professor did; and Dr. Murray performed it in the year 1774, very much to the satisfaction of all who pursue the LINNAEAN method. The manuscript additions communica∣ted on this occasion by our author, together with those collected from the several Addenda, and from the Mantissae, enabled Dr. Murray to extend this volume to above one hundred pages beyond that of the 12th edition published in 1767.

It appears that LINNAEUS, upon the whole, en∣joyed a good constitution. At times, however, he had been severely afflicted with an hemicrania; and had not been exempted from the gout. How much he suffered from this latter distemper, we

have before mentioned, when treating on the Phi∣losophia Botanica. And notwithstanding the sound state in which Dr. Murray left him, we find, that very soon after, his memory became somewhat impaired. The consciousness of this defect was said to have induced him to decline all thoughts of further publications, and to transmit to Dr. Mur∣ray such materials as were in readiness to compleat future editions of his System.

In the summer of 1776, it was known here that his strength was declining apace, and his infirmi∣ties in general much increased, he being unable to take his usual walks in his garden without assistance. At the latter end of the year he was seized with an apoplexy, which left him paralytic; and at the be∣ginning of the year 1777 he suffered another stroke, which very much impaired his mental powers. These attacks, at his advanced stage of life, shew∣ed that dissolution was not far off. But the dis∣ease, which was said to have been the more imme∣diate cause of his death, was an ulceration of the urinary bladder. Nevertheless, he languished through the year, and died on the 11th of January, 1778, aged 70 years and 8 months.

To the lovers of science it will not appear strange, nor will it be unpleasant, to hear, that uncommon respect was shewn to the memory of this great man. We are told, that,

on his death, a general mourning took place at Upsal, and that his funeral procession was attended by the whole university, as well professors as stu∣dents, and the pall supported by sixteen doctors

of physic, all of whom had been his pupils.

The King of Sweden, after the death of LINNAEUS, or∣dered a medal to be struck, of which

one side exhibits LINNAEUS'S bust and name, and the other Cybele, in a dejected attitude, holding in her left hand a key, and surrounded with ani∣mals and growing plants, with this legend—Deam luctus angit amissi;—and beneath,—post obitum Upsaliae, die x. Jan. M.DCC.LXXVIII. Rege jubente.

—The same generous monarch not only honoured the Royal Academy of Sciences with his presence when LINNAEUS'S commemora∣tion was held at Stockholm, but, as a still higher tribute, in his speech from the throne to the assembly of the states, lamented Sweden's loss by his death. Nor was he honoured only in his own country. The present learned and worthy professor of botany at Edinburgh, not only pro∣nounced an eulogium in honour of LINNAEUS, before his students, at the opening of his lectures in the spring of 1778, but laid also the foundation-stone of a monument to be raised to his memory; which, while it perpetuates the name and merits of LINNAEUS, will do honour to the founder, and, it may be hoped, prove the means of raising an emulation favourable to that science which this illustrious Swede so highly dignified and improved. This monument consists of a vase, supported on a pedestal, with this inscription,

LINNAEO POSUIT J. HOPE.

The high reputation which this great man has long held among the naturalists throughout the world, might readily perhaps preclude any encomium from our pen; since, to all lovers of natural sci∣ence, his name itself is eulogy, and will doubtless very long be inseparable from the idea of his ex∣traordinary merit. Might we, nevertheless, be indulged so far, we hope the following brief esti∣mate of his talents will be thought just, and easily deduced from an impartial view of his writings.

Nature had, in an eminent manner, been liberal in the endowments of his mind. He seems to have been possessed of a lively imagination, corrected however by a strong judgment, and guided by the laws of system. Add to these, the most retentive memory, an unremitting industry, and the greatest perseverance in all his pursuits; as is evident from that continued vigour with which he prosecuted the design, that he appears to have formed so early in life, of totally reforming, and fabricating anew the whole science of natural history: and this fabric he raised, and gave to it a degree of perfection unknown before; and had moreover the un∣common felicity of living to see his own struc∣ture rise above all others, notwithstanding every discouragement its author at first laboured under, and the opposition it afterwards met with. Neither has any writer more cautiously avoided that com∣mon error of building his own fame on the ruin of another man's. He every where acknowledged the several merits of each author's system; and no man appears to have been more sensible of the par∣tial

defects of his own. Those anomalies which had principally been the objects of criticism, he well knew every artificial arrangement must abound with; and having laid it down as a firm maxim, that every system must finally rest on its in∣trinsic merit, he willingly commits his own to the judgment of posterity. Perhaps there is no cir∣cumstance of LINNAEUS'S life, which shews him in a more dignified light, than his conduct to∣wards his opponents. Disavowing controversy, and justly considering it as an unimportant and fruitless sacrifice of time, he never replied to any, numerous as they were at one season.

To all who see the aid this extraordinary man has brought to natural science, his talents must appear in a very illustrious point of view; but more especially to those who, from similarity of taste, are qualified to see more distinctly the vast extent of his original design, the greatness of his labour, and the elaborate execution he has given to the whole. He had a happy command of the Latin tongue, which is alone the language of science; and no man ever applied it more successfully to his purposes, or gave to description such copi∣ousness, united with that precision and conciseness, which so eminently characterize his writings.

In the mean time, we are not to learn, that it has been objected as derogatory to his learning in no small degree, that he has introduced a num∣ber of terms not authorized by classical authority. But, granting this, it ought to be recollected, that LINNAEUS, in the investigation of nature, has

discovered a multitude of relations which were entirely unknown to the antients; if therefore there be any force in the objection, it should first be shewn, that the terms which he has introduced to express these relations, are not fairly and analo∣gically deduced from the language; since it must surely be granted, that LINNAEUS could not have spoken the language of natural history, as it is known at this day, in that of Pliny, or of any clas∣sical writer whatever.

The ardor of LINNAEUS'S inclinations to the study of nature, from his earliest years, and that uncommon application which he bestowed upon it, gave him a most comprehensive view, both of its pleasures and usefulness, at the same time that it opened to him a wide field, hitherto but little cultivated, especially in his own country. Hence he was early led to regret, that the study of natural history, as a public institution, had not made its way into the universities; in many of which, logical dis∣putations, and metaphysical theories, had too long prevailed, to the exclusion of more useful sci∣ence. Availing himself therefore of the advan∣tages which he derived from a large share of elo∣quence, and an animated style, he never failed to display, in a lively and convincing manner, the relation this study hath to the public good; to incite the great to countenance and protect it; to encourage and allure youth into its pursuits, by opening its manifold sources of pleasure to their view, and shewing them how greatly this agreeable employment would add, in a variety of instances,

both to their comfort and emolument. His ex∣tensive view of natural history, as connected with almost all the arts of life, did not allow him to confine these motives and incitements to those only who were designed for the practice of physic. He also laboured to inspire the great and opulent with a taste for this study; and wished particularly that such as were devoted to an ecclesiastic life should share a portion of natural science, not only as a means of sweetening their rural situ∣ation, confined, as many are, perpetually to a country residence, but as what would almost in∣evitably lead, in a variety of instances, to disco∣veries which only such situations could give rise to, and which the learned in great cities could have no opportunities to make. Not to add, that the mutual communication and enlargement of this kind of knowledge among people of equal rank in a country situation, must prove one of the strongest bonds of union and friendship, and con∣tribute, in a much higher degree than the usual perishing amusements of the age, to the pleasures and advantages of society.

LINNAEUS lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour in an uncommon degree. Natural his∣tory raised itself in Sweden, under his culture, to a state of perfection unknown elsewhere, and was from thence disseminated through all Europe. His pupils dispersed themselves all over the globe, and with their master's fame, ex∣tended both science and their own. More than this, he lived to see the sovereigns of Europe

establish several public institutions in favour of this study, and even professorships established in divers universities for the same purpose, which do honour to their founders and patrons, and which have excited a curiosity for the science, and a sense of its worth, that cannot fail to further its progress, and in time raise it to that rank, which it is entitled to hold among the pursuits of man∣kind.

Were it in our power minutely to describe the person of our author, in conformity to the custom of biographers, it would be a matter of small mo∣ment, as the endowments of his mind, and his great talents, have so superior a claim to atten∣tion. In the commemoration-speech, delivered by his friend Dr. Baeck, physician to the king of Sweden, LINNAEUS'S stature is described as being

diminutive; his head large; his look ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the beholder. His ear not sensible to music; his temper quick; his memory good, though in the latter period of his life liable to fail him some∣times; his knowledge of languages confined, yet no interesting discovery escaped him. In summer he used to sleep from ten to three o'clock, in winter from nine to six, and instantly to cease from his labours when he found him∣self not well disposed for them. He was an agreeable companion, of quick sensibility, but easily appeased.

Those who would be gra∣tified by forming an idea of his person, may be acquainted, that there are extant three half∣length

prints of LINNAEUS in his works. Two of these are in octavo, and the other in a half∣sheet, or rather large quarto. The first was pre∣fixed to the Leipsic edition of the Systema Naturae, printed in 1748, and represents LINNAEUS, as we apprehend, in about the fortieth year of his age; another, to the second edition of the Species Plan∣tarum, in 1762; and the larger one to the sixth edition of the Genera Plantarum, in 1764. In the first and the last of these, which are by much the better engravings, he is figured in an undress, resting upon a volume of the Systema, and holding in his hand a sprig of the LINNAEA, a plant so called by Dr. Gronovius, in honour of his name. In that of 1762, he is represented in a full dress, with the insignia of the Order of the Polar Star at his breast, and Aurivillius's inscription under∣neath:

"Hic ille est, cui regna volens natura reclusit, "Quamque ulli dederat plura videnda dedit."

The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm have, at their own expence, directed that an engraving of his portrait should be made at Paris, from an ori∣ginal picture by the famous Swedish painter Roslin. There is a striking likeness also exhibited on a large medallion, a'l'antique, of almost two feet in dia∣meter, by M. L'Archeveque. In England we have an elegant small medallion, fabricated by those excellent artists Mess. Wedgwood and Bently. It represents LINNAEUS in profile, when far advanced in years. The bust is white, upon a light-blue

ground, and the Linnaea placed at the breast. This is said, by all who knew the professor, to bear the greatest likeness. We regret that it is not in our power to describe the medals which were struck in honour of LINNAEUS by order of several noblemen of the first distinction in Sweden, parti∣cularly that by Count Tessin's direction, since that nobleman was among the first who discerned and patronized the merit of our author, and ever bore to it the most public and honourable testimony. This LINNAEUS hath acknowledged in the warmest effusions of gratitude.

It hath been observed before, that the professor married the daughter of Dr. More, the provincial physician of Dalekarlia, soon after he settled at Stockholm, in 1739. This lady survived him; and he has left a son, named Charles, and four daughters. The younger Linnaeus was demonstra∣tor in the botanical garden at Upsal, so early as the year 1762; having in that, and the succeeding year, published two Decads of rare Plants, lately raised there, accompanied with the figures. Not long after he was constituted joint professor in the botanical chair with his father; and of late years entirely occupied that department. Since the death of his father, we learn that he has obtained some of his employments, particularly the professorship of the theory of physic; and has resigned that of botany in favour of Dr. Thunberg. It has been said, that he intends to publish a MANTISSA TERTIA, which his father left nearly finished; also several collections of plants which had been sent to LIN∣NAEUS,

not long before his death, from the Cape of Good Hope, and from several other parts of the world.

Elizabeth Christina, one of the daughters of our author, made herself known to the learned world, in 1762, by a discovery which was published in the Swedish Acts of the same year. It re∣lated to a curious, and before quite unobserved appearance, in the flowers of the Indian Cresses, (Tropaeolum majus) which she had perceived to emit spontaneously, at certain intervals, sparks like those of electricity, or rather such as arise from a fulminating powder. This was only visible in the dusk of the evenings, and ceased when total darkness came on. She had shewn this singular appearance to her father, and other philosophers, particularly to Mr. Wilcke, a celebrated electrician, who was inclined to believe that it was an electri∣cal phenomenon.

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE.

THE collection known under this title con∣sists of seven volumes in 8vo, and contains 150 theses. It is supposed the first volume was not originally collected by LINNAEUS himself; but he at least reprinted it very early, and, that he might not be defrauded of the advantage of these publications, became the editor of all the succeeding volumes. Something has been said relating to this collection in the course of these memoirs; to which we have only to add, that we beg the reader to regard the following pages, as little more than an enlarged table of contents, intended only to excite a due at∣tention to this part of LINNAEUS'S works, which the compiler presumes to be less known than it deserves; and at the same time to entreat him to consider, that it is impossible, by means of any abridgment, to give an adequate idea of that merit, and excellent arrangement of the subjects in these volumes, which cannot but render them an agreeable and useful miscellany, and ornament to the library of every naturalist, philosopher, and physician.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. I. Holm. 1749. pp. 610.

1. BETULA NANA. L. M. Klase. 1743.

In this dissertation is exhibited a complete his∣tory, accompanied with a figure, of the Betula (nana) foliis orbiculatis crenatis. Spec. Plant. pp. 1394, or the Dwarf Birch, which cloaths the Lap∣land alps in great quantities, and is of signal use in the oeconomy of the inhabitants of that arctic region. The branches furnish them with their chief fuel, and the seeds are the food of the ptar∣migans, or white partridge, (Tetrao Lagopus, Syst. 274.) These birds, being much esteemed, make a considerable part of the sustenance of the inhabitants: great quantities are caught in the winter season, and sent to different provinces. Before LINNAEUS made his Lapland expedition, this Birch had been considered as a variety only of the common tree of that name; but its distinct specific characters have since been established. This tree has within these few years been added to the Flora Britannica, having been found in the highlands of Scotland.

2. HISTORIA naturalis et medica FICUS. C. He∣gardt. 1744.

From the earliest times, the cultivation of the fig-tree has been an important object in all the oriental countries. In this dissertation we are presented with a history of this genus, of which

the writer has enumerated 22 species: LINNAEUS has however greatly reduced this number, in his Species Plantarum, since many are varieties effected by culture. That part of the history of this tree, which for many ages was so enigmatical, and which nothing but the doctrine of the sexes of plants has completely cleared up, namely the husbandry or caprification, as it is called, is more particularly worthy of attention, not only as a singular pheno∣menon in itself, but as it has furnished one of the most convincing proofs of the reality of the sexes of plants. Our limits will not allow us to detail this subject; in brief it is this:—It is now known, that the flowers of the fig-tree are situated within a pulpy receptacle, which we call the Fig, or fruit of this tree; of these receptacles, in the wild fig-tree, some have male flowers only, and others have male and female, both distinct, though placed in the same receptacle. In the garden, or cultivated fig, these are found to contain only fe∣male flowers; which are fecundated by means of a kind of gnat, (Cynips Psenes, Syst. Nat. 919.) bred in the fruit of the wild fig-trees, which pierces that of the cultivated, in order to deposit its eggs within; at the same time diffusing within the re∣ceptacle the farina of the male flowers. Without this operation the fruit may ripen, but no effective seeds are produced: hence the garden fig can only be propagated by layers and cuttings, in these countries, where the wild fig is not known. The process of thus ripening the fruit, in the oriental countries, is not left to nature, but is managed

with great art, and different degrees of dexterity, so as to reward the skilful husbandman with a much larger increase of fruit than would other∣wise be produced. A tree of the same size, which, in Provence, where caprification is not practised, may produce about 25 pounds of fruit, will, by that art, in the Grecian islands, bring ten times that quantity.

3. DISSERTATIO de PELORIA. D. Rudberg. 1744.

A description, with the figure, of a very ex∣traordinary variety of the common yellow Toad Flax, (Antirrhinum Linaria, Sp. Pl. 858.) which was found in several parts of Sweden, and since in Germany, and engaged the attention of the bota∣nists very greatly at the time. Indeed its variation is uncommonly singular. The flower, instead of the ringent, tetrandrous flower of the Linaria, with a single, corniculated Nectarium, was found with a regular, monopetalous, pentandrous tube, from the base of which proceeded five Nectaria; yet, uncommon as this proved, LINNAEUS discovered it to be no other than a monster, or hybrid plant, sprung from the Linaria, though it does not ap∣pear to this day that its origin on the other side has been sufficiently ascertained. The habit of the plant, and its sensible quality, agree with those of the Linaria.

4. De CORALLIIS BALTICIS. H. Fougt. 1745.

In this tract the author, after having traced the history of Corals from the remotest period of natural

history, and considered the several theories that have at different times prevailed relating to the production of these bodies, acquiesces in the modern one, which ascribes their formation to Polypes, and which the late Mr. Ellis, and seve∣ral other writers, have much confirmed and illus∣trated. He then gives a copious description of twenty species, all found in the Baltic; of which an excellent engraving is subjoined. These bodies are found in immense masses in some parts of this sea: on the coast of Gothland there are strata of corals extending through tracts of several miles.

5. AMPHIBIA GYLLENBORGIANA. B. R. Hast. 1745.

A detailed description of 24 species of animals, all of the Amphibia class, which were presented by Count Gyllenborg to the university of Upsal, of which he was at that time chancellor; and to which he had been a munificent patron, having inte∣rested himself, in procuring to be built and fur∣nished, an astronomical observatory; in restoring to a state of usefulness the botanic garden, which had been in ruins for many years; in causing stoves to be erected, and a house built for the demonstrator: and finally, in having presented to the university his own museum, collected at a great expence, and consisting of rare amphibia, insects, corals, minerals, and moreover of many elegant works of art.

In this tract is exhibited the first specimen of LINNAEUS'S method of zoological description at

large; as also the first attempt to form the spe∣cific character of the Serpentes ORDER, from the

different number of the rings and scales of the body and tail, taken conjointly.

Former authors generally had recourse to colour alone in distinguishing these animals, which was found at length to be too unstable, and had given rise to a most enormous multiplication of the species. This mode of distinction has been since adopted by others, and is retained in the Systema Naturae.

6. PLANTAE MARTINO-BURSERIANAE. R. Martin. 1745.

J. Burser, a most diligent disciple and friend of Caspar Bauhine, and afterwards professor of phy∣sic at Sora, in the kingdom of Naples, who had travelled almost all over Europe, and had particu∣larly sought for rare plants in the Alps, had col∣lected in these journeys an Hortus Siccus, contained in 25 volumes, which, after various fates, was given by M. Coijet to the university of Upsal. The purport of this tract is to illustrate the most rare plants contained in this collection, and such particularly as were obscurely known to the collec∣tor, and to add to these the specific names, ac∣cording to the principles of the Linnaean method: with this view 240 species are here enumerated.

7. HORTUS UPSALIENSIS. S. Naucler. 1745.

Botanical gardens began to be founded in Eu∣rope, so early as the middle of the sixteenth century:

the first was that of Padua, in 1540. The gar∣den of Upsal was founded in 1657, by Charles Gustavus, under the direction of the elder Rudbeck. How much this garden owes to LINNAEUS, we have already said, in the account of the catalogue of plants published by himself in 1748. This history of the antient and modern state of the garden given by Naucler, contains a variety of curi∣ous matter on the subject, and is illustrated with a ground-plot and view of the garden; lists of the succulent plants and others; and, what is more particularly acceptable, the lives of the Rudbecks, father and son, whose literary fame is founded, not on botany alone, but on anatomy, and the knowledge of antiquities.

8. De PASSIFLORA. J. G. Hallman. 1745.

A very methodical history of that beautiful and much-admired genus of plants, which the Catho∣lics, who first saw it in America, and from the fancied resemblance of the cross which they per∣ceived in the flower, called Passion Flower; and which soon held a distinguished rank in the Euro∣pean gardens. M. Hallman, after a chronological list of those writers, who first exhibited the several species, from Peter Ciltza and Monardes, down to Dillenius, describes at large 22 species, and gives their several synonyms, adding afterwards a list of many which are dubious. He subjoins the uses, which the natives of America make of these plants, principally borrowed from Piso. The whole is

ornamented, and rendered much more useful, by a plate, on which are engraven different views of the flower, and a figure of the leaf of each species.

The Passion Flower belongs to the gynandrous plants with five stamina, and the number of species, as they now stand in the system, is aug∣mented to 26, without mentioning two others, de∣scribed and figured as new, by M. Jacquin, who brought them from Carthagena. All the Passion Flowers yet known are natives of the warmer parts of America only, and not found in any other parts of the globe.

9. De ANANDRIA. E. Z. Tursen. 1745.

The history of a singular Siberian plant, which, during the time of flowering, was found not to open the calix; and was called Anandria by pro∣fessor Siegesbeck, of Petersburgh, who had fancied that it was destitute of stamina, and having de∣clared himself a strenuous opposer of the sexual system, thought, by the instance of this plant, to have overturned the whole doctrine of the sexes of plants; having written a treatise, in which he had asserted, that the stamina did not constitute the essential parts of the plant, and that the seed would become fertile without the influence of the Pollen Antherarum. This plant is syngenesious, and of that genus which we name Coltsfoot. It stands in the System under the name of Tussilago (Anandria) scapo unifloro, subsquamoso erecto, foliis lyrato-ovatis; and subsequent observations proved, that in a

warmer situation than its native one, the calix would open, and shew a radiated flower. The contro∣versy, which was managed in behalf of LINNAEUS by Dr. Gleditsch of Berlin, much extended the knowledge, and favoured the establishment of the Linnaean system, at that time unwillingly received by many of the older botanists.

10. De ACROSTICO. J. B. Heiligtag. 1747.

A botanical dissertation on a genus of plants belonging to an extensive natural order, placed in the Cryptogamia class, which we call Ferns; and which were known to former botanists by the name of Epiphyllospermous plants, since they chiefly pro∣duce their parts of fructification on the back of the leaf, or frons. After some general observations on the plants constituting this order, which have also been called Capillary plants, and shewing the place they hold, and their characters in the several systems of Ray, Morison, Tournefort, and LINNAEUS, the writer proceeds to an ample description of the species of Acrostica, of which he enumerates seven∣teen, with their synonyms. This genus is distin∣guished by having the fructification spread all over the surface of the leaf; and the number of species, in the last edition of the System, is augmented to thirty. They are mostly of American produce, three only being European, of which two are spar∣ingly found in Britain. They are a singular set of plants, and have much excited the attention of botanists. A plate accompanies this tract, on which five of the uncommon species are delineated.

11. MUSEUM ADOLPHO FREDERICIANUM. L. Balk. 1746.

The subject of this paper is strictly zoological: It contains a particular description of 65 of the rarer kinds of animals, which were presented to the museum of the university by the late King Adolphus of Sweden, at that time hereditary prince. These descriptions being drawn up with sufficient accu∣racy, and regard to the rules of the Linnaean sys∣tem, and referred to in the subsequent zoology of LINNAEUS, yet retain their value. Amphibia, and Fishes, form the greater part of this collection: among the former we mention particularly an ex∣cellent description of the Chameleon, (Lacerta Chamaeleon, Syst. 346.); of the Amphisboena Fuliginosa, Syst. 392; of the Crotalus Horridus, or Rattle Snake: and among the latter, of the Torpedo, which has so lately excited anew the attention of electricians, as also of that remarkable fish called Soldigo by the Portuguese (Silurus Callichthys, Syst. 506.) which Marcgrave and Piso say will travel in dry seasons across the land from rivulet to rivulet in quest of water. Two copper-plates accompany this tract.

12. SPONSALIA PLANTARUM. J. G. Wahlbom. 1746.

Whoever would see all the arguments for, and the result of, those experiments, on which the doc∣trine of the sexes of plants is founded, are refer∣red to this dissertation; as containing, by fat, the most clear, comprehensive, and yet copious view

of that subject. It is professedly a commentary upon the 5th chapter of LINNAEUS'S Fundamenta, or Philosophia Botanica, from section 132 to 150 inclusive, and contains 49 pages. It is out of our plan to produce any detail of these arguments; suffice it to say, that although, from the writings of Theophrastus and Pliny, we learn that the antients had some idea of an analogy in this respect, between the animal and vegetable kingdom, drawn perhaps principally from the artificial mode of foecundating the date-tree, yet, so crude and erroneous were their ideas, that in many instances they called those plants male or female, which modern discoveries have taught us are exactly the reverse. Indeed it does not appear, that any very precise ideas on this subject were established till late in the last century; and, were it a matter of importance to determine to whom applause is due for this discovery, the English might perhaps with justice claim this honour, and bestow it on Sir Tho∣mas Millington, Savilian professor, who appears to have been the first that gave the hint to Dr. Grew; since whose time this doctrine has received so much light, that we presume few people can now doubt the following position, which briefly con∣tains the whole of what is understood now by this analogy; namely,

That the influence of the farina from the antherae of flowers upon the stigma, is essentially necessary to give fertility to the seed.

If there are any who yet wish to see what arguments may be adduced against this doc∣trine, they are referred to the Anthologia of Ponte∣dera,

and to the late Dr. Alston's Dissertation on Botany. It hath been before observed, that LIN∣NAEUS was honoured with a premium from the Royal Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, for his excellent Treatise on the Sponsalia Plantarum, in which he is thought to have most irrefragably proved his position.

13. NOVA PLANTARUM GENERA. C. M. Dassow. 1747.

In this paper are described and established the natural characters of 43 new genera, all which were afterwards taken into the 5th edition of the Genera Plantarum of LINNAEUS, published in 1754.

14. VIRES PLANTARUM. F. Hasselquist. 1747.

Practical physicians have wished, and some have formed the idea that it is possible, to deduce the virtues of plants from their agreement in similar characters of fructification, in habit or agreement in natural orders, or classes. Mr. Petiver, long since, was among the first that hazarded some re∣flexions on this subject: see Philosophical Trans∣actions, N^o 255, and Lowthorp's Abridgment, vol. ii. p. 704. And the very eminent Dr. HOFFMANN has a professed dissertation on it, in the fifth volume of his works, p. 58. It is the intention of the present paper, written by this in∣genious but unfortunate disciple of LINNAEUS, to extend and illustrate the same idea, by this com∣mentary on the 12th chapter of the Philosophia Botanica; which contains the general doctrine of

this attempt, and an enumeration of those natural or artificial orders in botany, which are supposed to illustrate and confirm the possibility of attain∣ing this desirable end. To mention a few in∣stances of this agreement in character and qualities: The stellated class, in Ray's system, are mostly diuretics; the asperifoliae, are chiefly demulcents; the umbelliferous plants, which grow in dry places, are aromatics, particularly the roots and seeds; but if growing in wet situations, usually partake more or less of a deleterious quality. The Icosan∣drous plants of LINNAEUS abound with pulpy and esculent fruits: the Polyandrous are many of them poisonous: the Syngenesious, in frequent instances, intense bitters, &c. It most not be concealed, how∣ever, that there are not wanting those who consider both the natural method in botany, and the deduc∣tion of the virtues of simples from these congruities, as the philosopher's stone of the science; notwith∣standing which, there is no attempt in the im∣provement of botany, or its true application to the uses of physic, which ought more strenuously and unremittingly to be pursued, than that of bringing to all possible perfection the purpose of this dissertation.

15. De CHRYSTALLORUM GENERATIONE. M. Kahler. 1747.

In this tract is discussed at large, that opinion which LINNAEUS early imbibed, and which led him to ascribe to the operation of one and the

same principle, the regular polyedrous figure of all those bodies, called Chrystals, acting upon them during their suspension in an aqueous menstruum; and this he conceived to be equally the case, whether these bodies are what we usually call sa∣line, or whether they are lapidose, pyriticose, or arsenical; or finally, whether they are such as are termed metallic salts. Hence arose his arrange∣ment of figured Spars, Selenite, quartzose Chrystals, including all the gems under that genus of salt, to which their agreement in figure entitled them to a place. This opinion gave so much offence to mi∣neralogists, that, most probably, it rendered his System in the mineral kingdom, much less accept∣able than the other parts of that work had been. In this paper lapidose chrystals only are considered; many of which are figured, and described, and referred to the several salts with which they agree in figure. LINNAEUS'S idea on this subject has been lately taken up, and pursued in a very ex∣tensive manner, by M. de Romé de Lisle, in an Essay printed at Paris, in 1772. It must be con∣fessed, however, that the greatest difficulties attend the solution of this matter: how far the further consideration of the volcanic system, which is gain∣ing ground in the minds of some philosophers and mineralogists, may elucidate the origin of certain figured bodies, which are said to have a chrystal∣line or vitreous basis, time only must shew; hi∣therto it seems to bid fairer towards solving some difficulties, than any foregoing hypothesis.

16. SURINAMENSIA GRILLIANA. P. Sund. 1748.

The description at large of 25 subjects of the animal kingdom, chiefly Serpentes, collected at Suri∣nam by Mr. Gerret, famous for being among the first who introduced, and successfully cultivated, coffee in America, and who sent these curiosities to M. Grill, an opulent citizen of Stockholm, by which means they came finally into the museum of Upsal. We here meet with an excellent account of the Rattle-snake; and particularly a description and figure of the Boa Constrictor, that gigantic serpent, of which we have such copious and astonishing ac∣counts in Adanson, Piso, Kaempfer, and others. The plate also presents a figure of the Coecilia Tentaculata, Syst. 293; of the Coluber Ammodytes, Syst. 376; and of the Egyptian Locust, Gryllus Cristatus, Syst. 699. all which are amply described.

17. FLORA OECONOMICA. E. Aspelin. 1748.

There is scarcely any morsel in this collection more worthy of regard, or that has a more use∣ful tendency, than this paper; which is in∣tended to display, and really contains, in a com∣pendious way, the uses of the indigenous plants of Sweden, whether in Agriculture, rural Oeconomy in general, in the Arts, or in culinary uses. It does not profess to deliver their medicinal qualities, that not being a part of the plan. The plants are enumerated in the order in which they are found in the Flora Suecica, but no botanical distinctions or disquisitions are here introduced. We have no work on this plan extant in England, and are per∣suaded

that something of this kind, on a more extended scale, written in the language of the country, and adapted to common use, could not fail to meet with a favourable reception, and would certainly be highly beneficial, not only by disclosing matter of real and instant information to many who are ignorant of the various appli∣cations that have already been made of plants which are daily neglected, but, by exciting a spirit of investigation in general, would doubtless lead to new discoveries. An economical Flora, or Herbal, is what we have never yet seen; our works that bear the name of Herbals treat on plants and trees, as if their utility was alone confined to the pur∣poses of physic, and even here, in a variety of instances, attribute to them virtues which neither their sensible qualities have justified, nor experi∣ence has ascertained.

We have observed that this work is confined to the native plants of the country, out of which, as an instance of the variety of subjects that are here mentioned as objects of economy in various ways, there are not less than three hundred that have a place in this catalogue.

18. De CURIOSITATE NATURALI. O. Soderberg, 1748.

This concluding paper of the first volume, is a discourse intended as an incitement to the study of natural history, by a train of well-connected arguments and observations, drawn from that ad∣mirable display of wisdom and goodness manifest

throughout all nature; and from its dignity and importance, as so immediately connected with uti∣lity to mankind: from all which considerations, the author thinks it entitled to one of the most distinguished ranks among the objects of human enquiry; and that, so far from being a frivolous pursuit, it is in every view one of the worthiest employments of the human mind.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. II. 1752. pp. 468.

19. OECONOMIA NATURAE. J. J. Biberg. 1749.

It is impossible in an abstract to do any proper justice to this excellent production; the design of which is entirely physico-theological, and conse∣quently its scope is various and extensive. The writer first considers, in general, the Structure of the Earth, its seas, mountains, &c. and the effects of the change of seasons on all parts of its surface, and on the elements: the disposition of the Fossil Kingdom, and the various origin of its several bo∣dies, with their gradual transmutation; from whence, in many instances, arise their different denominations with us: in the Vegetable Kingdom, the various means by which the dissemination of seeds is effected, thereby cloathing in every climate the whole surface of the earth, and conducing to the preservation of animals: in the Animal King∣dom itself, the extraordinary increase of some, the paucity of others; their means of preservation,

and their use, even in their destruction▪ to the general economy of nature: all these positions he has illustrated and confirmed by apt examples, and finally draws this conclusion—that all nature is most harmoniously arranged, and adapted to produce, upon the whole, reciprocal good. This paper is among those translated by Mr. Stillingfleet.

20. De TAENIA. G. Dubois. 1748.

At the time this treatise was written, the sub∣ject had more than usually engaged the attention of the Swedish naturalists and physicians, and par∣ticularly of LINNAEUS, and his colleague Dr. Rosen, the family of the latter having suffered much from this dangerous animal, as appears by his treatise on the Diseases of Children, lately ren∣dered into English by Dr. Sparmann.

The author has here described and figured four species, all of which are found in the intestines of animals, chiefly in those of carnivorous quadru∣peds; and unhappily two of these kinds, but more particularly the T. Solium, too frequently infest the human body. The specific differences of the Taeniae arise from the number and situation of the mouths or suckers in each link of this com∣pound animal, the history of which has employed the pens of many ingenious men, and is notwith∣standing yet involved in considerable obscurity.

The Tape-worms most commonly infesting the human body, are those described by LINNAEUS under the names of Taenia Solium, and Taenia Vul∣garis, Syst. Nat. p. 1323, both of which are not

unfrequently found extended from the duodenum, almost through the whole tract of the intestines. Much controversy has been spent in determining whether these animals have any part that is analo∣gous to the brain or head in other animals; our author affirms the contrary, considering them as compound animals, consisting as it were of a chain, every link of which is a perfect animal, furnished with a mouth, and all its proper organs, and ca∣pable, when separated from its original chain, of propagating its species, as if by a vegetative power, and independent of any oviparous or vivi∣parous process. In this idea he is opposed by Dr. Tyson, who has figured the head of the Taenia Solium in the Philosophical Transactions; (see N^o 147, and Lowthrop's Abridgment, Vol. iii. p. 130;) as also by Pallas, in his Elenchus Zoophytorum, and by some other authors. The Vermes Cucurbitini, or gourd∣worms of foregoing writers, are now however allow∣ed to be the descending or posterior links of the Taenia Solium, and these, according to LINNAEUS, are again capable of extending themselves, and pro∣ducing another chain. According to Pallas, and others, these joints are pregnant with ova. In either case the reason is at once seen why these noxious creatures are with such difficulty expelled from the human body. LINNAEUS however does not deny that they are capable of propagation by ova too; and says, they are found, though much smaller, in muddy springs; to which Pallas with difficulty assents. LINNAEUS'S opinion however is confirmed by subsequent observations; and in∣deed

we cannot but observe, that without allow∣ing them to exist elsewhere than in the intestines of animals, it is exceedingly difficult to account for the locality of the disease arising from these worms.

We cannot enlarge on this treatise consistent with our plan; it must be sufficient to observe, that this dissertation, besides being in itself highly satisfactory, may be considered as an index also to those writers that are most worthy of being con∣sulted on the same subject.

21. LIGNUM COLUBRINUM. J. A. Darelius. 1749.

This is a critical enquiry to determine the spe∣cies of that drug called Lignum Colubrinum, which it is said the Indian Ichneumon, Weesel, or Mungos, (Viverra Ichneumon, β. Lin. Syst. 63.) first point∣ed out to the Indians. This wood the Zeylanese use as an antidote to the poison of the Hooded Serpent, or Naja, called also Cobra de Capello; (Coluber Naja, Syst. 382.) of which Kaempfer has given so extensive an history, as the most poison∣ous of all serpents. Darelius prefixes to his en∣quiry the history of both these animals, of which too many marvellous things have been related: he then examines into the pretensions of that drug, which had usually been sold in Europe under the name of Lignum Colubrinum, (see Dale's Pharmaco∣log. p. 358.) which is the Strychnos Colubrina, Spec. Plant. 271. and rejects its claim, inclining at length to bestow it on the plant described by Kaempfer, under the name of Radix Mungo, p. 557. This plant was received into the System among

the Pentandrous tribe, under the name of Ophior∣rhiza Mungos, and is figured in the Materia Me∣dica of our author. The root is exhibited in India and in Zeylon, not only as an antidote against the venom of this serpent, but against the bite of the mad dog, as also in putrid fevers. Grimmius, who lived long as a physician at Columbo, in Zey∣lon, professes to have made great use of it. Our author subjoins several preparations from this simple, and, from Lockner, presents us with the formula of the famous Lapis de Goa, in which the Mungos root stands as the first ingredient. He con∣cludes with an enquiry into the effects of the spu∣rious drug of this name, the result of which suffici∣ently agrees with what is related of the Nux Vomica, to which genus it is referred according to the sexual system.

22. RADIX SENEGA. J. Kiernander. 1749.

As the terror of the Naja is dispelled, in Asia, by the Ophiorrhiza, so is that of the Rattle-Snake, in America, by the Senega. After premising the his∣tory of the Rattle-Snake, (Crotalus Horridus, Syst. 372.) chiefly borrowed from Catesby, Dr. Kiernan∣der gives a full botanical and medical history of this famous plant, which for so long a time the Indians concealed from the Europeans. The au∣thor then recites ten different vegetables, of which the Europeans, during their endeavours to come at the true Rattle-Snake root, tried the effects against this subtle venom. Some of these are said to have been not quite unavailing: at length Dr. Tennent discovered the secret, and

found the plant to be a species of Milkwort, which stands now in LINNAEUS'S works under the name of Polygala Senega, (Spec. Pl. 990.) and of this genus there are not fewer than 26 species known. The description of the Senega is accompanied by a figure of the plant. The root, which is the part alone used in medicine, affords an acrimony on the palate, perhaps unexampled in the whole Materia Medica. The author gives the analysis of the root, enumerates its effects as a sialagogue, diu∣retic, and expectorant; the various preparations, and their use in inflammatory diseases, dropsy, gout, rheumatism; in a disease which he mentions as endemic in Virginia, under the name of Ma∣rasmus Virginicus, and finally as the great specific to the venom of the rattle-snake; to which end the Indians instantly chew it, swallow the juice, and apply the masticated root to the puncture. The root of the Polygala vulgaris, which grows so plentifully in England, appears from experiments to possess the qualities of the Senega, but in a far weaker degree.

23. GENESIS CALCULI. J. O. Hagstrom. 1749.

Before Dr. Hagstrom comes to the immediate consideration of the origin of the Calculus of the urinary bladder, he premifes some observations on calcareous substances in general; and enume∣rates the several kinds of calculous concretions, and their situations in the animal body: such are the Calcular Urinae; Salivae; Pulmonum; Gastricus;

Fellis; and the Calculus Podagrae. He then consi∣siders the component parts of that Faex Chyli, or Lixivium, the Urine, and the changes to which it is liable, in smell, taste, and colour, by the dif∣ferent ingesta; under which article he mentions a singular fact of a gentleman, who after having laboured under an inveterate acidity at the sto∣mach, for which he had taken large quantities of chalk, found his urine altered so as to have entire∣ly a milky appearance. In considering the im∣mediate generation of the Calculus, he adopts the Boerhaavian theory, and ascribes it to chrystalliza∣tion: this leads him to consider all those circum∣stances which favour and accelerate this mode of concreting, and to seek for somewhat analogous thereto in the human body, as predisposing causes to this malady; which he finds in Atonia, and the use of acid and fermented liquors. He finishes the theory by some curious and apt reflections on the great analogy between this disorder and the gout, and their transitions.

In the therapeutic part, notwithstanding all that had been written relating to the power of alkaline medicines in dissolving the connecting gluten, and thus promoting the decomposition of the Cal∣culus, the author does not allow them so much merit as hath been attributed to them by many writers. He is inclined to give more efficacy to bitters, particularly as Prophylactics, from the idea of their striking more immediately at the Atonia; and adduces two examples, communicated to him by the President LINNAEUS himself, of the use of the

Essentia Absinthii in this dreadful disease. This disquisition concludes with an observation on a milk-diet in the stone and gout, the efficacy of which he confirms by two well-adapted cases; which however, agreeably to foregoing observations, prove the necessity, in the gout, of adhering to the regimen, when once adopted, throughout life. One of these affords a melancholy lesson of the danger of deserting it, in the case of a French ge∣neral, who, after twenty years freedom from the disease, at the age of 70, died in consequence of a fit brought on by one plentiful meal of animal food.

24. GEMMAE ARBORUM. P. Loëfling. 1749.

This gentleman, who afterwards, at the recom∣mendation of LINNAEUS, obtained a pension as naturalist to the King of Spain, and died in his service in America, has here given us a curious and elaborate disquisition on the Buds of trees, a part in vegetables which, till this time, had been less attentively examined than many others.

Gems or Buds are small rounded parts, made up of scales, differently arranged, situated commonly on the stem, or branches of trees, and containing, in epitome, the rudiments of either the future flower singly, the leaves singly, or both flower and leaves. Analogous to the flower, and leaf∣bearing Gem, which is the most common, is a Bulb placed at the root of many plants, inasmuch as both contain a future perfect plant, requiring only envelopement, by the genial effect of heat. These

Gems and Bulbs are called by LINNAEUS Hyberna∣cula, as inclosing the embryo during the winter, and the former are almost confined to trees of the colder countries. After a requisite account of the subject in general, Dr. Loëfling exhibits a classifica∣tion of the Gems of 108 species of trees and shrubs, founded on the different structure and situation of the various kinds. In consequence of this ar∣rangement, the species of any of these trees is sup∣posed to be capable of being discovered in the winter season, and state of defoliation, by the buds alone.

25. PAN SUECUS. N. L. Hesselgren. 1749.

The originality, and singular good tendency and design of this paper, induced the writer of this volume, several years ago, to throw it into a form more immediately adapted to an English reader, by referring to English authors, and it was then laid before the public in the Gentleman's Magazine for the year 1758, accompanied with some notes and general observations. This has enabled him to annex it, in a still more enlarged form, to this volume.

26. SPLACHNUM. L. Montin. 1750.

Mr. Montin, at the instance of LINNAEUS, had made an expedition the preceding summer into Lapland, and, amongst other natural productions, had brought back this curious and uncommon moss, and in this paper gives a complete botanical history of its genus, called Splachnum, the first

species of which, singular for the elegant form of the heads, had been first discovered by an English∣man, in Nonway, and communicated to Mr. Petiver. There are three others, of which a less specious kind is not uncommon on our bogs in England.

Mr. Montin, in this journey, had an opportu∣nity of confirming an opinion, which LINNAEUS had before conceived, relating to the cause of a most excruciating colic, to which the Laplanders are often subjected, and which he describes very particularly in the Flora Lapponica, p. 69: when treating of the Angelica, which, among other simples, is used as a remedy. Mr. Montin thinks it clear, that it arises from swallowing in their waters the Gordius Aquaticus, a species of worm de∣scribed in the Fauna Suecica, N^o 2068, well known to Gesner, and the older writers, under the name of Vitulus Aquaticus, and Seta Aquatica, as being no thicker than a horse hair.

27. SEMINA MUSCORUM. P. J. Bergius. 1750.

Dr. Bergius, since professor of pharmacy and natural history at Stockholm, has, in this tract, thrown considerable light on the fructification of the second order of vegetables in the Cryptogamia class: much more however has been done since the time he wrote, and it is now thought that the tribe of Mosses have separate male and female flowers; the former of which usually stand on long pedicles; the latter are as yet, in most genera, very obscurely investigated: and LINNAEUS him∣self appears to be doubtful, whether the dust which

we observe in the heads of mosses, is the Pollen Antherarum, or the seeds themselves.

28. MATERIA MEDICA E REGNO ANIMALI. K. J. Sidren. 1750.

This enumeration contains 67 subjects, and is executed exactly on the plan of our author's Ma∣teria Medica e Plantis, of which we have before spoken.

29. PLANTAE CAMSCHATCENSES RARIORES. J. P. Halenius. 1750.

A description at large of 26 new Siberian plants, sent to LINNAEUS by Dr. Gmelin, who had spent almost 10 years, by the command, and at the expence, of the Empress of Russia, in investigating the natural history of that kingdom. Amongst these, we may particularly remark that foetid plant, called Cimicifuga foetida (Syst. Nat. ii. 659,) so offensive, and even poisonous, to those insects from which it receives its name. A decoction of this drastic herb is used in Siberia (as Gmelin informs us, Flor. Sib. iv. p. 183.) with great success in dropsies.

It is a curious remark which is suggested by our author, that in journeying eastwards in Kamtchatka, the botanist sees his nearer approach towards North America, by the habit of many of the plants; and hence arose a presumptive proof of the vici∣nity of the two continents, before real discoveries had confirmed the truth of it. The author has

given a list of several plants, that are actually the same as are found in North America.

30. SAPOR MEDICAMENTORUM. J. Rudberg. 1751.

After having premised some general observa∣tions on all the antient sects of physicians, and felicitated the present age on the rejection of all hypotheses and opinions not supported by expe∣riments; and considered the general physiology of the human body, Dr. Roberg proceeds to his subject, which may be regarded as a very instruc∣tive comment on the 363d Aphorism of the Phi∣losophia Botanica, "Sapida in fluida et solida agunt;" under which all vegetable simples are arranged into eleven classes, founded on distinctions arising from their sensible qualities, principally as they affect the taste, as follows:

• 1. Sicca.
• 2. Aquosa.
• 3. Viscosa.
• 4. Salsa.
• 5. Acida.
• 6. Styptica.
• 7. Dulcia.
• 8. Pinguia.
• 9. Amara.
• 10. Acria.
• 11. Nauseosa.

Under each of these heads respective simples are arranged, and the comment is subjoined, explain∣ing the mode of their action, and effects, both on the solids and fluids; and frequently specifying the par∣ticular diseases in which they are employed. A set of apt corollaries are added; and, upon the whole, this little tract is by no means unworthy

the attention of medical students in general, and especially of those who wish to comprehend the Linnaean theory of physic.

To this volume of the Amoenitates are subjoined the three orations of LINNAEUS, which, as they make part of his own proper works, have been spoken of in the foregoing pages of this volume.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. III. 1756. pp. 464.

31. NOVA PLANTARUM GENERA. L. J. Chenon. 1751.

Chiefly a description of new genera and species of plants, brought from North America by Dr. Kalm, who had spent three years in that country. Pre∣vious to the descriptions, we have a brief mention made of those who had treated upon the plants of North America before Kalm. These were Cor∣nutus, the first writer, in 1625; Banister, in Ray's history, 1680; Plukenet, in 1691; Bobart, in 1699; Ray, in his supplement, 1704; Catesby, 1731; Gronovius, or rather Clayton, 1739; Dr. Mitchell, 1748; Governor Colden, 1743. By the industry of these writers, botany had been augmented with 77 new genera, to which Kalm added eight. As Dr. Kalm's plants are all now received into the System, any further account of this paper is super∣seded. A plate is added, on which are engraven seven of the rarer species.

32. PLANTAE HYBRIDAE. J. Haartman. 1751.

The subject of this paper is very intersting in botanic science; and being as yet somewhat pro∣blematical, has exercised the pens of several inge∣nious men, but of none perhaps more successfully than that of the late Dr. Gmelin, in his Sermo aca∣demicus, de novorum vegetabilium ortu. Tubing, 1749. Mr. Haartman allows the possibility of this origin or new creation of vegetables, arising from the influ∣ence of the farina of one species upon the pistil of another, either of the same or of a different genus, thus producing what is called a Hybrid plant. In∣stances of this admixture, and production of mon∣sters in the vegetable kingdom, have been fre∣quent; but, as in the animal kingdom, they have not usually been found to perpetuate themselves by producing fertile seeds. The general effect of culture, and the immense number of species, with which, particularly, many of the African genera abound, such as the Geranium, Erica, Mesembry∣anthemum, &c. very much favour this hypothesis. A catalogue is given of 34 species of well∣known plants, supposed to have originated in this manner, specifying those also from which they are suspected to have sprung; and a compa∣rison is made between the several parts and habit of each, with the corresponding hybrid offspring, to shew the probability of this origin. Another list of many other plants follows, in which the traces are not so strongly marked. Among the English indigenous plants, thought to have thus originated,

we mention the Veronica Hybrida, or Welch Speed∣well, which is believed to have arisen from the Officinalis and the Spicata; as the Sibthorpia Euro∣paea is from the Golden Saxifrage, and Marsh Pennywort.

33. OBSTACULA MEDICINAE. J. G. Beyersten▪ 1752.

An enquiry into, and a brief discussion of, the causes that have hitherto impeded the progress of physic. An ingenious and well-conducted plan, and most laudable design, which all those who wish well to the art would desire to see still farther illus∣trated, by some such character as would command attention, and give the subject that importance which it demands. Among other obstacles, the writer mentions—the force of custom in directing prescription; theories founded on hypotheses; neglect of nosology; too little attention to reputed poisons; timid prescription; too small doses; ig∣norance of apothecaries in botany, and the Materia Medica; use of compound medicines; ignorance of the natural classes of plants; &c.—all which positions are confirmed by suitable reflexions, and examples.

34. PLANTAE ESCULENTAE PATRIAE. J. Hiorth. 1752.

A list of such native plants of Sweden as have been, or in some way or other may be, objects of culinary use, principally as aliments; to which are added Condiments, and Succedanea, to several

of those articles of exotic luxury, which the opu∣lent nations of Europe import from distant parts of the world. It is happily not an object of importance, much less of necessity, to consult such a catalogue in this nation; but it would be matter of pleasure and surprise to many, to see the great number of ve∣getables, which, in a country from its situation far from fertile, may supply the want of bread. The subjects of this tract amount to 127, many of which would demand a place in an economical herbal, adapted to a much milder climate.

35. EUPHORBIA. J. Wiman. 1752.

A complete botanical history of one of the most extensive genera of plants, several of which have a place in the Materia Medica, which, in the Lin∣naean system, stands in the Dodecandrous class, and furnishes greater instances of anomalies in the ha∣bit of the species, than perhaps is elsewhere to be met with; as it contains not only the Euphor∣bium, the Esula, and Cataputia of the shops, but also all the Tithymali, or Spurges, of authors. Fifty-three species are described in this dissertation, and their synonyms delivered, together with a general account of their uses in physic. In the Species Plantarum this genus is augmented to the number of 62 kinds, to which probably more might be added from Burman's Flora Indica. At this day, the Euphorbia are but little used; inter∣nally, scarcely ever: their extreme acrimony, and drastic powers, being too unmanageable.

36. MATERIA MEDICA E REGNO LAPIDEO. J. Lindhult. 1752.

Under 72 heads, Dr. Lindhult has comprised all the simples of the Materia Medica from the fossil kingdom, digested exactly in the method observed by LINNAEUS himself, in his separate publication of the vegetable Materia Medica.

37. MORBI EX HYEME. S. Brodd. 1752.

Preceding the history of the diseases arising from winter cold in Sweden, Dr. Brodd gives a general account of the effects of intense cold on the ani∣mals of the country, in changing their colour, diminishing the size of the breed in various spe∣cies; and in Lapland, he thinks it is instanced in the human race itself: the state of the atmo∣sphere; the production of meteors; differences observable in the particles of the snow; effects of various and additional degrees of cold on the ice of lakes, &c.; extraordinary appearance of the Aurora Borealis; prognostics of severe winters; and signs of the approaching remissions of cold; with other curious particulars.

The diseases of the winter season in Sweden are more particularly such as follow: Perniones, or Kibes, unusually painful and untractable; for the cure, among other applications mentioned, is the diluted marine acid, recommended by LIN∣NAEUS himself, who had found it useful among the sailors when he was physician to the fleet; but this cannot be used when the disease is advanced

to its ulcerated state. Paronychia, or Whitlow, of various kinds, very frequent, and not seldom attended with dangerous consequences. Congestio Hyemalis, a species of Catarrh extremely common, and the source of worse diiseases, usually arising from sudden transitions from heat to cold, and incautious exposure to the latter: observations on this disorder from the Iter Westro-gothicum of LINNAEUS. Coughs, universal, sometimes to the entire disturbance of all public assemblies. Pleu∣risies, especially among the country people, who indulge in strong liquors. Peripneumonies, parti∣cularly considered as endemic with the inhabi∣tants about the copper mines. The tract con∣cludes with a compendious view of the effects of cold, and the phaenomena of winter season, in a set of corollaries, and a mention of the hard win∣ters in Europe, in 1586, 1665, 1684, 1709, 1740, 1752. In the latter, the lowest point of the ther∣mometer, at Upsal, was 31 of Celsius's, equal to about 24 below 0 in Fahrenheit.

38. ODORES MEDICAMENTORUM. A. Wahlin. 1752.

An ingenious illustration of the doctrine, which teaches, that those different sensations excited in the organs of smell by different odours, will lead to the explanation of the qualities inherent in such bodies; and that from thence they may be classed, and their general effects on the human body de∣duced. After a train of general explanatory and physiological observations, Mr. Wablin introduces

Sir Francis Bacon's contrast between youth and old age, in order more clearly to illustrate (which he does in a familiar, but striking manner) the effects of wine and spirituous liquors in their various and progressive operation on the nervous system, from their first exhilarating effect in a moderate quantity, to their intoxicating and fatal issue. This he makes, in some measure, the basis of his reason∣ing on the effects of other odorous substances, which he at length arranges into seven classes.

• 1. Aromatici. Cinnamon; Seeds of Amomum, &c.
• 2. Fragrantes. Saffron; Jasmin Flowers, &c.
• 3. Ambrosiaci. Musk; Musk Crainsbill, &c.
• 4. Alliacei. Garlic; Assa Foetida, &c.
• 5. Hircini. Herb Robert; Stinking Orach.
• 6. Tetri. Opium; Henbane; Corianders.
• 7. Nauseosi. White and black Hellebore; To∣bacco.

The specific effects of each of these classes are then briefly explained, and their reputed mode of operation. This paper may be considered as a comment on section 362 of the Philosophia, and properly accompanies the Sapor Medicamentorum, before-mentioned.

39. NOCTILUCA MARINA. C. F. Adler. 1752.

Mr. Adler, who went as surgeon in a Swedish East India ship to China, in 1748, first gives an account of those authors who have treated on the luminous appearance of the sea water in storms, and in the current occasioned by the course of

ships; and then proceeds to inform us, that it was not till the year 1749, that this phaenomenon was certainly discovered to be owing, at least in many parts of the ocean, to an inconceivable number of minute insects. One of these is the subject of this paper, and is completely described, and a figure given, as augmented by the microscope. It is of the Vermes class, and the Mollusca order, and stands in the System under the name of Nereis Noctiluca, p. 1085, being the first of eleven species there de∣scribed. Its real length does not exceed the 6th part of an inch.

Later writers have thrown more light on this discovery, by exhibiting a great variety of these living Phosphori.

40. RHABARBARUM. S. Ziervogel. 1752.

A botanical and medical history of the Rheum Undulatum, Sp. Pl. 531. described here under the idea of its being the true Rhubarb, having been sent from Russia as such by Professor Gerber to Consul Sprekelsen at Hamburgh, and by him intro∣duced into many gardens. The medical history therefore of this plant must be transferred to the Rheum Palmatum, which is now generally believed to be the true Rhubarb, of which a description and figure may be seen in the Phil. Trans. vol. lv. p. 290. communicated by Dr. HOPE, professor of botany at Edinburgh, who raised it from seeds sent him by Dr. Mounsey, in 1763, and under whose culture the plant has greatly thriven, and yielded large quantities of good Rhubarb. Mr. Pennant

has told us, in his late Tour, that the Duke of Athol has produced it in great perfection, and pro∣bably, if particular interests did not militate against it, the importation of this root might soon become unnecessary. It is not wonderful that the former plant should have been taken for the true Rhubarb, as both grow in China, and about the famous wall.

41. CUI BONO? C. Gedner. 1752.

To what purpose are all the researches of the naturalist? A question which only ignorance or incuriosity can dictate. We will not pay our readers so ill a compliment, as to suppose they need the conviction here referred to. Neverthe∣less, if there are any who wish to see what reasons may be alledged by the naturalist, against those who object the frivolousness and inutility of his researches, they will most probably receive some satisfaction from an attentive consideration of this paper, which is incapable of abridgment, and may be properly read with the 18th, Curicsitas Na∣turalis, and 20th Oeconomia Naturae. The author has introduced a pleasant and instructive allegory, which LINNAEUS himself was wont to use on these occasions.

42. NUTRIX NOVERCA. F. Lindberg. 1752.

This tract is very recommendable, as contain∣ing a compendious view of every material argu∣ment that has been urged to prove the propriety and advantage of mothers nursing their infants at

their own breast. Several observations on the dis∣eases of children are interspersed, and some local ob∣servations, which lose their force in this country.

This subject has been so ably discussed by seve∣ral masterly pens in this kingdom, that we shall only observe, respecting the present tract, that Dr. Lindberg allows more force, than some of our own writers, to those arguments which admit of dis∣eases and temperaments being transmissible from nurses to their foster-children.

43. HOSPITA INSECTORUM FLORA. J. G. Forsskahl. 1752.

The author of this paper begins by giving a general history of all the material writers on Insects, and the method in which they have treated the subject, whether in relation to the metamorphoses and economy principally, in the manner of Swam∣merdam; or by giving a detail of the species at large also, as Ray, Reaumur, and De Geer, have done. He then does due honour to the Queen of Sweden, on account of the magnificent museum which her majesty had constructed at the palace of Drottning∣holm, which is very superb in Insects, Shells, Corals, and Chrystals, &c. He next exhibits his plan: it consists in arranging all such insects as are natives of Sweden, each under the plant on which it is found, or on which it feeds; the references being made to the Fauna, and Flora Suecica of LINNAEUS. It would be highly acceptable to those who culti∣vate this branch of natural history, to see this ar∣rangement augmented by the numerous discoveries

that have been made since the publication of this tract, as it is a part of the history of insects not sufficiently attended to before; and nothing would conduce more to extend and facilitate the know∣ledge of it, or lead more effectually to the means of destroying the noxious species.

44. MIRACULA INSECTORUM. G. E. Avelin. 1752.

Intended to awaken curiosity, and excite atten∣tion to the study of insects, by pointing out the extraordinary instincts and properties with which particular kinds are endued; many of whose operations were inexplicable, and frequently attri∣buted to other causes.

Nothing exemplifies this truth more than the history of a minute insect, or rather worm, of which we have, in this dissertation, the first proper intelligence; it is very curious, and worthy of notice. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern provinces of Sweden, it was not unfrequently that people were seized with a pungent pain, confined to a point, in the hand, or other exposed part of the body, which presently increased to a most ex∣cruciating degree, hath sometimes been sud∣denly fatal. This disorder was more particularly observed in Finland, especially about boggy and marshy places, and always in autumn. At length it was discovered, that this pain instantly succeeded somewhat that dropped out of the air▪ and in a moment penetrated and buried itself in the flesh. The Finlanders had tried variety of applications to no purpose, until at length a poultice of curds, or

cheese, was found the most effectual in easing the pain; and the event confirmed, that the insect was allured by this application to leave the flesh; as on its removal, this worm, no longer than the sixth of an inch, was found in it, and thus the cause of this painful disease explained. LIN∣NAEUS himself once suffered from this animal the effect here spoken of: but we owe the com∣plete history of it, and its place in the System, to Dr. SOLANDER, who gave it in to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Upsal. This worm stands in the System under the name of Furia Infernalis, p. 1325; but by what means this creature is raised into the air, is as yet unknown.

45. NOXA INSECTORUM. M. A. Baeckner. 1752.

A curious and useful paper, particularly speci∣fying all those insects that are more immediately hurtful to animals and vegetables. They are classed in eleven divisions, according to the several sub∣jects on which they prey, or to which they bring devastation.

1. Such as are particularly offensive to man. Under this head, the author seems inclined to favour that opinion which Mr. St. André, and some other French physicians and philosophers have held, in ascribing to Acari the cause of many cu∣taneous and contagious diseases.

2. Such as are destructive within doors, to furniture, cloaths, grain, &c. Among these is particularly mentioned the Seed Beetle, (Bruchus Pisi, Syst. 604.) the cause of great destruction to

pease in Pensylvania, &c. and which has found its way into southern Europe. See also Kalm's Tra∣vels, i. p. 176, English edition.

3. To fruit-bearing trees and culinary herbs.

4. To trees, woods, stove and green-house plants.

5. To corn-fields, pastures, &c.

6. To horses, horned cattle, and other ani∣mals, &c.

The subjects of these three last papers are of great importance in rural economy, and would come with all possible propriety into an Economical Herbal, that should specify, in treating upon each plant, the species of insect which inhabits or feeds on it.

46. VERNATIO ARBORUM. H. Barck. 1753.

A curious essay, perhaps the first on the sub∣ject, relating to the Leafing of Trees in Sweden, being the result of a variety of observations, made at the request of LINNAEUS himself, in almost all the provinces of that kingdom, and intended to lead, as if by the dictates of nature, to the true time of committing the grain to the earth. A table is ex∣hibited, shewing at one view the days on which 19 species of trees, all natives of Sweden, put forth their leaves in three successive years. The same table shews also the day on which Barley was sown and reaped in all the same provinces. From an∣other table it appears, that at Pitha, which lies in about 63 degrees north, from the average of 12 years, there intervene 85 days between the sowing

of barley and its harvest; and at Upsal, in 60 de∣grees, the average of six years turned out to be 105 days. It is concluded, upon the whole, that in Upland, the leafing of the Birch-tree should di∣rect the time for sowing barley; but, that diffe∣rent trees will best indicate the time in different places. Another curious observation follows from this paper: that, notwithstanding the difference in the number of days between the ripening of barley in Lapland and in Upland, it will be found that the greater length of days in the former coun∣try, gives a balance of sun equal to the greater number of days in the latter.

47. INCREMENTA BOTANICES. J. Biuur. 1753.

A concise history of the rise, fate, and progress of botanic science, from the first traces of it to the present time; divided into four periods or epochs. The first includes only the antients, by whom are understood Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dios∣corides, and Pliny; who, as compilers chiefly, did little but deliver the tradition of the times; and whose plants, after the commentaries of a century, cannot be known by their descriptions to this day, so little had they extended their ideas to specific distinctions; yet we must venerate their writings, as the only remains of this science transmitted to our times. The second period commences with the restoration of letters, after the taking of Con∣stantinople by the Turks, beginning with Brunfel∣sius, and ending with the Bauhines. The third, which is called the period of Systematics, is con∣tinued

to the time of LINNAEUS, who effected that great reformation in the whole science, by which it is fixed as on a new basis. The conclusion of this paper contains some information relating to the introduction of figures cut in wood for the old herbals; whence it appears, that Plantin, the fa∣mous printer of Antwerp, monopolized almost all the figures of this kind during his time, and be∣came the principal printer in his day for botanical books. By such means Norton, the printer of Gerard's herbal, procured from Frankfort all the figures we see in his book, which had before served for an edition of Tabernamontanus's herbal in 1588.

48. DEMONSTRATIONES PLANTARUM. J. G. Hojer. 1753.

Intended principally for the use of those pupils who attended the botanical lectures in the Upsal garden, consisting chiefly of a list of the exotics therein cultivated, as they stood in this year, amounting to near 1450 distinct species, which, in 59 deg. 51 min. N. latitude, is no inconsiderable number; all double flowers and varieties being entirely excluded. After the invention of trivial names, this list is the first specimen of the use of them in forming compendious catalogues, and is at once an evidence of the utility of them. There is an observation in this paper which may appear somewhat paradoxical to some readers: several of the plants that are natives of southern Europe, produced seeds this year, without shewing any corolla; such were

two Cisti, &c. It may seem strange too that Lapland and alpine plants should perish in the same situation through cold, but it is true; and the fact is, that in their native situations, they are, at the change of season, instantly covered with snow, and thus defended from injury.

49. HERBATIONES UPSALIENSES. A. N. Fornander. 1753.

As the foregoing catalogue comprehends those of the garden, this exhibits the indigenous plants of the neighbourhood of Upsal, as they occur in the simpling excursions which the professor made with the botanical students, and were usually per∣formed in about eight days during the course of each summer.

50. INSTRUCTIO MUSEI. D. Hultman. 1753.

The method of constructing a museum for the purposes of natural history in all its branches, with directions for collecting, preserving, and dis∣posing the subjects. An enumeration of the best repositories of this kind in Sweden: such is that of the Queen, rich in shells, insects, and corals: that of the King, in amphibia, fishes, animals of the Vermes class, in spirits; and the birds of Sweden: that of Count Tessin, abounding in fossils and gems, shells, pictures, &c.: that of Chan∣cellor Gyllenborg: that belonging to the Royal Academy: Stobaeus's at Lunden; and Ziervogel's at Stockholm. The method of drying and preserving

plants for an Hortus Siccus: those of former cele∣brated botanists enumerated. A method, perhaps more curious than useful, of casting an artificial plant, by forming a mould with plaister over a real plant placed in a vessel, then burning the in∣closed plant to ashes, which are to be shook out, and the cavity filled with melted silver.

This little tract has been published in Holland, for the use of merchants who deal in the subjects of natural history; and something of the same kind has been lately done here.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. IV. 1760. pp. 600.

51. PLANTAE OFFICINALES. N. Gahn. 1753.

The scope of this paper is entirely pharmaceuti∣cal; and howsoever it may be superseded at present, it must have been very useful at the time of its pub∣lication, having been drawn up for the benefit of the apothecaries in Sweden, in consequence of some new regulations intended by the royal college of phy∣sicians, under the presidentship of Dr. Boeck: and it was also highly acceptable to others, as being probably the first list of the medicinal plants, to which the Linnaean synonyms had been accommo∣dated. This paper contains,

1. A catalogue of the vegetable simples of the Materia Medica, amounting to near 580, specify∣ing the parts of each used in medicine; to which is opposed the Linnaean generical and trivial spe∣cific name, from the Species Plantarum; marking

also, by a different character, all such as the au∣thor thinks might be expunged. Then follow directions for rightly gathering and preserving the several plants, or such parts of each as are in use.

2. A list of such simples as grow spontaneously in Sweden; many of which had needlessly been imported.

3. Lists of such as might advantageously be cultivated for medicinal purposes; to which is finally added, a list of such drugs as are imported from the several distant quarters of the globe.

52. CENSURA SIMPLICIUM. G. J. Carlbohm. 1753.

A very instructive paper, consisting, after some pertinent observations, principally of two lists of simples: The first, such as the writer thinks might without detriment be expunged from the Materia Medica. The second, such as might advan∣tageously be received into that catalogue; their vir∣tues having been sufficiently ascertained to justify such an introduction. To this latter, the author has subjoined, under every article, the quality of the simple, and his authority in general for allow∣ing each its designed rank. A paper of this ten∣dency is not unworthy the observation of all those who would improve and enrich the Materia Me∣dica; and probably considerable additions might be made to this list. We add the names of these simples.

• Acmella.
• Actaeae radix.
• Alkannae rad.
• Baccae Norlandicae.
• Bella donna.
• Britannica herb.
• Chamaemori baccae.
• Campescanum lign.
• Camphoratae herb.
• Cassinae folia.
• Ceanothi rad.
• Collinsonia.
• Coridis herb.
• Conyzae herb.
• Cotulae herb.
• Diervilla.
• Dulcamara.
• Elaterium album.
• Faba Ignatii.
• Fungus melitensis.
• Galium luteum.
• Geum palustre.
• Hypocistis.
• Juglandis fruct.
• Lobeliae rad.
• Lapathi sanguinei rad.
• Lauro-cerasi folia.
• Linum catharticum.
• Linnaeae herb.
• Melissa canariensis.
• Mentha piperita.
• Monardae herb.
• Muscus caninus.
• Muscus cumatilis.
• Myrti brabantici herb.
• Pedicularis.
• Peraguae folia.
• Phytolaccae suc.
• Profluvii rad.
• Ribes nigrum.
• Sabadillae sem.
• Saponaria nuclei.
• Scrophulariae aquat. h.
• Senegae rad.
• Serpentum rad.
• Sophora.
• Uvae Ursi fol.
• Vitis Idaeae bac.
• Vulvariae herb.

53. CANIS FAMILIARIS. E. M. Lindecrantz. 1753.

This natural history of the Dog, was one of the first complete exemplifications of zoological de∣scription, according to the principles of the Lin∣naean school, as laid down in the Methodus Demon∣strandi. The writer considers the whole race as

reducible to one species, and distinguished from other congenerous animals, such as the wolf, fox, hyaena, &c. not only by the curvature of the tail, which is usually to the left, but by the disposition of the Suturae Velleris, or ridges formed by the meeting of the several courses of hair on divers parts of the body; and the number and situation of the Verrucae, or▪ warty risings in the face. In these distinctions, heretofore unnoticed, all the varieties of this animal agree. Eleven varieties of the dog-kind are here specified, after which the properties and uses, together with the whole of the economy of this faithful animal, are fully set forth, and his diseases described. Our author tells us, that the Laplanders and Dalekarlians are in possession of some secret by which they instantly disarm the most furious dog, and oblige him to fly with all his usual signs of fear, becoming silent at once, and dropping his tail. This art, how∣ever, is said not to be unknown in England.

54. STATIONES PLANTARUM. A. Hedenberg. 1754.

The intention of this paper is to prove, that the knowledge of the Natale Solum, the natural places of growth of plants, is the true foundation on which the art of gardening successfully must be built. The author laments that botanists and writers of Florae have been too remiss in their ob∣servations of this kind; whence numbers of exotic seeds and plants have failed to produce flowers, or to perpetuate themselves in gardens. He mentions a remarkable instance in the Nitraria Schoberi,

(Spec. Pl. 638.) which remained destitute of flowers for 20 years in the Swedish gardens; at length LINNAEUS rendered it fertile, by means of salt scattered about the roots. The knowledge of the Stationes Plantarum is also equally useful to the practical botanist, in assisting his researches.

Every plant has its natural situation and soil, in which alone it will thrive, and out of which, in many instances, no care or culture will preserve it alive. The knowledge of this axiom, as far as respects indigenous plants, is applicable to pur∣poses of agriculture, and with this view the au∣thor has given an arrangement of the Swedish plants, divided into six classes, according to their several places of growth, as follows:

• 1. Aquatics.
• 2. Alpine.
• 3. Wood-plants.
• 4. Upland plants.
• 5. Mountainous.
• 6. Parasitic.

These are again subdivided; the aquatics, into marine, maritime, marsh, bog plants, &c. after which follows the definition of the terms, ex∣plaining the nature of these different soils and situations.

55. FLORA ANGLICA. J. O. Grufberg. 1754.

At the time of the publication of this paper, the Linnaean system of botany had made but small progress in England; to such however as had adopted it, this must have been a very acceptable present, as being the first arrangement, in the Lin∣naean method, that had been given to the English

plants; as also the first of those compendious Florae▪ in which the newly-invented trivial names had been exemplified, and which have since been much used, greatly to the emolument of the science.

The author first discusses the utility of such local catalogues, and of adhering to the trivial names: he then briefly describes the climate of Britain, and its different soils and elevations, as favouring the growth of particular plants; enu∣merating some of those which are peculiar to Eng∣land; and in what way those of Sweden differ from ours. He says Sweden abounds more in alpine, upland, and wood▪plants, than England, which ex∣cels in marine plants, and such as affect a chalky soil, of which latter Sweden is almost destitute.

Having given due praise to the English botanists, and particularly to Mr. RAY, he subjoins the cata∣logue; in which there is a reference from each Linnaean name, to the plant as it stands in the last edition of Ray's Synopsis by Dillenius. This Flora contains nearly a thousand plants, the Mosses and Fungi not being introduced. Such as are not found in Sweden, are distinguished by the Italic type, and of these there are nearly three hundred. A list of upwards of an hundred, which the au∣thor could not investigate, concludes the whole.

56. HERBARIUM AMBOINENSE. O. Stickman. 1754.

The Herbarium Amboinense is one of the greatest and most magnificent botanic treasures the world ever saw; and which we owe to the singular zeal

and industry of RUMPHIUS, who lived upwards of 40 years in Amboina, and was consul there under the Dutch East India company. He sweetened the leisure hours of his life by an uncommon and suc∣cessful application to the study of natural history, which he pursued in all its branches, but particu∣larly in botany. He had the misfortune to lose his family by the fatal earthquake of 1674; and some years after, having collected his materials for this work, and meditated his return to Europe, suffered the loss of his sight from a cataract, in which state he lived 20 years, and died in 1706.

This work comprehends the plants of Amboina, Malacca, Banda, and the neighbouring islands; and, allowing for the time when it was written, contains excellent descriptions of the several vege∣tables of the East Indies, with a copious account of their uses; and though inferior to the Hortus Malabaricus as to the engravings, excels it in the history of the subjects. There are nearly one thou∣sand vegetables described in this work, of which a great number were entirely new to the European botanists: of this number upwards of seven hun∣dred are engraved.

The manuscript was 30 years in the possession of the Dutch East India company, and was rescued from oblivion by the interest and extraordinary zeal of the editor, Professor Burman, of Amsterdam; who, with great industry and skill, has also ex∣tricated the synonyms as far as possible, and sub∣joined them to each description. He began this

publication in 1741, and finished it in 1750, in seven volumes folio, except a small supplement, which was not published until 1757. In 1769, the editor rendered his work still more useful, by the publication of an alphabetical index to these volumes, with the Linnaean synonyms; together with a like one adapted to the Hortus Malaba∣ricus.

The pupils of the Linnaean school much re∣gretted, that the Herbarium Amboinense had not been completed before the publication of LINNAEUS'S Species Plantarum, that the synonyms might have been introduced. To remedy this defect was the intention of Mr. Stickman's paper, in which the sub∣jects are arranged in the order of the original work, with the Linnaean name annexed to each; and afterwards, as many as could be extricated, are thrown into a Flora, according to the Sexual system.

It is to our neighbours the Dutch that the bo∣tanists are obliged for two of the most valuable performances that are yet extant in the history of foreign vegetables: this of Rumphius, and the Hortus Malabaricus of Rheede. But we hope that it will not be long before they will be more indebted to an illustrious Englishman, who, in pursuit of the same object, has encountered the perils of a cir∣cuit round this globe, for a work, which, from his taste, his liberality, and zeal for the promo∣tion of science, may be expected to surpass those above-mentioned, as well in extent, as in gran∣deur, and elegance of execution.

57. CERVUS TARANDUS. C. F. Hoffberg. 1754.

In this tract we have a complete history of the Rein-deer, (Cervus Tarandus, Syst. Nat. p. 93.) an animal which almost solely constitutes the riches, not only of the Laplander, but of the other arctic inhabitants of the globe. In Lapland more particularly, the whole res pecuaria respects this animal, as it is in that country in a more especial manner domesticated. In summer the Rein-deer feed on various herbs, but reject a considerable number that are eaten by others. Of the parti∣cular species thus refused, the reader is presented with a catalogue, from the experiments of a curi∣ous observer. In winter, they are solely sustained by the Rein-deer liverwort, (Lichen Rangiferinus) or Coralline Moss, with which the alps of the north are covered. The Rein-deer are obnoxious to many diseases, which are all here distinctly de∣scribed, and particularly those arising from the Gad-fly, called after its name, (Oëstrus Tarandi, Syst. Nat. 969.) which deposits its eggs on the back of these animals, and in consequence of which immense numbers of the Deer perish yearly. See also Flor. Lappon. p. 360.

58. OVIS. J. Palmaerus. 1754.

This dissertation contains the natural history of the Sheep, on the same plan as that of the forego∣ing paper, and abounds with many curious ob∣servations. The genus, species, and varieties are described, and many physiological observations

given. A list of those plants which the sheep does not eat, amounting, from the experiments of the Pan Suecus, to upwards of 140 species; some pointed out that are particularly grateful, of which number are the Sheep's Fescue Grass, (Fes∣tuca Ovina, Sp. Pl. p. 108.) the Thlaspi Bursa Pastoris, or Shepherd's Purse; and an enumera∣tion of such as are highly noxious and poisonous to this animal; such are, Corn Horsetail, (Equi∣setum Arvense;) Spearwort, (Ranunculus Flam∣mula;) Lancashire Asphodel, (Anthericum Ossi∣fragum;) Mouse-ear Scorpion-grass, (Myosotis Scorpioides β;) Wood Anemony, (Anemone Nemo∣rosa;) Dog's Mercury, (Mercurialis Perennis.)

In treating on the diseases of sheep, the author enquires particularly into the Dropsy, or Rot, oc∣casioned by worms in the liver, (Fasciola Hepatica, Syst. p. 1077.) which he thinks are swallowed by the animal in marsh water; and proposes salt as a preventive of their effects. [See the pathology of this disease by Dr. Nicholls, in the Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. p. 247. We can only add, that this paper cannot be less acceptable to naturalists, and lovers of rural economy in England, than the fore∣going to an intelligent Laplander.]

59. MUS PORCELLUS. J. J. Nauman. 1754.

A zoological tract relating to the animal usually with us called Guinea Pig, the Indian Rabbet of the old authors, and the Cavia of the Brasilians; which LINNAEUS ranks under the Murine genus, by the name of Mus Porcellus, Syst. p. 79.

The writer treats largely on the manners and whole economy of this little restless quadruped: his observations are evidently the result of long acquaintance and attention. He says they are deli∣cate food.

60. HORTICULTURA ACADEMICA. J. G. Wollrath. 1754.

This paper is intimately connected with N^o 54, the Stationes Plantarum. It exhibits a com∣pendious system of the principles of gardening, particularly as applicable to botanical or aca∣demic gardens. In the beginning it is laid down as an axiom, "that the whole depends on a per∣fect knowledge of the climate of each plant, and the soil in which it flourishes in its own climate." As a striking instance of the necessity of paying re∣gard to proper soil, and to induce curious people who transmit seeds and plants to Europe, to be more accurate in this particular, the writer mentions that of the Ricotia Aegyptiaca, (Spec. Pl. p. 912.) which no management could bring to flower and fruit, until LINNAEUS suggested mixing the Ar∣gilla Nilotica, the clay of the Nile, with the earth in the pot, and which very soon fully succeeded.

The Linnaean terms applicable to the several kinds of gardens are defined, the heat of the dif∣ferent climates ascertained by Celsius's thermometer, and the various soils and situations proper to each enumerated.

61. CHINENSIA LAGERSTROMIANA. J. L. Odhelius. 1754.

At the time that LINNAEUS'S great patron, Count Tessin, was chancellor to the King, and president of the Royal Academy of Sciences, he obtained, by the concurrence also of M. Lagerstrom, then coun∣sellor of the chamber of commerce, and director of the Swedish East India company, an order, that each ship should be provided, at the expence of the Company, with a naturalist wholly devoted to his proper pursuits. To this institution we owe the discoveries made by Ternstrom, Toren, and Osbeck; and in consequence M. Lagerstrom, who was him∣self a man of letters, and a friend to science, pro∣cured, at his own expence, a great number of natural curiosities from China and the East Indies, which he presented to the museum of the univer∣sity at Upsal. Among these particularly was a collection of the medicinal plants preserved in the apothecaries shops in China; also a Chinese herbal, in 36 volumes in 8vo, of which two consist en∣tirely of figures.

The tract before us is a scientific description of more than 50 subjects of natural history, chiefly birds and fishes, collected from China by M. La∣gerstrom. It is still of value, as being referred to from the System of our author.

62. CENTURIA PLANTARUM. A. D. Juslenius. 1755.

63. CENTURIA II. PLANTARUM. E. Torner. 1756.

These tracts contain the descriptions of very rare, or heretofore undescribed plants, sent to

LINNAEUS from various parts of the world. Those described in the second century were transmitted by Seguier from Verona; by Sauvages from Mont∣pelier; by Dr. Burman, who had received his from the Cape of Good Hope; and some by Mr. Miller of Chelsea. The time elapsed since the publication of these papers hath not lessened the usefulness of them, since they are closely connected with the Species Plantarum, are referred to in that work, and remain as so many illustrations of the system of LINNAEUS.

64. SOMNUS PLANTARUM. P. Bremer. 1755.

The subject of this paper, at the time of its publication, excited the attention of the curious throughout Europe. That nocturnal change to which certain plants are liable, and which is here analogically called Sleep, is more particularly manifested in those vegetables that are furnished with pinnated leaves, and of these the Diadel∣phous class affords the greater number. The change consists in the different position which the folioles, or small leaves, assume in the night-time, from that which they exhibit by day. Slight no∣tices of this faculty are met with in the antients; in this paper the observations have been extended so far, as to take in upwards of 40 species, which are here enumerated, and divided into ten classes, according to the differences observable in the po∣sition of the leaves, during this sleeping state. The late Dr. Hill, by a well-instituted set of expe∣riments, fully confirmed the idea, that this change

was owing to the absence of light. His experi∣ments were made with the Abrus Precatorius, or scarlet Indian Pea, in which plant this change had been observed by Prosper Alpinus, and in which it is remarkable.

[The novelty of this paper induced the author of this volume, soon after its publication, to give the substance of it an English dress, and it was pub∣lished in the Gentleman's Magazine for the year 1757, p. 315; to which the English reader, who wishes for further information, is referred.]

65. FUNGUS MELITENSIS. J. Pfeiffer. 1755.

This plant, notwithstanding the name it bears, is very far removed from the Fungus tribe, since it produces perfectly distinct flowers, and belongs to the Monandria order of the Monoecious class, and is called by LINNAEUS, Cynomorium Coccineum, Sp. Pl. 1375. The Maltese Fungus is a parasitical plant, singular in its form, which is little more than that of a simple stalk, about a finger's thick∣ness, and six or seven inches long, and in its state of fructification, the whole plant may be consi∣dered as an Amentum, or Catkin. It is found on the coast of Barbary, in Sicily, and sparingly in Malta, springing from the roots of trees and shrubs, as does the Asarum Hypocistis, with which it also agrees in its sensible qualities and effects, and is much esteemed, and used in the countries above mentioned as an astringent medicine. The writer of this paper gives us, from the Acta Bononiensia, a detail of experiments made with this and several

other subjects of the same class, to determine their comparative astringent and antiseptic powers on the human blood; from the result of which, he tells us, that the author was led to consider this simple as one of the safest and most powerful astringents.

66. METAMORPHOSIS PLANTARUM. N. E. Dahlberg. 1755.

The subject of this paper will scarcely admit of an abridgment, agreeable to our contracted plan. In order the more clearly to understand what the author calls the Metamorphosis Plantarum, he delivers, in a brief way, the Linnaean doctrine of the physio∣logy of plants; which supposes, that the flower is no other than the expansion or evolution of the trunk or stem, in the following arrangement: namely, that the Cortex, or outer Bark, is ulti∣mately spent in forming the Perianthium, or Cup; the Liber, or inner Bark, in forming the Corolla or Petal; the Lignum, or woody part, in forming the Stamina or Chives; and the Medulla, or pithy part, in forming the Pistillum, or Pointal. Hence, what∣soever causes can disturb the usual, natural, and re∣gular expansion and evolution of these parts, may be supposed to occasion great variety, and changes in the appearance of plants; and that such effects are brought about by change of climate, different soil, situation, air, culture, and perhaps various other yet unknown causes, is certain. To these sources must be traced the varieties we observe in the leaves, flowers, and roots, whether permanent, as is the case in some instances, or not. This

doctrine is here illustrated and confirmed by nu∣merous examples; and the young and inexperi∣enced botanist is guarded against the delusion, frequently occasioned by the operation of these causes; which are very extensive in the vegetable creation.

67. CALENDARIUM FLORAE. A. M. Berger. 1756.

The Calendar of Flora is intended to exhibit the progress of the seasons, as they are manif••sted by the times of the flowering of vegetables; which in each species appears to be determined from some fixed law of nature; and from the due ob∣servance of which, after a sufficient course of ex∣periments had been made, the author thinks, that the sowing of grain, and many other branches of rural economy, dependent on the seasons, might, in every country, be better regulated, than by the rules in common use. The tables in this tract were formed from observations made on the com∣mon plants of Sweden, in the Upsal garden, in 1755. This affair is also connected with the re∣turn and departure of migrating birds, and fur∣nishes many curious and useful hints; but we do not enlarge, as this thesis was translated, and pub∣lished with an English Calendar of Flora, by the late Mr. Stillingfleet, to which we refer our readers for more ample satisfaction. See also the Vernatio Arborum, N^o 46. of this collection, a paper strictly connected with the Calendar of Flora.

68. FLORA ALPINA. N. N. Amann. 1756.

The alps of Europe produce a set of vegetables very different from, and incapable of culture in, the lower situations. The author of this tract, who was a native of one of the provinces border∣ing on the alps of Lapland, with a laudable zeal for the improvement of his country, enquires what kinds of vegetables might be cultivated in those desart regions to the most advantage, where so few thrive, where shrubs scarcely ever attain even a moderate size, and where a tree will hardly grow erect.

To this end, he first enumerates all the alpine parts of Europe, and gives a list of 400 plants pe∣culiar to those situations. He expresses a wish, that at the royal, or public expence, a garden might be planted in the alps, to determine with precision what exotic plants would bear introduction into Lapland; and concludes by pointing out some of the esculent and medicinal kinds, as also some that are applicable to dyeing, and other arts, which he thinks might be culti∣vated to advantage in that northern region.

69. FLORA PALAESTINA. B. J. Strand. 1756.

Many commentators have employed themselves in determining the plants of the sacred writings, among whom none are thought to have been more successful than the late learned Professor Olaus Cel∣sius, in his Hierobotanicon; who was not only well qualified by his skill in the learned languages, and

particularly in the oriental, but was himself also an excellent botanist. He lamented, that by a sin∣gular fate, whilst the missionaries of the Romish church had, in various other parts of the world, been very instrumental in improving natural science, Palaestine had been totally neglected; hence he was doubly solicitous to recover the collection of his countryman Hasselquist, and much rejoiced that it was at last redeemed; as he hoped a view of the subjects would throw great light on his favourite pursuit of illustrating the Phytology of the scriptures. Hasselquist had particular instruc∣tions to attend to this point: how well he performed this function, is proved by the pre∣sent Flora, which is chiefly drawn from his dis∣coveries.

This catalogue is compiled in the same com∣pendious method as the other Florae of these vo∣lumes, after the generical, only the trivial name be∣ing cited. The author has also availed himself of other helps from those travellers, whose skill in this part of knowledge was indisputable: some plants he has introduced on the authority of Rau∣wolf, Prosper Alpinus, Shaw, Pocock, and Grono∣vius. The whole number amounts to six hundred species. Mr. Strand has applied Celsius's names to his list, wheresoever it was possible; but the curi∣ous will regret, that the learned author of the Hie∣robotanicon did not live to give the public another edition of his work, after such new materials had come to his hands.

70. FLORA MONSPELIENSIS. T. E. Nathhorst. 1756.

The happy climate, and variety of soil and situa∣tion of Montpelier, renders this Flora one of the most copious of any. The vicinity of some con∣siderable mountains and forests, and the maritime situation of the place, conspire to favour the growth of the plants of northern Europe, and of northern Africa, many of which are common to the East also. This catalogue is compiled from the Botanicon Monspeliense of Magnol, 1688, and the Methodus Foliorum of Sauvages. The Flora Monspeliaca has since been greatly enriched by the publications of Gouan.

71. FUNDAMENTA VALETUDINIS. P. Engstrom. 1756.

The author of this thesis derives the foundation of firm health and vigour of constitution from two sources: 1st, Good stamina transmitted by pa∣rents. 2dly, Care taken in the education, from the birth to the perfect state of adolescence. From the first, he thinks, that strength in the nervous system; and from the second, that strength in the vascular system, must be derived. In considering his first position, he has, in a concise manner, thrown together a variety of arguments, which he endeavours to confirm by the most respectable authorities, to prove that various disorders are transmissible to the offspring; also, that (inde∣pendent of the specific disorders thus transmitted from the parent) others arise in children from enervated and debauched progenitors. To the

first class he refers Mania, Epilepsy, Gout, Stone, and some others; to the latter, particularly the Rickets. In considering his second position, he prescribes the appropriate regimen to the mother during pregnancy, and for the nurse, whom he would always suppose to be the mother: and finally, concludes with some forcible persuasives to young men, not to defeat these desirable ends, by a course of intemperance.

72. SPECIFICA CANADENSIUM. J. Von Coelln. 1756.

In the first chapter of this tract, the writer, after presenting us with a view of the progress of medical science through the several schools and sects of physicians, and condemning that sarrago of compound medicines, with which the practice of physic hath been so long burthened, considers the return to a more simple mode of prescribing as in∣timately connected with its improvement. This leads him to his subject, which is intended to exhibit and recommend to the notice of physicians, a num∣ber of simples from the vegetable kingdom, used by the natives of North America, in the cure of their diseases, some of which may be worth the notice of European physicians. These may be considered as constituting the Materia Medica of the Indians, among whom, as with other barbarous nations, all that can be called physic depends en∣tirely on the empirical application of simples; nor can it be doubted, that long experience hath con∣firmed the efficacy of many to them.

This catalogue is chiefly compiled from 〈◊〉〈◊〉 ••artram's appendix, Colden's papers in the 〈…〉〈…〉 from the communications of 〈…〉〈…〉 is not within our plan to de∣tail 〈◊〉〈◊〉 ••••pects of this paper. Among those men∣tioned by Bartram, we have the exact method of exhibiting the Lobelia Siphylitica, Sp. Plant. 1320, the Indian specific for the venereal disease, as deli∣vered to Sir William Johnson, who purchased it of the Indians at a great price: this is much more largely treated of by Kalm. The virtues of many of these plants are confirmed by Colden. The Spigelia Anthelmintica, or Indian Pink; the Phyto∣lacca Americana, Poke-weed; Polygala Senega; are all considered, and the Geum Rivale, or Mountain Avens, which is used instead of Peruvian Bark, and that with great confidence, in North America. The catalogue contains near 40 plants, and the author finishes by proposing a certain number of these, which appear to be most worthy of regard, to be cultivated in Europe for medicinal purposes; such are the

• Aralia Nudicaulis; naked bastard Angelica.
• Collinsonia Canadensis; called Horse-weed.
• Lobelia Siphylitica; blue Cardinal Flower.
• Rumex Britannica; Virginian Water-dock.
• Polygala Senega; Rattle-snake Root.
• Actaea Racemosa; capsular Herb Christopher.
• Phytolacca Americana; Poke-weed.
• Geum Rivale; Mountain Avens.

73. ACETARIA. H. Van der Burg. 1756.

This writer, after having pointed out the advan∣tages and disadvantages of eating crude vegetables, shewing to what constitutions such food is adapted, and having treated largely on the qualities of Oil and Vinegar, gives a catalogue, and describes the sensible qualities and powers of the different vege∣tables eaten in the various parts of Europe as Sallads. Eighteen different sorts are here enume∣rated; most of which are superseded among us by Lettuce, Endive, Cresses, and Celleri, the latter of which our author thinks particularly hurtful to such as labour under nervous disorders.

74. PHALAENA BOMBYX. J. Lyman. 1756.

The history of the Silk-worm, (Phalaena Mori, Syst. Nat. p. 817.) its culture, and some account of the several species of Mulberry on which the insect feeds: of these the white is most acceptable, then the red, and black Mulberry. The writer thinks it probable that silk was first wrought by the Chinese; from whom the art might pass to the Per∣sians. The Emperor Justinian attempted to intro∣duce this worm into Italy, but it did not then suc∣ceed; neither was the true culture of it brought to perfection, until about the year 1130, in Sicily, from whence it spread into other parts of Europe.

The author mentions a species of Bombyx, (Pha∣laena Atlas, Syst. Nat. p. 808.) the coccoons of which are abundantly larger than those of the Silk-worm, and the silk much stronger; but it is to be regretted that they are difficult to wind, and are

therefore commonly spun. We fear that M. Ly∣man is rather sanguine in thinking that the culture of the Silk-worm may succeed in so northern a cli∣mate as Sweden.

75. MIGRATIONES AVIUM. C. D. Ecmark. 1757.

This paper is confessedly one of the most com∣plete that has been published on this curious sub∣ject, which is yet involved in considerable obscu∣rity; the cause of these migrations, with respect to several birds, and the places of their resort, being yet unknown. With respect to the greater number, it cannot be doubted but that the facility of find∣ing their appropriate food in distant countries, in the different seasons, and their security during in∣cubation, have the principal share in this part of their economy.

Mr. Ecmark observes, that the greater number of migrating birds belong to the flat-billed order (Anseres), particularly to the Goose and Merganser genera; and to the Waders, (Grallae): the former mostly breed in the extreme north, where, from the relation of LINNAEUS, their number almost darkens the air, and they are driven southward by the freezing of the lakes and rivers. Numbers also of the small-billed birds (Passeres), especially those with slender bills, are of the migrating class. The insectivorous retire southwards when our winter advances, as others in that season visit us for the sake of berries.

It is no small merit in Mr. Ecmark, that in this paper he brings together, in one view, more com∣pletely

than any other writer had done, all the known species of migrating birds, whether exotic, or indigenous to Sweden. He gives a list of all such as are mentioned in the writings of Catesby, Klein, and Hasselquist; but the most considerable part of his tract is employed in a methodical enu∣meration of the indigenous birds of Sweden, under each of which he mentions, as fully as is yet pos∣sible, the particular times of their several migra∣tions, the places whither they resort, their food, &c. and intersperses many other remarks, equally curious and satisfactory to those who wish for in∣formation in this part of natural history.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. V. 1760. pp. 483.

76. MORBI EXPEDITIONIS CLASSICAE, 1756. P. Bierchen. 1757.

The author of this tract was physician to the fleet of observation, which was fitted out in the beginning of the last war between England and France, by the Swedes, to act in conjunction with the Danes, in the north sea. The Swedish squa∣dron consisted of eight ships of the line, besides frigates. When M. Bierchen took his appoint∣ment in August, he found not fewer than 1900 men on the sick list; and that the principal diseases were Fluxes, Fevers, and the Scurvy. The first were attended with great pain in the bowels, extreme weakness, fever, and a very weak pulse. The Fevers were of that kind which has been

called the Upsal Fever, from its having been re∣markably epidemical in that city and neighbour∣hood. This disease was evidently of that class which is called putrid, and was much more acute in summer than in autumn. It was at∣tended with frequent and obstinate haemorrhages from the nose, early in the disease; a quiet kind of delirium; trembling tongue; twitching tendons; deafness; petechiae; and vibices on the skin. As the heat declined, haemorrhages were not so much observed; the disorder attacked with pain and las∣situde of body, vertigo and pain in the head, cough and oppression of the breast; and was afterwards attended with cardialgia, nausea, vomiting, turbid, and sometimes in the decline, bloody urine. Also great prostration of strength, weak pulse, and sub∣sultus tendinum, were symptoms of this fever; and many were seized in the beginning with violent fluxes. The Scurvy seems to have been attended with no other than the usual symptoms.

Our author appears to have been very solicitous in his endeavours to find out the cause of the ex∣treme prevalence of this disease in the fleet. In the Scurvy, besides the use of salted meats, he attri∣butes much to the want of sufficient exercise on board the ships; and confirms the observations of some other writers, that the disease, independent of regimen or diet, decreased when the fleet was out at sea, and consequently the ships more agi∣tated by wind and waves, and the men more em∣ployed; and that it augmented when they were in a state of inaction in port. He condemns the use

of fat and lard, as difficult of coction, and favour∣able to the disease. In the cure, he recommends acids; and says, he used principally the vitriolic: but above all he celebrates the praises of sour∣krout; for the efficacy of which he also cites the authority and experience of Sir John Pringle.

He considers the Fevers as arising from impeded perspiration, co-operating with the effects of cold, moist, and foul air; and in this expedition, he thinks, the insufficiency of proper cloathing dur∣ing the watches might not unfrequently be found a predisposing cause. He is of opinion that the disease was contagious; and says, many were cured by the early exhibition of emetics. In the general method of cure, the practice laid down by our later writers in England was successfully pur∣sued.

The Fluxes and Dysenteric disorders he ascribes particularly to the prevalence of saline and putrid acrimony in the food of seamen; aided by foul air, and want of exercise, and propagated at length by contagion too.

Our author concludes, by suggesting that there are two causes, of a general and permanent nature, which predispose to these diseases in all naval ex∣peditions. These are, impure air, and a constant depression of spirits in seamen, not hitherto suffi∣ciently attended to, and inducing a degree of real Nostalgia. He seems to be sufficiently aware of the importance of correcting the first, and re∣commends strongly the use of ventilators; to the other it is not easy to apply a remedy. He informs us, that both Swedes and Swiss find the greatest

relief, in the Maladie du pais, next to their return home, from strong exercise: however he hints his wishes, that the pay of the men was advanced, as one of the best means of inspiring them with chear∣fulness and hilarity, necessary to counterbalance this evil, at least in some degree.

To conclude, the subject of this paper has been so well treated by several later judicious writers amongst us, that the English physician cannot ex∣pect to meet with much new matter in this dis∣sertation; but it is nevertheless very worthy the regard of all who wish to make themselves acquaint∣ed with the diseases of the navy.

77. FEBRIS UPSALIENSIS. A. Bostrom. 1757.

The fever here described, which had been re∣markably epidemical in divers parts of Sweden, but particularly at Upsal, for several years before this time, and which had by many been supposed to be a new distemper, Dr. Bostrom considers as of the Remittent class, and common in all other parts of Europe. He has determined its type to be that of the Hemitritaea of LINNAEUS, (see Gen. Morb. N^o 23.) or the Semitertian of authors. In some years indeed, he observes, that it seemed to have changed its form, was attended with Petechiae, and became contagious, under which appearance it was named Febris Petechizans, and Febris Nervosa, when attended particularly with delirium and spasms. In its milder state, especially in the spring, it as∣sumed a regular quotidian, or continued tertian type.

In seeking the causes of the frequency of this fever, in Upsal particularly, our author accedes to that opinion which attributes intermitting and exacerbating fevers to the effects of moist and foul air, and thinks, from the situation of the city of Upsal, the closeness of the streets, and especially from the stagnating canals and waters, that its pre∣valence in that city may fairly be referred to this cause. To confirm his opinion, he cites two re∣markable instances of cities rendered free from these fevers, by leading off, and drying up, stagnant and putrid waters.

In the Prognostics, he says, a stiffness of the neck was not uncommon, and that it usually betokened a long continuance of the disease; and frequently ended in convulsions, or other dangerous affec∣tions of the nervous system.

The cure of this fever was usually begun by giving gentle emetics, and repeating them for a few days occasionally; without which it was observed, that the bark, and other remedies, failed to have their proper effect. Gentle paregorics and saline medicines were interposed, and the following preparation of the bark exhibited:—One ounce was infused in five ounces of red wine for a few hours, the residuum boiled in water to eight ounces, and three ounces of syrup of oranges mixed with this tincture and decoction. Of this a dose was given every two hours. Dr. Bostrom entirely forbids bleeding, having commonly found it hurtful.

78. FLORA DANICA. G. T. Holm. 1757.

This Linnaean catalogue of the plants of Den∣mark, is formed principally from the Viridarium Danicum of P. Kylling, published in 1688, which comprehends eleven hundred species. A few are introduced into this list from Burser's Herbarium, and some from the author's own observations.

Dr. Holm was made Professor of Economy at Copenhagen, and died much regretted in 1759. The plants of Denmark are nearly the same with those of England. [In that splendid addition to botanic science, which his Danish majesty has made by his patronage of the Flora Danica, begun in 1762, of which 840 plates are delivered, nearly four fifths are British.]

79. PANIS DIAETETICUS. J. Suensson. 1757.

The author begins his dissertation by enume∣rating the several sorts of grain used for Bread, adding briefly their general qualities, and the esti∣mation in which they were held by the antients. He then specifies the various kinds of bread, whe∣ther leavened, unleavened, or fermented; con∣siders it as it is the general food of man; the na∣ture of it as a nutriment, and the different tenden∣cies to acescency in the several kinds; condemning the too liberal use of it by the studious, persons of weak habits, and such as are troubled with fla∣tulency—descants upon every part of the process of making it;—treats on mill-stones, and repro∣bates strongly such as are formed of sand-stone;

quoting instances of their pernicious effects; says, those are best which are of a talky texture:—the effects of fermentation, kneading, and the diffe∣rent degrees of baking bread, biscuit, cakes, &c.;—the qualities of the unfermented kinds; and con∣demns in strong terms the use of hot new bread. He concludes by briefly reciting the qualities of such as is prepared from Rice, Turkey-wheat, Millet, and Sago; and mentions the substitutes for bread in various parts of the world; such are, the Cas∣sava, (Jatropha Manihot, Spec. Pl. 1429;) Pota∣toes; Yams; Roots of the Sea Rush, (Scirpus Maritimus, Sp. Pl. 74;) those of Dropwort, (Spiraea Filipendula, Sp. Pl. 702;) of the Clowns-allheal, (Stachys Palustris, Sp. Pl. 811;) the Lichen Islan∣dicus, Sp. Pl. 1611; the Bark of the Wild-pine, yet in use in Dalekarlia; Chesnuts; the Seeds of Spurrey, (Spergula Arvensis, Sp. Pl. 630;) and various others, for which see the Plantae Esculentae, in the third volume of this work, N^o 34.

80. NATURA PELAGI. J. H. Hager. 1757.

A general view of the contents of that vast ex∣panse of element, the Ocean; and a comparison between its inhabitants and those of the Earth: intended to excite the young and curious voyager to a more close and diligent investigation of this hitherto almost unknown, but fruitful field of science.

In the vegetable kingdom, Mr. Hager turns the reader's attention to the Sargazo, (Fucus Natans, Sp. Pl. 1628) which, swimming in a vegetating

state, covers the deep in some places for hundreds of leagues. See Kalm and Osbeck. The Madre∣pores and Millepores, which incrust as it were the bottom of the Ocean, and form banks, that at length rise into islands. The Corallines, and Sea∣fans, &c. are spread over them, as Grass on the Earth.

But what words can express the myriads that be∣long to the Vermes class! the Nereides, which illu∣minate the Ocean; the Medusae, or Blubbers, food for whales; the Asteriae; the Scyllaea Pelagica, feed∣ing amongst the Fucus; the Sea Pens; the Holo∣thuria Physalis, Besanties; the Sepiae; the Argo∣nautae, &c.

It were endless to attempt the Fishes. The va∣rious kinds of flying Fishes; the Bonito; the Albi∣core; the Tunny; the Pilot-fish, (Gasterosteus Duc∣tor, Syst. 489;) the Sucking-fish, (Echeneis Re∣mora, Syst. 446;) the splendid Dolphin; the spiny Ostracion, &c. affording perpetual entertainment and instruction to the curious eye.

Among the Amphibia, the whole Turtle genus, sleeping on the surface of the wave; the voracious Shark, those tygers of the ocean; the Toad-fish; the Fishing-frog of America, rioting in the pas∣tures of Sargazo, and feeding on the Scyllaea Pela∣gica; called, by the sailors, the Sea Hare.

Above; the feathered tribe, the Tropic-bird, (Phaëton Aethereus, Syst. 219,) soaring beyond the reach of the eye; the Albatross, (Diomedea Exu∣lans, Syst. 214;) the Man of War-bird, (Peleca∣nus Aquilus, Syst. 216;) the Shearwaters, (Procel∣lariae,)

skimming the surface; and lastly, the nu∣merous genera of Divers, &c.

Of the Mammalia, we admire the enormous Whale; the voracious Grampus; and the un∣wieldy Porpess; the armed Morse; and the bask∣ing Seal. Finally, these, which occur even to the most incurious eye, afford but a small sample of what this element offers to the contemplation of the more curious and inquisitive observer.

81. BUXBAUMIA. A. R. Martin. 1757.

The history, accompanied with figures, of a small plant of the Cryptogamia class, (Buxbaumia Aphylla, Sp. Plant. 1570,) singular in being desti∣tute of leaves: it was first discovered near Astracan, by Mr. Buxbaum, professor of botany, and member of the royal academy at Petersburgh; since that time, in divers other parts of Europe; and was named after the discoverer, by Haller, in conside∣ration of his having enriched natural history with many new plants, from his expedition into the countries around the Caspian sea for that purpose.

82. EXANTHEMATA VIVA. J. C. Nyander. 1757.

The origin of contagious diseases has exercised the pens of many ingenious physicians, and vari∣ous theories have been invented, all of which are briefly recited in the beginning of this disquisition. The author had been led by some singular circum∣stances to incline to that of Kircher, which ascribes them to Animalcula, and who has had many fol∣lowers, especially in France.

He next proceeds to shew the several analogies that subsist in the symptoms of contagious diseases; and as Animalcula have been demonstrated in the Itch, and, as he thinks, in the Dysentery too; so he tells us, they have been seen in the Measles, by Langius; in the Pestilence, by Kircher; in the Siphylis, by Hauptman; in Petechiae, by Sigler; in the Small-pox, by Lusitanus and Porcellus; as also in the Serpigo, and other cutaneous affections. He then proceeds to adduce all that occurs in de∣fence of this theory, from the consideration of facts arising in the following diseases; the Itch; Dysentery, Hooping-cough, Small-pox, Measles, Plague, and Siphylis.

In the Itch, the existence of the Acarus Siro, Syst. p. 1024,) is acknowledged, and he thinks it not less certain, that a species of this genus exists as the cause of Dysenteries: to this opinion the au∣thor was led by a singular fact, that occurred to Dr. Rolander, during his residence in Professor LINNAEUS'S house; he had been infested with the Dysentery for some time, and had been relieved twice by taking rhubarb, but the disease recurred, commonly, at the end of about eight days. He was the only one in the house thus affected; and was put by the Professor, upon examining his egesta, with a view to prove the truth of Bartho∣line's assertion, who relates that he had seen the alvine dejections full of the most minute insects in this disease. Dr. Rolander's observation on his own state confirmed the fact; and he afterwards discovered, that these Animalcula were conveyed

into his body in water, received from a vessel made of juniper wood. This Acarus is described in the System, p. 1024. Our plan will not allow us to follow the author through the whole of his dis∣quisition, it must suffice to say, that it is ingenious, and well worthy the attention of all those who wish to be acquainted with the doctrine which it favours.

83. TRANSMUTATIO FRUMENTORUM. B. Hornborg. 1757.

The purport of this dissertation is to combat, and abolish a long-established vulgar error, which nevertheless prevailed until the time of Harvey, among some men of considerable knowledge, and even now still subsists among the vulgar, in some parts of Europe; namely, that one kind of grain was convertible, by different soils, into an inferior, distinct, and more useless species: thus, that Wheat, in an impoverished soil, would change to Rye: this, to Barley: Barley, into Darnel: this, into Brome-grass: Brome-grass, into Oats. Some of the antients carried their belief farther, supposing, on the other hand, that in fertile lands, the reverse would take place. As these ideas were repugnant to truth, so they were in many cases unfriendly to improvement. This author, after having ob∣served, that among the Romans the Res Rustica was held in such estimation, that even the men of quality themselves disdained not to cultivate agriculture, laments that in modern times it is too much ne∣glected by the great; he therefore urges gentle∣men

to pursue the history and philosophy of vegetables, through the whole extent of them, as the foundation of practical improvements. With this view, he refers them to the many excellent papers thereon, contained in this collec∣tion: and from the physiology of plants, the consi∣deration of the mechanism of them, and particu∣larly that of the parts of fructification, he shews the futility of the opinion, which he had under∣taken to confute, and particularly levels his argu∣ments against that part of it which has gained the most belief, and remained longest in the minds of his countrymen and the peasants, that Oats are mutable into Rye.

No notice is taken in this dissertation of the Secale Cornutum, or Ergot, which, with other viti∣ated grain, has been supposed to occasion the Necrosis Ustilaginea, (vide Sauvages's Nosolog. vol. ii. p. 623.) and which lately engaged the attention of the learned in England. See Phil. Transact. vol. lv. p. 106—126, and vol. lii. p. 523—533.

84. CULINA MUTATA. M. G. Osterman. 1758.

In a former paper was exhibited a list of vege∣tables that are eaten in a crude state, as sallads. The present is intended to shew the change which has taken place, since the time of the antients, in the choice of vegetable aliments; by substituting, instead of what were then used, a number of more bland, agreeable, and nutritive plants.

In this review of the alteration, which this part of the culinary system has undergone, the author, under each article, gives a comparative sketch of the qualities of each, and shews the superiority of the modern substitute: to mention some of the most material;

The Acorns and Nuts of the primitive days have given way to all the variety of sweeter farinaceous seeds and roots.

To the Malvaceous tribe of plants, so much used by the Greeks and Romans, hath succeeded the more grateful Spinach. And to the Blite, the Gar∣den Orach.

The rough Borage is supplanted by the acescent Sorrel; and Asparagus has banished a number of roots, recorded by the Roman writers under the name of Bulbs, though at this day it is not easy to determine the several species.

Our author, however, thinks that the Parsnip has undeservedly usurped the place of the Skirret.

The Bean of the antients, improperly so called, being the roots as well as other parts of the Nym∣phaea Nelumbo, Sp. Pl. 730, or Indian Water Lilly, is superseded by the Kidney-bean.

The Garden Rocket, (Brassica Eruca, Sp. Pl. 932.) eaten with, and as an antidote against, the chilling Lettuce, is banished by the more agreeable Cress, and Tarragon. The Apium by the meliorated Cel∣lery, the Pompion, and others of the Cucurbitaceous tribe, by the Melon; and the Sumach Berries by the fragrant Nutmeg.

The Silphium, or Succus Cyrenaicus, which the Romans purchased from Persia and India, at a great

price, and is thought by some to have been the Asa foetida of the present time, is no longer used in preference to the Alliaceous tribe.

To turn from the vegetable to some of the animal substitutes, we may mention the Carp among Fishes, as having excluded a great number held in high estimation in antient Rome.

The change of Oil for Butter; of Honey for Su∣gar; of Mulsa, liquors made of wine, water, and honey, for the exquisite Wines of modern times; and that of the antient Zyihus, for the improved Malt Liquors of this day, are all recited; not to mention also the Calida of the Roman Taverns, ana∣logous to our bewitching Tea and Coffee.

85. SPIGELIA ANTHELMIA. J. G. Colliander. 1758.

A botanical and medical history of the Indian Pink, or Worm-grass, which has been so much used, and so greatly celebrated, for expelling worms from the human body.

Dr. Colliander does more than barely treat of the plant, having enumerated the several kinds of worms infesting the human species; the Ascaris Vermicularis, and Lumbricoides, Syst. p. 1276, the Lumbricus Terrestris, γ. ib. and the Taenia, Syst. 1324. He then gives a distinct account of the symptoms that indicate their presence in the human body, and the diseases which they too frequently occa∣sion: then follows a distinct catalogue of all the supposed Anthelminthics from the vegetable and mi∣neral classes; and before he comes to the history

of the plant in question, he recites the several simples which have been considered as Specifics: among these we may note particularly the Fern, mentioned by Dioscorides as anthelminthic, and lately published in France, as such, at the expence of the king.

The history of the Spigelia, with a figure annex∣ed, is then delivered at large, nearly as it stands in Browne's History of Jamaica, and in the Essays and Observations physical and literary, by Dr. Lining, vol. i. p. 386.

The success of this remedy among the negroes and Indians introduced it into practice. Dr. Browne administered it in decoction; the North American physicians give the powder of the root; on which occasion we may observe, that subsequent observa∣tions have proved the South American and North American Spigelia to differ in specie: the former is figured in Browne, and the latter in the Essays above∣mentioned, vol. iii. p. 154. See their botanical distinctions also, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii. p. 166.

86. MEDICAMENTA GRAVEOLENTIA. J. T. Fagraeus. 1758.

It is a postulatum in the philosophy of LINNAEUS, that "the qualities of medicines are, in a general way, to be determined by their effect on the or∣gans of taste and smelling." And further, that the "Sapida, or those which more sensibly strike the taste than the smell, do principally operate on the vascular and vital system:" and that the "Olida, or those which more sensibly strike the organs of smelling, operate on the medullary or nervous sys∣tem." The Sapor Medicamentorum of this collec∣tion,

N^o 30, may be considered as a comment on the first part of this general distribution of medi∣cines, distinguished by the term Sapida; and the present thesis as an explanation of a large division of the Olida, here called Graveolentia, from their strong and ungrateful smell.

The combinations of Sapids and Olids are innu∣merable; but that simples, strictly of the latter kind, do, in a sudden and extraordinary manner, exert their influence on the nerves, is certain; though our author contents himself with the fact, without enquiring whether the functions of the nerves are performed by means of animal spirits, by vibration, the medium of electricity, or by any other way. And from the Graveolentia, which are the subject of his thesis, he justly observes, that we derive some of the most powerful remedies. Of these he gives a catalogue, dividing them into three classes: 1. SUBINSIPID. 2. ACRID. 3. BIT∣TER: each of which is subdivided into two orders, as the subjects differ in degrees of strength. The Subinsipid contains chiefly the Narcotics: the Acrid several of the purging, and fetid roots; the fetid gums, and carminative seeds: the Bitter con∣tains others of the purging roots and leaves; and some of the bitter herbs. Under each, the au∣thor specifies, in technical terms, very briefly, the quality, and the diseases to which it has been ap∣propriated.

He then presents us with a concise, but very in∣structive theory, of the operation of this division of the Olida; leaving to the consideration of others, the Suaveolentia: after which, follows a general

pathology of those diseases which are remedied by the Graveolentia.

In treating on the use of external applications, Dr. Fagraeus appears to be dissatisfied with the common theory of repellents, which are usually drawn from the styptic class; and thinks, that the first class of Graveolentia, the Narcotics, which he supposes to induce a relaxation, or temporary palsy, in an inflamed part, more effectually pro∣mote a return of the stagnating and accumulating fluids into the circulation, than any styptics can possibly effect, and are therefore more justly en∣titled to that term.

87. ARBORETUM SUETICUM. D. D. Pontin. 1759.

88. FRUTETUM SUECICUM. D. M. Virgander. 1758.

The design of these papers nearly coincides with that of the Flora Oeconomica, (N^o 17.) having for its object the culture of the native trees and shrubs of Sweden, and some of exotic origin, which time hath naturalized, amounting to 106 species. In these excellent papers, no botanical descriptions are given, the name only by which they stand in the Linnaean system being introduced; the pro∣vinces in which they are most plentifully found; the soil in which they best thrive; their times of leafing, flowering, and ripening their fruit; their duration; the best methods of sowing or propagat∣ing each; and their uses as applicable to the arts, but particularly in rural economy, are concisely and distinctly treated of.

At the end of the Arboretum are subjoined some general rules, to secure the propagation and growth

of trees: and at the conclusion of the Frutetum the author has pointed out the proper kinds of shrubs for all sorts of hedges, adapted to different situations and soils.

89. PANDORA INSECTORUM. E. O. Rydbeck. 1758.

Mr. Rydbeck pursues the plan of the Hospita Insectorum, N^o 43, the completion of which can∣not but be subservient to the art of gardening, agriculture, and the economy of cattle, in a variety of instances; and is even necessary to faci∣litate the enquiries of the entomologist.

The author, in his preliminary sections, presents his reader with a history of the metamorphosis of insects, from the worm or maggot, through that of the chrysalis, to the perfect state, when it comes out in its full beauty, and performs all the functions of its being.

The catalogue, as that of the Hospita, exhibits a list of the vegetables of Sweden, arranged in the sexual method, and under each is given the insect which it nourishes. It has this advantage beyond the former thesis, that the insects are better defined, by the more complete addition of the trivial names, taken from the enlarged edition of the System of Nature, which had been published in the interval of these two papers. It is accompanied with a plate, containing near 50 of the more rare species, with references to the numbers in the tenth edition of the System.

90. SENIUM SALOMONEUM. J. Pilgren. 1759.

A paraphrase and comment on Solomon's descrip∣tion of old age, which has so frequently employed the pen both of medical and theological critics. With the reader's leave, this may be called a physio∣logical and pathological explanation of the text; not that the author has failed to intersperse suitable moral reflexions. Solomon's allusions are probably too ob∣scure, at this distance of time, to admit of uncon∣troverted explanation. The present attempt must be allowed to be an ingenious one, and worthy of the regard of those who wish to turn their atten∣tion to this subject.

91. AUCTORES BOTANICI. A. Loo. 1759.

We are here presented with an alphabetical cata∣logue of botanic writers, amounting to upwards of 350, on the following plan:—After the name of the writer, follows the time of his birth; his rank or profession; the period in which he flourished, commonly taken from the date of his first publi∣cation, the title of which is given in brief; and lastly, the year of his death. The catalogue takes in some authors yet living.

Such as have been eminently conspicuous for their merit, are, in this list, denoted by an asterisk affixed to the name. After the alphabetic cata∣logue, other arrangements of the fame authors take place; in one, particularly, they are arranged according to the countries of which they were natives. The catalogue concludes by pointing

out such capital writers as are indispensably neces∣sary to such as would make any considerable pro∣gress in the knowledge and history of botany.

92. INSTRUCTIO PEREGRINATORIS. E. A. Nordblad. 1759.

After some pertinent instructions to the young traveller for his conduct in foreign countries, and useful hints relating to those requisite qualifica∣tions, in which, it is to be regretted, too many who travel are deficient, we are presented with the complete method of keeping a journal, on the most extensive scale, pointing out whatsoever is worthy of observation. It is not easy to conceive a plan of instruction on this head more perfectly described; in which the traveller will not only find his memory much assisted, by having proper objects of inquiry suggested to him, whether in nature or art, but the method of arranging them also, greatly facilitated.

One part of his advice is of the utmost import∣ance, without the due and regular observance of which, nothing will effectually be done. "Nulla dies sine linea." He must, if he would excel, most strictly observe to enter and arrange the observa∣tions of each day, before the next arrives.

93. PLANTAE TINCTORIAE. E. Jorlin. 1759.

Intended to bring into one general view all the vegetable substances, whether indigenous or im∣ported, used in the art of dyeing. The author determines the exact plant from which each is

produced, adding short observations on the co∣lours they yield, and the methods of extracting them. In this Materia Tinctoria occur many of the indigenous plants of England, not commonly known to be possessed of any colouring quality; and though their use, at present, may be super∣seded by the facility of procuring better from abroad, yet these nevertheless remain fit objects of inquiry with the encouragers of arts. The ca∣talogue consists of 100 articles, exclusive of a few from the animal kingdom. We subjoin the names of those English plants, under the several colours which they are said to yield.

YELLOWS.

Bark of Buck-thorn,

Rhamnus catharticus.

Berry-bearing Alder,

—Frangula.

Berbery,

Berberis vulgaris.

Plum-tree,

Prunus domestica.

Apple-tree,

Pyrus Malus.

Horn-beam,

Carpinus Betulus.

Root of Meadow Rue,

Thalictrum flavum.

Common Nettle,

Urtica dioica.

Herb, Saw-wort,

Serratula tinctoria.

Bushy Hawk-weed,

Hieracium umbellatum.

Hemp-agrimony,

Bidens tripartita.

Gale, or Dutch Myrtle,

Myrica Gale.

Sweet Willow,

Salix pentandra.

Birch-tree,

Betula alba.

Hedge-nettle,

Stachys sylvatica.

Spotted-arsmart,

Polygonum Persicaria.

Herb, Yellow Loose∣strife,

Lysimachia vulgaris.

Devils-bit,

Scabiosa Succisa.

Kidney-vetch,

Anthyllis Vulneraria.

Common yellow Liverwort,

Lichen parietinus.

Flowers of St. John's Wort,

Hypericum perforatum.

REDS.

Roots of Ladies Bed∣straw,

Galium verum.

Herb Wood∣roof,

Asperula tinctoria.

Sorrel,

Rumex Acetosa.

Tormentil,

Tormentilla erecta.

Purple Cinque∣foil,

Comarum palustre.

PURPLES.

Herb, or Tops of Wild-Marjoram,

Origanum sylvestre.

BLUES.

Bark of the Ash,

Fraxinus excelsior.

Flowers of Larkspur,

Delphinium Consolida.

Bell-flower,

Campanula rotundifolia.

Berries of Black Heath,

Empetrum nigrum.

GREENS.

Herb of Ragwort,

Senecio Jacobaea.

Cow-weed,

Chaerophyllum sylvestre.

Panicle of Brome-grass,

Bromus secalinus.

Common Reed,

Arundo phragmites.

BLACKS.

Bark of Oak,

Quercus Robur.

Water Horehound,

Lycopus europaeus.

94. ANIMALIA COMPOSITA. A. Back. 1759.

Under the term Animalia Composita are compre∣hended the two last orders of the class of Vermes, making the last links in the chain of animal na∣ture; and thus connecting it with the vegetable kingdom. These (in opposition to those of the three foregoing orders of the same class, which live simple and separate from each other) are called Compound Animals, as being connected together by one common base or support, either in the form of irregular or rudely-branched stony masses, of a calcareous nature, as the Lithophyta, or Corals; or, as fixed to one common stalk more or less branched, as the Zoophyta, or Corallines, and some others.

In order to give a more perfect idea of the na∣ture of these animals, the author holds forth the general analogy between animals and vegetables, principally to shew that the former are not, like the latter, endowed with that multiplicative power of propagating themselves without the particular energy and exertion of the generative function; whereas the Animalia Composita seem to unite these powers, since they not only appear to propagate by eggs, or viva soboles, but also by progressive extension and ramification.

The animals of the LITHOPHYTA, like the Testacea, fabricate their own base of calcareous

matter, forming the whole mass into tubes, each ending on the surface, in pores or cells, according to their specific difference, where alone the animal seems to dwell, and extending these habitations progressively, in the manner of vegetables, leaving the base at length to perish.

The animals of the Zoophyta, containing the Corallines, &c. particularly the fixed ones, approach much nearer than the foregoing to vegetables, both in their texture and form in general, arising as if from a root, and forming a stem and branches, which are beset at the extremities and articulations with the animals, or Polypes, appearing by the help of glasses like so many flowers.

Since this tract was written, the subject has re∣ceived much farther illustration from the disco∣veries of the late Mr. Ellis.

95. FLORA CAPENSIS. C. H. Wannman. 1759.

In the time of the Romans it was a trite proverb, that Africa was the land of wonders; and it still re∣mains true, as in these days it affords, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, some of the most stupendous and singular productions of nature. From the first discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence Europe has chiefly been furnished with the plants of Africa, their uncommon aspect, so very different from those of Europe, has attracted the notice, not only of naturalists, but of all man∣kind; and as the mildness of that climate allowed of their cultivation here, they soon became fa∣vourites in the English gardens.

Some of the first Cape of Good Hope plants that were brought to Europe, we owe to J. Heurnius, who sent them to his brother, a professor at Ley∣den; and they are figured in Bodeus á Stapel's Theo∣phrastus, p. 333; among these were the Indian Reed, (Canna Indica), the Haemanthus Coccineus, Stapelia, the Aletris Uvaria, and a few others. But the first botanist who visited the Cape was Paul Herman; he collected 800 species, then unknown in Europe: after him H. B. Oldenland, a Dane, and J. Hartog, a Dutchman, both made collections of African plants, which at length falling into the hands of the present able professor of botany at Amsterdam, Dr. John Burman, he published en∣gravings of ten decads of the more rare kinds. From these materials chiefly the present Flora is composed, according to the usual plan, with the trivial names only.

Among the plants of the Cape, there are 38 genera peculiar to that part of the world, several of which excel all others in the number of species, as well as in their uncommon and superb appearance. The vast number of species under the same genus, so frequently met with in that country, strongly favours the idea of the perpetual new origin of plants; and that many, which elsewhere are only hybrid, there propagate and become permanent. But Caffraria, beyond all other countries, abounds with extensive genera of plants: the succulent kinds, particularly, cover the sandy soil, where nothing but the fact could convince us that vege∣tation would in any degree succeed. Such are the

Fig-marygolds, (Mesembryanthema), Aloes, Purs∣lanes, &c. Among the others, we are astonished with the variety of the Heaths, (Ericae), Gerania, Protaeae, and Gnaphalia.

Since the publication of M. Wannman's thesis, great discoveries in botany have been made in southern Africa by Thunberg and Sparmann, and by Mr. Masson; and we have reason to expect a com∣plete account of the plants of that country from Dr. Laurence Burman, son of professor J. Burman, who has already given us a compendious list of them in his Flora Indica.

96. FLORA JAMAICENSIS. C. G. Sandmark. 1759.

The author begins his Flora with a general account of the geography of the island, and its produce; specifying particularly some of the most useful articles thence imported: as, Guaiacum, Fustic, Ebony, Logwood, Brasiletto, Mahogany, In∣digo, Sugar, Coffee, Cotton, Pimento, and Ginger. He then subjoins an account of the two principal works, from which his catalogue is compiled; these are Sir Hans Sloane's History and Dr. Browne's. The former of these writers appears to have been the first naturalist who visited that island, and he brought back with him 800 species of plants. The latter is said to have made a collection amounting to 1200, which, after the publication of his His∣tory, he presented to LINNAEUS. As Dr. Browne followed the Linnaean system, his book is referred to in this Flora.

97. PUGILLUS JAMAICENSIUM PLANTARUM. G. Elmgren. 1759.

A description of one hundred and thirty species of the more rare among the foregoing plants, made from Dr. Browne's collection, which was in the hands of professor LINNAEUS.

98. NOMENCLATURA PLANTARUM. B. Berzelius. 1759.

Contains the vernacular names of the genera of plants, particularly of European and garden kinds, in Italian, French, English, Dutch, and German, placed in columns, opposed to the Latin name. It would have been an acquisition to have had the plan of this paper extended much farther, so as to have included not only the name of the genus, but that by which each species is known in the several coun∣tries; a thing too much neglected by almost all writers of local catalogues, although highly neces∣sary to render them more extensively useful. Nay farther, even the provincial names, if possible, should be collected, as they are frequently very different for the same plant. LINNAEUS, in his Flora Suecica, is almost the first and only one who has taken due notice of, and supplied this defici∣ency. There is extant on this subject the Index Plantarum Polyglottus of Mentzelius, published in 1682; but the writer of this Nomenclator found it insufficient to his purpose: neither indeed can the plan be completed, otherwise than by the united endeavours of botanists throughout the world.

99. AER HABITABILIS. J. V. Siefvert. 1759.

The comprehensive nature of the subject, and the concise manner in which the history of the air is treated in this dissertation, render it impossible to give a proper abstract in our confined plan. This element is here considered in all the various changes to which it is subject; its properties un∣der the different and opposite alterations discussed; its effects on the earth in the various quarters of the globe; and its influence on the health and eco∣nomy of life, and manners of the inhabitants.

1. With respect to its heat and cold in the diffe∣rent quarters of the earth: of these the general re∣sult is given according to the computation of the Swedish thermometer, or Celsius's, in which (0) is the point of congelation, and (100) that of boil∣ing water; five degrees in this being equal to nine of Farenheit's.

2. Its dryness and moisture, and the general effects of those qualities pointed out. The torpid state of the inhabitants of hot countries during summer: heat in those countries defoliates trees, as cold does in temperate climes.

3. Its gravity, and the different degrees and effects of it considered.

4. The effects of the different winds, and their salutary and pernicious tendencies. That of Calms also. In the Isle of St. Thomas there is a dead calm for two months, during which the worst diseases prevail.

5. The effects of an hot atmosphere farther il∣lustrated by the state of the Indians. Diseases thereby produced in more moderate climates.

6. Temperate air, and its exhilarating qualities on the animal creation, &c.

7. Moist air, and the diseases thence arising.

8. Air impregnated with exhalations of various kinds; a comm on cause of fevers, dysenteries, head-ach, &c.

9. Stagnant air, in vaults, in subterraneous gra∣naries, and mines.

10. Effluvia from burning substances: instances of their pernicious effects, largely treated of. Mineral vapours; those from wine, &c. Premature deaths of the inhabitants of a village in Wermland, attri∣buted to stagnant and putrid water.

11. The advantages to valetudinarians of chang∣ing the air, particularly to arthritics, hypochon∣driacs, and others. Finally, although the intel∣ligent reader may not meet with much new matter in this tract, yet he will see facts so well illustrated by pertinent observations, that we may venture to pronounce this short history and philosophy of this element, a useful paper, and well worth attention.

100. SUS SCROFA. J. Lindh. 1759.

A complete natural history of the Hog, as it appears particularly in its cultured and tame state; in which the whole economy also of the animal, and its uses to mankind, are perhaps more completely treated of, than in any other pub∣lication, and which cannot fail to be acceptable and useful to those who make this animal an object of merchandize.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE. VOL. VI. 1764. pp. 486.

101. GENERATIO AMBIGENA. C. L. Ramstrom. 1759.

The author begins his subject with a concise view of the antient and modern theories relating to this obscure affair He observes, that the antient doctrine of equivocal generation prevailed in gene∣ral, until Harvey exploded it, and taught that every animal is generated ex ovo; and that his sys∣tem may now be considered as including a double hypothesis: first, that taught by himself, which supposes the entire rudiments of the future foetus to be present in the ovum, and only waiting for animation from the vivifying principle, or aura genitalis masculina; the other, that of the seminal animalcule entering into the ovum, according to the theory arising from Lewenhoeck's microscopical discoveries. We have before observed that LIN∣NAEUS very early forsook Lewenhoeck's theory, in consequence of attending Liëberkuhn's demonstra∣tions. The argument of the present hypothesis tends to shew, that both sexes are equally efficient in this work; leaning however to the following opinion, "that the external form, as well as the specific energy, of the vital functions, are princi∣pally derived from the male parent." This is partly the opinion also of the very eminent Dr. Haller, Phys. § 786. Our intended brevity does not allow us to pursue our author through all his

arguments in behalf of his hypothesis; we must rest satisfied with observing, that after drawing a physiological analogy between vegetables and ani∣mals, he thinks it evident that in both, the male is most commonly conspicuous in the external form: and this he illustrates by several examples of hybrid species in both the vegetable and animal king∣dom.

102. POLITIA NATURAE. H. C. D. Wilcke. 1760.

Intended to display that perfect order and just subordination of all the several parts of nature, by which they are rendered mutually subservient to the conservation of each other, and of the whole; and which, collectively considered, our author, not unaptly, has named the Police of Nature.

This physico-theological design is pursued near∣ly on the same plan as that of the Oeconomia Na∣turae, N^o 19, by exhibiting,

1. A general view of the Fossil kingdom, as con∣stituting the surface of the globe, and as disposed into land and water, hills, mountains, vallies, &c.

2. That innumerable variety of Vegetables, with which the surface of the earth is cloathed and adorned, as adapted to the different soils, climates, and elevations; and again, as affording nutriment to animals of various kinds.

3. In the Animal kingdom, a general view of their relations to each other, and the proportion they bear in the scale through the several classes, from the Vermes up to the highest and most per∣fect;

in which are considered their specific uses in the general economy.

Our author has illustrated his subject, by addu∣cing numerous examples from all parts of the Ve∣getable and Animal kingdom, to shew how ad∣mirably the whole is ordained, to contribute to the generation, nutrition, and due proportion of each, in the grand fcheme of nature and providence.

103. THESES MEDICAE. J. C. D. Schreber. 1760.

In this dissertation, Dr. Schreber delivers a brief view of the Linnaean doctrine, relating to the ana∣tomy and physiology of plants, in which he endea∣vours to sustain the following theses:—That all plants consist of a medullary and cortical substance; in the former of which is manifested the life of the plant, and through which it is perpetuated, either by seeds or buds, which are considered as the ulti∣mate extension of this part. The cortical part is considered as the organ of nutrition to the whole.—That, as in a number of certain species of plants, which in artificial systems form a genus, we see a similar proportion and agreement of the parts of fructification, howsoever different the external form of the whole plant; and as we not unfrequent∣ly see hybrid plants produced, he therefore proposes it as a matter worthy of speculation, whether, ori∣ginally, all the species have not been produced in the same way, by the various admixtures of the farina. From this power in the medullary part, of perpetuating itself, and modifying the whole

internal structure, the author also deduces the similar qualities which are commonly found in plants of the same genus, as manifested by the taste and smell.

104. FLORA BELGICA. C. F. Rosenthal. 1760.

A Linnaean Flora of the indigenous plants of the United Provinces, compiled from the catalogues of Commeline, printed in 1709, and of Dr. David de Gorter, printed in 1745, at that time professor at Harderwick, and afterwards physician to the Em∣press of Russia. The author refers to the page for each plant in both these works. He premises a general account of the country, with respect to its divisions into provinces, the climate, the inha∣bitants, the commerce; enumerates their univer∣sities and gardens; then gives concise lists of the plants found in particular situations, in the canals, for instance, on the dykes, in the woods, osieries, &c.

The plants of Holland, as far as soil and situa∣tion admit, are nearly those of England; but as the country is destitute of mountains, rapid rivers, alps, and chalky soil, a great variety are necessarily excluded.

These works are superseded by an enlarged edition of Dr. De Gorter's book, under the title of this thesis, printed in 1767; and which contains upwards of 1050 species.

105. ANTHROPOMORPHA. C. E. Hoppius. 1760.

The history of the Simia genus, especially as it respects those species which so nearly approach the

human form and feature, is yet involved in no small obscurity. After a general account of the manners of these animals, the reader is here presented with an history of four remarkable species.

1. Simia Pygmaeus, the Wild Man of the Woods, described and figured by Edwards, t. 213. (Simia Satyrus, Syst. p. 34.)

2. Simia Satyrus, of Tulpius, which LINNAEUS considers as the same animal with the foregoing, differing only in having the abdomen more promi∣nent, and less furnished with hair.

3. Simia Lucifer, or Homo Caudatus of Bontius, said to exist in Java and Nicobar, of which tra∣vellers have related strange stories. The author describes this animal on the authority and testi∣mony of Koping, a Swede, who asserts that he had seen both male and female; nevertheless it may justly be suspected, that there is somewhat of fable, or much exaggeration, mixed with this relation. The reader may see more relating to this animal and Koping's book, in a letter from LINNAEUS himself to the author of "The Origin and Pro∣gress of Language," vol. i. ed. 2d, p. 260, note.

4. Simia Troglodytes, or Orang Outang of Bon∣tius; the Homo Nocturnus, or Troglodytes of the Syst. Nat. p. 33. Concerning these the author takes great pains to prove that they are really children of darkness, and incapable, from the ex∣treme dilatation of the pupil, of seeing in the day∣time. [The length of the arms would incline one to rank this creature with the Gibbon of M. Buffon, or that of which an account, accompanied with a figure, was transmitted by Mr. De Visme from Can∣ton,

and published in the Phil. Trans. vol. lix. p. 72. t. 3. See also Lin. Mant. alter. p. 521.] Figures of these several animals, taken from the respective authors, accompany this dissertation.

106. PLANTAE AFRICANAE RARIORES. J. Printz. 1760.

Of all the quarters of the globe, no one dis∣plays such luxury and variety in the production of plants as southern Africa; from whence the European gardens have derived their most superb and ornamental species. This catalogue contains the description of a century of the most rare, some entirely new, and others before imperfectly noticed. It was drawn up by the author from an inspection of the plants themselves, in a collection sent from the Cape of Good Hope; with a view of which Dr. Laurence Burman gratified LINNAEUS, when he paid him a visit in the summer of 1760. Extremely different as the plants of the Cape are from those of Europe, many of the latter nevertheless thrive well in that climate. The author has prefixed a list of 70 kinds, which occurred in looking over this collection. He concludes this paper with a list of African plants, as an Appendix to the Flora Ca∣pensis, N^o 95, before published in this collection. It comprehends near 200 species from Oldenland's Herbarium, made in 1695. Mr. Printz's catalogue is yet of use, as being referred to from our author's Species Plantarum.

107. MACELLUM OLITORIUM. P. Jerlin. 1760.

Under this title our author includes the plants of the kitchen-garden; and we are here presented

with a catalogue, amounting to 77 kinds, of culi∣nary herbs, principally such as are found sponta∣neously growing, or are easily cultured. It is drawn up on the same plan with LINNAEUS'S Ma∣teria Medica, specifying briefly the duration of each, whether annual, biennial, or perennial; the part of the plant in use; and the mode of dressing it: after these follows a brief indication of the taste or other sensible qualities, and their reputed effects on the human body.

The author divides the culinary herbs into three classes.

1. Roots: and these into fusiform, and tuberous.

2. Stalks: comprehending particularly the young and blanched shoots; as Asparagus: and the disk of the flower; such is the Artichoke.

3. Leaves: divided into Olera, or boiling herbs, sprouts, and greens; and Accetaria, or sallads, eaten crude.

Our author commends Parsnips, in preference to Turnips and Carrots, as being less flatulent, and more nutritive. He condemns the use of Mush∣rooms: says the disk, and the young stalks of the Cotton Thistle, (Onopordon Acanthium) may be eaten, and resemble Artichokes. It is here re∣peated, that Cellery is prejudicial to people subject to nervous disorders. The contents of this paper would enrich an Economical Herbal.

108. MELÖE VESICATORIUS. C. A. Lenaeus. 1762.

A complete history of the Melöe Vesicatorius, Syst. p. 679, or the Blistering Fly or Beetle, an

insect of the Coleopterous order, with filiform an∣tennae, and distinguished from the other genera by the rounded thorax, and gibbous inflexed head. The species in common use is found all over Eu∣rope, more or less, on the Privet, the Ash, and the Elder; but there are also three others endued with the same vesicating acrimony, two of which are European, and the other common all over the East, and particularly in China, where it is used in the shops; and there are many reasons mentioned by our author to prove, that this last (the Meloe Cichorii, Syst. 680.) is the true Cantharis of Dios∣corides.

After a copious natural history of the insect, our author gives the form of several vesicating plasters, and prescribes the places and mode of application. In his last chapter, which is profes∣sedly medical, he treats on the internal and external use of Cantharides, principally considering how far they are safe and useful as diuretics, when admini∣stered internally: under this head he introduces a case, which furnishes a caution against the use of them as Aphrodisiacs. After premising some general observations on the action and use of blisters, he con∣cludes by enumerating all those diseases in which they are salutary, and those in which they are par∣ticularly contra-indicated. In England, where it is thought the use of blisters is better ascertained than in some other nations, the intelligent physi∣cian will not expect to meet with much new matter on this subject.

109. DIAETA ACIDULARIS. E. Vigelius. 1761.

It is not surprizing, that in a country abounding with iron, chalybeate waters should be frequent. In fact, these Acidulae are so in Sweden, and their efficacy has been known, and much extolled in that country, as our author observes, from the most antient times. He thinks the inhabitants of those northern climes were led to the frequent use of the Acidulae, by long experience of the salutary effects of them as diuretics and tonics, in remedying the inconveniences arising from a long winter's diet of salted meats, which dis∣posed the constitution to scorbutic, cachectic, and dropsical disorders. The later physicians of Sweden have regulated the use, and confirmed the good effects of them: and Mr. Vigelius, in this disser∣tation, has, in a concise, elegant, and perspi∣cuous manner, prescribed the regimen adapted to such as enter upon a course of these waters, digested under the six well-known heads of the Non-naturals.

110. POTUS COFFEAE. H. Sparschuch. 1761.

A very circumstantial, botanical, and medical history of the Coffee-tree, and its fruit, (Coffaea Arabica, Sp. Pl. p. 245.) The writer is one of the last of 20 authors who have written professedly on this shrub, all of whom he enumerates by name, with the date of their writings, from 1621 to Kalm's treatise in 1755.

Coffee, originally the produce of Arabia Felix, where the best is now most successfully culti∣vated, is called, by the Egyptians, Bon, and is first mentioned by the Arabians about the year 900. Our author says, it was brought into Eu∣rope about the year 1645, and that the first public coffee-house was set up at Marseilles in 1671. The shrub itself was introduced into the European gar∣dens about the year 1710, by means of seeds pro∣cured from Arabia, by Governor Van Hoorn of Batavia, who also first cultivated it in America, at Surinam.

We are next presented with the classical, gene∣rical, and specific character of this plant; to which succeeds a copious list of synonyms, and the description at large, as it stands in the Hortus Cliffortianus. The culture of the shrub; the pre∣paration of the berry; the different times and modes of drinking this liquor, which custom hath established in the various nations; and the succe∣danea to this berry, are then discussed. Among the latter are mentioned Pease, Beans, Beech-nuts, Almonds, Maiz, Wheat, and the seeds of the Sun∣flower, (Helianthus Annuus). Vide Gouan. Flor. Monsp. p. 456. Of these he prefers Almonds, but he observes that they dispose to flatulency much more than Coffee.

In speaking of the qualities and virtues of Cof∣fee, our author thinks it should rather be classed with medicines, than considered as a nutritive ar∣ticle in diet. He appears to be no friend to its frequent and indiscriminate use: he thinks it de∣stroys rather than creates appetite: that it occasions

watchfulness; and promotes flatulence and indigestion, instead of relieving them, as is generally believed: that it debilitates the nerves, and occasions tremblings. On this occasion he thinks it worth enquiry, whe∣ther it may not contribute to those sudden deaths which are frequent at Stockholm about the winter solstice, as they have been observed to happen to such as were inordinate drinkers of this liquor: that it is antiaphrodisiac, he says, is generally al∣lowed; and he illustrates and confirms this qua∣lity by a pleasant tale from Olearius's Travels: that it weakens the sight; is noxious to melancholic, hypochondriacal, and hysterical people: that it pro∣motes hemorrhages of all kinds; and that a free indulgence in the use of this liquor cannot be safe, except to the corpulent.

Considered as a medicine, from its heating qua∣lity it is forbidden in fevers. From its stimulating and drying quality, allowed by all physicians, is deduced its usefulness in corpulency, and in the leucorrhaea. It has been considered as an anthel∣minthic; but its ill effects on the tender habits of children, more than balance any good ones in that way. In soporose affections, in phlegmatic and cor∣pulent habits, our author allows its use; and from its known effect in promoting hemorrhages, it must be considered as an emmenagogue. That head-achs are frequently relieved by Coffee, is con∣firmed by daily experience; and our author relates that LINNAEUS himself found it singularly useful in taking off a cardialgia, with which he was affected at the time he was physician to the fleet, in 1740; and which he attributed to the effluvia of the hos∣pital,

as it constantly succeeded his morning visits to the sick.

111. INEBRIANTIA. O. R. Alander. 1762.

Inebriants are almost universally derived from vegetables. They are defined by our author to be such things as affect the nerves in a particular and agreeable manner, and through them alter and disturb the functions of the mind. They are pro∣properly divided into native and artificial; the for∣mer chiefly in use among the oriental and other nations, the latter principally throughout Europe. Of native Inebriants the following are enumerated, and the mode of administration and effects of them described.

1. Opium; in use all over the East, and of which the Turks, through custom, swallow a drachm.

2. Peganum Harmala, Sp. Pl. 638. Syrian Rue. The seeds are sold in Turkey for this purpose; and with these, as Bellonius relates, the Turkish Emperor Solyman kept himself intoxicated.

3. Maslac, of the Turks, or Bangue, of the Per∣sians; prepared from the dust of the male flower of Hemp, or from the leaves.

4. Bangue, of the Indians, from the leaves of the Hibiscus Sabdariffa, Sp. Pl. 978.

5. Seeds of various species of the Datura, or Thorny Apple, of which see Rumph. Herb. Amb. 5. p. 243.

6. Pinang, or Betle of the Indians.

7. Roots of Black Henbane, (Hyoscyamus Niger, Sp. Pl. 257).

8. The Hyoscyamus Physaloides, Sp. Pl. 258.

9. Berries of the deadly Nightshade. Atropa Bella Donna, Sp. Pl. 260.

10. Leaves of Millfoil, (Achillaea Millefolium), are used by the Dalekarlians to render their beer intoxicating. See Flor. Suec. N^o 770.

11. Tabacco, and several others less material, are mentioned; such are Clary, Saffron, and Darnel.

Artificial Inebriants are fermented Liquors from farinaceous seeds; Wines and Spirits drawn by distillation. With these our author ranks the Nectar of the gods, and the anodyne medicine of Homer, commonly called Nepenthes; and the spells by which Medea and Circe produced their inchant∣ments. He then, in a most striking and lively manner, introduces a fable to illustrate the effects of intoxicating liquors on the human frame and passions, and after having shewn when they may be safely allowed, concludes with cautions and exhortations against the abuse of them.

112. MORSURA SERPENTUM. J. G. Acrell. 1762.

In this tract on the venomous bites of Serpents, after a general description of the structure of this order of Amphibia, and some observations relating to the Boa Constrictor, Syst. 373, (Gigantic Serpent of the East Indies) and its capacity of ingorging large animals; of the fascinating power of the Rattle Snake, with which also, he says, the Coluber Berus, Syst. 377, or Viper, is in some degree en∣dued; the author describes the mechanism of the jaw, and the venomous apparatus in Serpents; and these are illustrated with a figure. He then

gives an abstract of Redi's Experiments, and dis∣cusses the theory of the operation of the virus, in the explication of which, he inclines to that of the mechanical theorists, in attributing the effects rather to an almost instantaneous alteration induced in the fluids, than to its immediate action on the nervous system. The symptoms ensuing the punc∣ture of the various species are then described; those from the Viper particularly; and those of the Asp, which kills by inducing sopor and lethargy. Three Asps are mentioned by the antients; that called Ptyas, he supposes to be the Coluber Am∣modytes of the moderns. See Syst. p. 376, de∣scribed and figured in the Surinamensia Gril∣liana of this collection, N^o 16. Besides those of the Rattle Snake genus, there are eighteen of the Viper genus, furnished with venomous organs; of which a list is subjoined. Among these none strike more suddenly fatal than the Coluber Naja, called Cobra de Capello.

This author next treats briefly on the various re∣medies in use among the antients, and notes their general inefficacy. He then comes to discuss the three noted antidotes of Europe, Asia, and America, which are regarded as specifics, against the venom of the most dangerous kinds, in the respective quarters of the globe: such are, Oil of Olives, against the Viper of Europe; the Ophiorrhiza Mungos, against the Naja of Asia, (vide N^o 21 of this collection;) and the Senega, against the Rattle Snake of America. There is nevertheless a small venomous Viper (Co∣luber Chersea, Syst. p. 377.) in Sweden, against the bite of which the oil of olives failed to produce its

usual good effects, and the patient died. The author mentions a successful case of the administration of the Senega in Sweden. He concludes with descant∣ing on the Psylli of the East, or the Charmers of Serpents; and tells us that M. Jacquin of Vienna purchased a secret of this kind in the West Indies.

113. TERMINI BOTANICI. J. Elmgren. 1762.

This paper is incapable of abridgment; it is a methodical arrangement and complete explanation of all the terms, amounting to 673, used in descri∣bing plants, according to the Linnaean method of botany. Somewhat of the same kind was begun in the Hortus Cliffortianus, and is also prefixed to the enlarged editions of the System. These terms also necessarily occur, and are explained, in our author's Philosophia Botanica. In this paper the whole is amplified, improved, and methodised in so excellent a manner, that no one who would gain precise ideas on the subject would wish to be without it.

114. PLANTA ALSTROMERIA. J. P. Falk. 1762.

This plant is of American origin, and belongs to the Hexandrous class and Monogynous order of the System. There are three species, the two first of which were described and figured by Pére Feuillée in Peru, who ranked them with the Hemerocallis, or Day Lily. LINNAEUS received the seeds of this singular and beautiful plant from Cadiz, by means of C. Alstromer, son of a gentleman of that name, counsellor of the College of Commerce in Sweden; and finding it a new genus, gave it his name.

The species, here so completely described and figured, is the Alstromeria Pelegrina, Sp. Pl. 461. The virtues of this species are not ascertained, but the sensible qualities of the root rank it with the Sarsaparilla; and it appears by Feuillée's ac∣count, that there is a third species in Chili, which the natives use as a substitute for the above plant; and LINNAEUS has hence given it the trivial name of Salsilla.

115. NECTARIA FLORUM. B. M. Hall. 1762.

Dulci distendunt nectare cellas. Virgil. Georg. iv. 164. Hence LINNAEUS gave the term Nectarium to a particular gland or repository, which in most plants contains the honey. This part in flowers had been but little noticed before LINNAEUS raised it to importance; and, in his System, it affords an excellent mark of distinction, in divers genera and species.

Our author premises some short observations relating to the glands of plants in various classes, which are mostly situated on the leaves or petioles. He then proceeds to the direct design of his tract, which is to point out the several kinds of Nectaria in flowers, and to specify the different situation of this part in different classes, orders, or genera. It is therefore an instructive paper to those who would attain a more complete idea of this singular, and heretofore neglected part, the use of which, how∣ever, is as yet imperfectly ascertained.

116. FUNDAMENTUM FRUCTIFICATIONIS. J. M. Graberg. 1762.

Having briefly stated the improvement of bo∣tany, and defined it as a science, M. Graberg proceeds to the explanation of his term. Under the word Fructification, he includes not merely the Corolla, Pericarpium, and Semina, simply consider∣ed, as Tournefort had done, but also the Calyx, Nectarium, Stamina, and Pistilla. All these parts, therefore, constitute the organs of fructification, and on which the foundation of all true system must be laid. He then briefly traces the rise of system from Gesner, through the improvements of Caesalpinus, Columna, Morison, and Tournefort, down to LIN∣NAEUS, who, by defining, as above, the parts of fructification, first laid the basis of true generical distinctions. He then inlarges on specifical dis∣tinctions, and shews what constitutes varieties in plants. He proceeds to consider the generation of hybrid plants, concerning which he favours the opinion laid down in the Generatio Ambigena, N^o. 101 of this collection; that the internal struc∣ture, or parts of fructification in hybrid plants, resemble the impregnated plant, and the habit, or external parts, that which furnished the farina foecundans. A singular instance of this kind is brought from the Verbascum genus. Finally, he pro∣poses a question, whether all the species may not have sprung from one original in each genus, by hy∣brid impregnations. He thinks the contempla∣tion of the numerous species, under many African

and American genera, adds weight to his hypo∣thesis.

On the whole, this paper abounds with curious matter for speculation on this subject, and is highly worthy the regard of those who would enter more minutely into the knowledge of botany.

117. REFORMATIO BOTANICES. J. M. Reftelius. 1762.

We are here presented with a very entertaining history of the rise, progress, and present improved state of botany. To this end it is divided into three epochs: 1. Under the founders of the science after the restoration of letters. 2. Under the systematics. And, 3. under the auspices of the great Swedish botanist.

1. Among the restorers of botany, Brunsfelsius, Tragus, Gesner, Fuchsius, and Cordus, stand foremost in the list. They may be said to close with Caspar Bauhine, who by his incomparable Pinax, in which he collected all their synonyms into one work, gave use to their writings and improvement to the study, which otherwise it could not have acquired.

2. Bauhine having laid this foundation, the knowledge of plants made a rapid progress in the seventeenth century, and received vast addition from the discoveries of Cornutus, Marcgrave, and Piso, in America; from those of Herman, Rheede, and Commelin, in Asia; from Sloane, Plukenet, Pe∣tiver, and Sherard; from Tournefort, and Plumier: during which period also it was reduced to system, from the hints of Gesner; first, by Caesalpinus, and afterwards, more successfully, by Morison, Ray, and Tournefort.

3. This author dates the epoch of reformation from the first publication by LINNAEUS in 1735; and then collects together into one view the im∣provement it has received from the labours of this great man. He enumerates the several disciples of LINNAEUS, who assisted him, by their travels into foreign parts; adds a list of those writers that have followed his method; and closes with a sketch of what is yet wanting to give further perfection to the science.

118. PROLEPSIS PLANTARUM. H. Ulmark. 1760.

The theory of vegetation built by Malpighi and Grew, on the anatomy of plants, and that of Hales and others, drawn from what may be called their physiology, has not been followed in the Linnaean school. LINNAEUS early conceived the idea of an analogy between plants and animals, and speaks of vegetables also, as consisting of a medullary and cortical substance, (in the former of which the pro∣per life and principle of vegetation resides, and by which alone it is propagated) considering the latter as the organs of nourishment to the former. This idea seems also to have led him to adopt the opinion of Caesalpinus, relating to the evolution of these two parts, in the order which is mentioned in the 66th thesis; namely, that the Cortex, or outer Bark, is ultimately spent in forming the Perianthium, or Cup of the flower, besides which, it must be ob∣served, that the leaves are produced from the cor∣tical substance only; the Liber, or inner Bark, in the Corolla or Petals; the Lignum, or woody part,

in the Stamina or Chives; and the Medulla, or pithy part, in the Pistillum and Seed.

Principally to confirm and illustrate these data is the design of this thesis, which in fact is a com∣ment on a part of the 24th section of the Introduc∣tion to the second tome of the System, p. 9, con∣taining a concise view of this doctrine. Before the author proceeds to his immediate subject, he reca∣pitulates, with the forementioned, some other prin∣ciples, relating to the life and organization of vegetables, and then endeavours to prove, by appearances observable in plants, that this arrange∣ment of parts, and this evolution actually exists. As this cannot be so aptly illustrated in annual and other plants, on account of the tender texture, and quick growth, the author endeavours to exemplify it from observations made on the bud-bearing trees; in which he observes, that the full evolution of the parts, from the origin of the bud to the expansion of the flower, as the final act of vegetation in each, is a progressive work, the ac∣complishment of which requires five or six years, and that it takes place in the following order: That the Leaves, which are unconnected with the medullary substance, and derive their origin from the cortical, are the produce of the first year; and in plants and trees that are furnished with Bracte, or floral Leaves, that such are the issue of the second year; and the Perianthium, or Cup of the flower, of the third; the Petals of the fourth; the Stamina of the fifth; and the Pistil, &c. of the sixth. Our author endeavours to sustain this theory

by a number of facts and observations, tending to corroborate the doctrine advanced in this dis∣sertation.

119. FRUCTUS ESCULENTI. J. Salberg. 1763.

The design of the Plantae Esculentae, N^o 34, Ace∣taria, N^o 73, and the Macellum Olitorium, N^o 107, is in this paper pursued, and extended to the escu∣lent fruits, which are here enumerated to the num∣ber of 133, and their nature and uses briefly pointed out. To which end they are disposed into six classes, as follow:

• 1. Berries.
• 2. Plumbs.
• 3. Pomaceous Fruits.
• 4. Podded Fruits.
• 5. Grain.
• 6. Nuts.

120. PROLEPSIS PLANTARUM. J. J. Ferber. 1763.

Mr. Ferber, who is probably the same per∣son that has published Physico-geographical Tra∣vels into Italy, endeavours, in this paper, as Mr. Ulmark hath done, to illustrate and con∣firm the theory of vegetation received in the Up∣sal school.

He first treats on the food of plants; which, without entering into any subtle disquisitions re∣lating to its elementary principles and composition, is defined to be the watery tincture of the soil, re∣ceived by the roots, and transmitted to the medullary by the vascular part of the cortical substance. He establishes it as a fact, that too great an afflux of nutriment thrown into the cortical part, retards the fructification, by compressing the medullary. He

thinks this is proved by the state of luxuriant plants in general, and by the effects of depriving them of this superfluity: on which head he quotes the experiments of Mr. Fitzgerald, re∣corded in the Philos. Transact. vol. lii. p. 71, as confirming the truth of the theory here ad∣vanced.

After having established the cortical part as the organ and deposit of nutriment, he proceeds to shew, that heat alone excites to action and vigour, the life or protrusive and expansive force of the medullary part; which is ever spent in propagat∣ing the plant, by forming buds, bulbs, or seed, as its final and most perfect issue: and that this in∣tention of nature succeeds in a proportion equal to the degree of nutriment afforded by the cortical, to that of the heat administered to the medullary part respectively.

In the second chapter, M. Ferber treats on the origin and evolution of buds; in which he accedes to the doctrine of the progressive perfection of them, mentioned in the dissertation just reviewed.

The last chapter is appropriated to the Involu∣tion of Plants in the Seed, Buds, and Bulbs; in which he asserts, that in the seeds of the Nymphaea Nelumbo, the very leaves of the future plant are visible. In bulbs the rudiment of the next year's plant is also conspicuous: in like manner buds contain the perfect plant, although the evolution in these requires a longer process.

Those who would attain a complete idea of the theory of vegetation, advanced in the works of our author, are referred more particularly to the

following papers in the Amoenitates Academicae, N^o 24. Gemmatio Arborum, 63. Metamorphosis Plantarum, 101. Generatio Ambigena, 118, 120. Prolepsis Plan∣tarum; and to the Introduction to the Vegetable System.

[It may be observed, that there is a set of ex∣periments made by M. Mustel, printed in the Phil. Trans. vol. lxiii. p. 126, which seem to favour the theory of vegetation here advanced, as far at least as relates to the cortical substance being the deposit of nutriment, and the effect of warmth on the expansive and protrusive force of the me∣dullary. Yet it must be allowed that too many difficulties attend every theory on this obscurc subject.]

121. CENTURIA INSECTORUM. B. Johansson. 1763.

Insects were scarcely noticed before the time of Conrad Gesner, whose comprehensive mind extended over the whole field of nature. He, together with Mouffet, and Aldrovand, may be said to have laid the foundation of entomological science. To these succeeded another set of writers, who were princi∣pally employed in investigating the economy and surprizing metamorphoses of insects; such were Geodart, Lister, Swammerdam, and Reaumur, to whom may be added Madam Merian, who took a voyage to Surinam, with the sole view of gratifying a taste for this branch of natural history.

Nevertheless, after all the researches of these in∣genious persons, and the labours of our excellent Mr. Ray, a defect of system rendered this subject the most difficult to study of any part of na∣tural

knowledge: and it will easily be granted, that the true aera of this science commences with LINNAEUS, who very early turned his at∣tention to it, and has established that method, which has been since universally followed, and by which the history of these minuter animals has been greatly extended.

The present catalogue contains the description of an hundred rare, and mostly undescribed species, sent to LINNAEUS from Carolina, Pensylvania, Su∣rinam, and Java.

As all these zoological descriptions are supple∣mental to, and illustrative of, the author's Systema Naturae, they yet retain their value; and cannot be superseded, but by a general history of animals on the same plan.

122. LIGNUM QUASSIAE. C. M. Blom. 1763.

The Quassia Amara (Spec. Plant. p. 552, and p. 1679) or Bitter Ash, as it is called in the West In∣dies, is a tree of the decandrous class, the root of which was brought into use first at Surinam, by a negro, named Quassi, who revealed its virtues. The medicine was known, but the species and true history was long undefined, till at length a branch of the tree, with the flower and fruit, was sent to LINNAEUS from Surinam. The root is the part used; and appears to be the most pure and intense of all bitters. At Surinam it has acquired a high character in curing the intermitting, exa∣cerbating, and malignant fevers, so endemial to that country; and this (as the author asserts) in

cases where the Quinquina has failed. It is given in any form, but most commonly in an aqueous infusion, in the proportion of one drachm to a pint, the dose of which is one ounce.

The history of this drug is accompanied with a figure of the leaf, and parts of fructification. Three cases of its good effects (from trials made in Sweden) are inserted, and which are not con∣fined to fevers only.

[There is a confirmation of its virtues in febrile cases from Mr. Farley of Antigua, inserted in the Phil. Trans. vol. lviii. p. 81, in circumstances where the Peruvian bark would not stay on the stomach.]

123. RAPHANIA. G. Rothman. 1763.

The disease here described is defined in the Ge∣nera Morborum of our author to be

a spastic con∣traction of the limbs or joints, attended with convulsions, and excruciating periodical pains.

The author gives a full description of this disease from the two most capital Swedish writers on the subject. He had seen it himself, and observes, that it had frequently been epidemical in that country: moreover, that some physicians had thought it a new distemper. He has however traced it in the writings of a numerous set of au∣thors, from the year 1596 to 1727; by which it appears to have been common to other parts of Europe.

This dreadful distemper sometimes held the sick for three or four weeks, and those who perished

generally sunk under a diarrhoea, or died in con∣vulsions. Valerian, Castor, Camphor, and Antispas∣modics of the like kind, appear to have been the most beneficial remedies.

He next brings together in one view the hypo∣theses of the various authors, relating to the cause of this malady, some of whom suppose it owing to a certain constitution of the air, others to viti∣ated grain, Darnel, or the Secale Cornutum; which were all rejected as unsatisfactory by Dr. E. Rosen, one of the last and most intelligent writers on the subject. Our author says, that in Sweden it al∣ways commenced in autumn, was frequent only among the lower order of people, and consequent upon eating bread made of the new corn. Hence he sought for its origin in impure admixtures with the grain, and finally his own hypothesis attributes it to the seeds of the Raphanus Raphanistrum, (Sp. Plant. p. 935) or Charlock; and hence the name given to the disease. The dissertation closes with a figure and botanical description of the plant.

The hand of a master is no where more visible, than in the scientific manner observed by Dr. Roth∣man in drawing up the history of this disease; and it may be proposed as a model in its kind.

124. GENERA MORBORUM. J. Schroder. 1759.

Of this arrangement of diseases, as it stands in LINNAEUS'S own publication made in the year 1763, a detailed account hath been given before, to which the reader is referred.

AMOENITATES ACADEMICAE, VOL. VII. 1769. pp. 506.

125. MOTUS POLYCHRESTUS. C. Lado. 1763.

There are few who do not require rather to be reminded, than convinced of the many be∣nefits arising from proper exercise. Its signal uses, both as a preservative and restorer of health, are, in this dissertation concisely, but very strikingly delineated.

After some general physiological observations on the effects of exercise, the writer displays its efficacy as a preservative; in strengthening the body, procuring the most genial warmth, helping digestion, increasing perspiration, and promoting all the excretions in due time and proportion; in procuring the most refreshing sleep, and, in vale∣tudinary habits particularly, subduing that fruit∣ful source of disease, acidities in the first pas∣sages.

He then enumerates those diseases in which ex∣ercise is to be considered in a medicinal view. In hypochondriac cases, habitual debility, languid appetite, obstructions of the viscera, consumptions, asthma, and in various diseases from laxity, its use has been indispensable.

In speaking of the Hemicrania, he relates that LINNAEUS himself had been subject to violent pa∣roxysms of that kind, which usually held him 24 hours, with intervals rarely of little more than a week; and that these fits were excited by very slight causes, even such as the drinking only a spoonful of wine: and that after trying ineffectually various

remedies, the professor attributed the restoration of his health to the use of daily morning exercise, after drinking a large draught of pure water. A case is also related of one who, from his infancy to his 25th year, had never been free from Ascarides, but he entirely got rid of them by taking a journey on horseback, as far as Tornoa, in Lapland.

126. HORTUS CULINARIS. J. C. Tengborg. 1764.

Exhibiting a view of all those vegetables, which are, or which the author thinks might, advantage∣ously be cultivated in the fields and gardens of Sweden; and describing, in a succinct way, the manner of propagating the several kinds of grain; hops, tobacco, saffron; kitchen or boiling herbs, sallads, pot-herbs; fruit-trees and shrubs; and finally, plants for ornament; their proper soil, and the methods of guarding them against the seve∣rity of the climate.

127. HIRUDO MEDICINALIS. D. Weser. 1765.

There are nine species of Leeches described in the Systema Naturae, p. 1079. That used for me∣dicinal purposes is distinguished under the name of Hirudo (Medicinalis) depressa nigricans, supra li∣neis flavis sex: intermediis nigro-arcuatis subtus cinerea nigro-maculata. The anatomical structure and natural history of this worm, the opinion of the antients relating to it, the proper time of pro∣curing it, the method of preserving and applying it, are all discussed. After this, the author points out those diseases in which the mode of blood-letting

by means of Leeches hath been preferred to others: previous to this, however, he quotes Zacutus Lusi∣tanus for a case, where the Leech, during its ap∣plication, made its way into the Rectum, and takes occasion to recommend, in any similar instance, the immediate injection of salt water; and thinks it would be equally efficacious in the stomach, if the animal has unwarily been swallowed, which has sometimes fatally happened.

128. OPOBALSAMUM DECLARATUM. W. Le Moine. 1764.

Among several articles of the Materia Medica, of the production of which physicians had a very imperfect knowledge, none excited more curiosity than this drug, called also Balm of Gilead, and Bal∣sam of Mecca, from the place of its growth: a drug, the virtues of which were highly extolled through∣out all the East, from the most antient times. Near twenty authors are here mentioned, who have written professedly on this production, but few had seen the shrub that produced it. Prosper Alpinus says, he saw the plant growing in a cultivated state in gardens near Cairo; but it is now doubt∣ful whether that he saw was the true species, though of the same genus. We owe the full dis∣covery of the shrub which yields it to Dr. Forskal, one of those unfortunate gentlemen, who were sent to Arabia Felix, on the expedition planned by Pro∣fessor Michaelis, which did so much honour to the late Frederick V. of Denmark. He saw it growing plentifully in that country, particularly about

Medina, and transmitted a branch to LINNAEUS in 1763. It is now known to be a plant of the Mo∣nogynous order, in the Octandrous class, and belongs to the same genus with the plant that in America yields the gum Elemi. It now stands in the Sys∣tem under the name of Amyris (Gileadensis) soliis ternatis integerrimis; pedunculis unifloris, lateralibus, Mant. 65, Syst. Nat. Veg. xiii. p. 299. A com∣plete history of the shrub, and the virtues of the balsam, are exhibited; concerning which we need only observe, that modern physicians have found a substitute in other natural balsams, and therefore do not entertain so high an opinion, as the antients did, of the wonderful restorative powers of this drug. The present age hath made us acquainted with the plants which afford the Gum Elemi, Animae, and Copaiba; we yet wait for the full discovery of the Balsam of Peru, Ammoniacum, Caranna, Myrrh, Bdellium, and Sagapenum. This tract closes with a description of the plant, which LINNAEUS ho∣noured with the name of Forskalea. It is figured in Plukenet's Phyt. t. 275, f. 6, and stands among the Decandriae Pentagyneae, next to the Spergula.

129. DIAETA AETATUM. D. J. Ohrquist. 1764.

A succinct view of the changes which the hu∣man body passes through, in the several stages from the birth to extreme old age, inculcating the due observance of all those rules respecting diet and regimen, which are best adapted to give vigour to the constitution, and permanence of health,

during these vicissitudes. Pointing out also, under each period, the disorders incident thereto, and laying down proper instructions how best to escape the influence of them.

130. MORBI ARTIFICUM. N. Skragge. 1764.

It is too well known that artificers in various trades are almost necessarily subject to dangerous and sometimes lingering diseases, which frequently shorten the period of their lives. Miners, hewers of free-stone, workers of metals, painters, and various others, are notorious instances of this truth. But, as our author observes, they are not the only sufferers in this way, inasmuch as a too close application to any business or profession, will ever be attended with insalutary effects. In this con∣cise view of the diseases of tradesmen, the author professes to have made all possible use of Ra∣mazzini's work on the subject; but he has ex∣tended that author's catalogue, and availed him∣self of subsequent observations from various au∣thors, and interspersed several of his own. In brief, by confining his view, through the several employments of mankind, to the immediate ope∣ration of causes, and their effects, he has rendered this tract at the same time agreeable, instructive, and interesting.

131. LEPRA. J. Uddman. 1763.

The distemper here described has been long endemial in Norway, and in several parts of Sweden, particularly on the eastern coast of the Bothnian

Gulph, and in Finland; also in the islands of Oeland and Gothland. So long since as the year 1631, a pest∣house was erected in the parish of Croneby, for the reception of the sick of that neighbourhood. Our author defines the Lepra from LINNAEUS'S Genera Morborum, as "a distemper shewing itself in pustules, throwing off dry scales or scurf; at∣tended with moveable discoloured nodes in the flesh, and rhagades or dry fissures on the skin." N^o 272. Whether the distemper he undertakes to give the history of be the same with the Lepra Arabum or Alexandrina, the Javanensis, and the Americana, of all which he has given the charac∣ters, he does not absolutely determine, as he inclines to think it a disease various in its appearance. Being a native of Bothnia, he had frequent opportunities of inspecting it, and describes it under the follow∣ing appearances in that country.

It shewed itself in tubercles, or nodes, fixed in the fleshy parts, in the forehead, cheeks, arms, hands, and thighs; these were indolent, moveable with the finger, and of a livid hue. There were also tubercles of a livid, or sometimes brown∣ish-yellow cast, in the mouth, palate, fauces, and about the root of the tongue; ulcers in the nos∣trils; tumours or thickenings of the edges of the outer ears; thick lips; feet and hands enlarged and inflamed. And in some, ulcers, or rather fissures, on the skin, creeping, broad, and deep, with cal∣lous edges, bleeding from slight pressure or hand∣ling, but destitute of pain, as were all the nodes and tubercles, as far as the author ever observed;

but, he says, they were inclined to itch round their bases.

We cannot pursue our author through his en∣quiries into all the hypotheses relating to the cause of this disorder, howsoever ingenious; it must suf∣fice to observe, that he favours the theory of Exan∣thematic Animalcula, and, from the frequency of this disorder on the sea-coast, where the inhabitants live much upon fish, and particularly herrings, which abound with the Gordius Marinus (Syst. 1075) or Sea Hair-worm, adduces a train of argu∣ments to shew, that this distemper probably origi∣nates from these worms.

In the cure, he descants upon the viper-broth of the antients; and remarks, that the famed viper of the East is a different serpent from ours. He next treats on the inefficacy of mercurials as vermifuges, and quotes Dr. Scopoli as observing, that no people are more troubled with worms than those that work in the quicksilver-mines of Car∣niola. At length, against this obstinate and for∣midable malady, Dr. Uddman informs us, that Dr. Russel's method of cure, which consists in giv∣ing large quantities of sea-water, assisted by the other part of the process, to which were joined frictions with warm and acrid oils, had been at∣tended with more success than any other.

132. FUNDAMENTA ORNITHOLOGICA. A. P. Back∣man. 1765.

To all lovers of Ornithology this must have been an acceptable morsel, as containing the rudi∣ments

of the science according to the Linnaean method, and a full explanation of the terms therein employed. It is divided into four parts. In the first, the author gives a brief history of Ornitho∣logists, amongst whom he places Belon and Gesner, as the first authors worth attention, descending to Aldrovandus, Marcgrave, WILLOUGHBY, and RAY, before any thing like system was introduced. To these succeed Rudbeck, whose collection of paint∣ings, yet unpublished, are in the hands of M. de Geer; Albin, Catesby, and Edwards, the last of whom, from his unwearied diligence, and the op∣portunities that his situation at London afforded him, had excelled all others. To these must be added M. Brisson's publication of Reaumur's col∣lection, as also Klein, Brunniche, and Barrere.

In the second part, the anatomical structure and external form of this order of animals are described. First, the form in general; then the particular parts, explaining under each the terms used in describing them, and in forming the generical and specific characters. This part is illustrated with a plate, which has been copied into several succeed∣ing works on this subject.

The third treats on the history of birds; re∣specting their habitations, migrations, incubation, and the whole of their natural economy. To which is subjoined the method of constructing scientific descriptions, and generical characters.

The fourth exhibits a general view of the use of birds in the police of nature; in diet, and their utility to man: and here we cannot but note the Chavaria

of Jacquin, a species of the Parra (Syst. p. 260) which is trained by the Indians in the neighbour∣hood of Carthagena, who breed large flocks of poultry, that stray in the woods, to defend them against the numerous birds of prey, no one of which will dare to encounter this bird. It is never known to desert the flock, and returns every even∣ing to roost. Our author touches on the prog∣nostics of birds in presaging weather, so well un∣derstood by seamen; and finally, as beautiful and pleasurable objects to man.

133. FUNDAMENTA ENTOMOLOGIAE. A. J. Bladh. 1767.

The knowledge of insects may be said to be the last branch of natural history that raised its head; notwithstanding which, it has of late attained a high degree of perfection: nor can it be too much to attribute this to the excellent arrangement of LINNAEUS, under whose auspices it has extended it∣self beyond all other parts of zoology.

The plan of this paper is exactly that of the foregoing, and will amply satisfy those who wish to enter on the study of insects. In his first chap∣ter, Mr. Bladh gives a chronological list of 32 writers on the subject, beginning with Mouffet, who published in 1634, and ending with Schaeffer in 1767. But the substance of this dissertation has been translated and published in English by Mr. Curtis, so that any further account of this work is now superseded.

134. FUNDAMENTA AGROSTOGRAPHIAE. H. Gahn. 1767.

M. Gahn professes to have undertaken this tract, partly with a view to aid the good designs of those societies, which, to the honour of their founders, have been established in several parts of Europe, for the advancement of agriculture; with which the subject of this paper is intimately connected.

In this large natural class of plants, called Gra∣mina, are comprehended also the Cerealia or Grain, and, including all that are hitherto known, do not amount in the System of our author to fewer than 430 species; in that of others to many more. Such a number of plants, so nearly alike in their habit as these, must require numerous subdivi∣sions, and nice distinctions, to discriminate each species. To effect this is the intention of this tract, in which, after some curious preliminary observations, relating to the station and uses that nature seems to have assigned to some particular species, and a list of the common grasses, classed according to their native places, the author pre∣sents us with an historical account of the prin∣cipal writers who have treated separately on this class, exhibiting under each a brief view of their systems of classification. These are C. Bauhine, Rudbeck, Ray, and above all, Scheuchzer, who with incredible labour has described all the spe∣cies. To these might be added several other writers, who have also illustrated this branch of botany, particularly Morison and Haller. Then follows the description of the natural character

and habit of a plant of this class, intended to con∣vey a full explanation of the terms, referring to two explanatory plates, on which is engraven a flower of each genus.

Various have been the methods invented to class this tribe; our author here gives them a new dis∣position, entirely independent on the sexual system, established on the figure and number of the valves composing the Glume or Calix; and those of the flower, classed under two general heads, as they grow either in the form of Spikes or Panicles.

In all natural classes the distinctions of the genera depend on minute differences, which require very nice discriminations; the author therefore proceeds to point these out in several instances of this tribe: he has also added the exceptions that arise under the several genera in various species, an imperfection that attends all systems. He concludes with a full explanation of his tables, which are better adapted to convey to a learner a true idea of this class, than any that we are yet acquainted with; since Schreber's tables are not adapted to common use in England.

135. VARIETAS CIBORUM. A. F. Wedenberg. 1767.

The immense variety in food, which custom, necessity, and luxury have introduced, is here in a concise way displayed: the simplicity of some nations, whether arising from penury or from cli∣mate, the Apician luxury of others, and the vari∣ous effects of the culinary art, are also briefly pointed out; then follows a division of aliments into classes, thus,

• 1. Watery.
• 2. Dry.
• 3. Pinguious.
• 4. Styptic.
• 5. Acid.
• 6. Bitter.
• 7. Viscous.
• 8. Salt.
• 9. Sweet.
• 10. Acrid.

Under each are subjoined summary observations, relating to the effects of a regimen, in which any of these classes form the prevailing part; and to its tendency in producing particular diseases. The author then speaks on the great power of custom on the habit, and concludes with inculcating the Ne quid nimis, an axiom of much higher impor∣tance than any of those nice discriminations relating to the wholesome and unwholesome, which so often perplex the minds, and disturb the peace of many well-meaning people.

136. FERVIDORUM et GELIDORUM USUS. C. Ribe. 1765.

Dr. Ribe fixes the heat of the human body be∣tween 35 and 37 of the Celsian thermometer, and pronounces all foods and drinks which arise to 40, to be fervid. He considers the constant and daily use of hot aliments as an abuse that calls for the strictest animadversion; and shews, by the effects of them on the solids of the human body, their tendency to produce a variety of chronical diseases, which he here specifies. Man is the only animal accustomed to hot foods, and is almost alone affected with carious teeth. Hence he takes occasion to condemn, in a forcible manner, the cus∣tom of drinking hot tea, coffee, and chocolate, and

dissuade his countrymen from the practice of eat∣ing hot bread, boiled rice, puddings, and other like foods, to which perhaps, from the severity of the climate, the Swedes are more addicted than some other nations. He does not however con∣clude this part without pointing out those cases where tepid, and even fervid liquors, are both al∣lowable and beneficial; such are some fevers, seve∣ral of the spasmodic diseases, and those resulting from rigidity of the fibres.

In the second part, the author reprobates the use of iced creams, jellies, and drinks; and dissuades especially from a sort of food, unknown among us, though frequent in Sweden: this is congealed oysters. The pernicious quality of these he endea∣vours to prove by several cases. He is also not less decisive in condemning a kind of iced malt∣liquor, drunk in Sweden in the summer months. Observations on the diseases occasioned by the abuses of all these, and a recital of the advantages of simply cool liquors, conclude this dissertation.

137. POTUS THEAE. P. C. Tillaeus. 1765.

At the time of its publication, this treatise had perhaps the merit of being the most complete his∣tory of this shrub; occasioned by the lucky inci∣dent of its arriving safe in a vegetating state in Sweden, through the care and skill of Capt. Ekeberg, who is said to be the first that succeeded in the several attempts that had been made to introduce it into Europe. LINNAEUS had suggested the put∣ting the seeds into earth just as the ship left China;

and the success confirmed the propriety of his method.

Tea is now known to be the leaves of a plant of the monogynous order, belonging to the polyandrous class; the flower of which is succeeded by a tricoc∣cous Capsule. The writer describes the shrub at large, gives all the synonyms, and mentions those authors who have given figures of it: among these, Kaempfer's is the only exact one. It was long be∣lieved that there was but one species; but the Green Tea is now said to be the produce of another, which differs from the Bohea, in having nine pe∣tals in the flower, whereas the Bohea hath but six. It is not known to grow spontaneously else∣where than in Japan and China, in which latter kingdom it is cultivated in all the provinces from Canton to Pekin.

Mr. Tilley delivers the mode of preparing the leaves, of which we have a diffuse and most exact account by Kaempfer, who, having resided two years in Japan, was enabled to give the most com∣plete information. The origin of the use of Tea in those countries is too remote to be ascertained, and commerce has now extended its use to almost every corner of the globe. The high price of Tea, at its first introduction, induced many physicians to think of a substitute; and it is well known that Simon Pauli thought the Myrica Gale, Sp. Pl. p. 1453, to be the shrub itself. Other succedanea are men∣tioned also by our author; such as the leaves of the

Prunus spinosa,

Sp. Pl. 681. Sloe Tree.

Origanum vulgare,

Sp. Pl. 824. Wild Marjorum.

Rubus arcticus,

Sp. Pl. 708. Arctic Bramble.

Veronica officinalis,

Sp. Pl. 14. Male Speedwell.

Veronica Chamaedrys,

Sp. Pl. 17. Wild Germander.

Chenopodium Ambrosioides,

Sp. Pl. 320. Mexican sweet Blite.

Capraria biflora,

Sp. Pl. 875. Sweet-weed or Goat-weed.

To this part of our author's treatise may be ad∣ded the well-known sophistication of Tea prac∣tised by the smugglers, in some of the southern parts of this kingdom, who have reduced to a regular process the management of the leaves of the Ash and Elder particularly; which, when pre∣pared, is called Smouch, and mixed, as is said, in the proportion of one third, with the ordinary Teas. To what an extent the trade in this sophisti∣cated Tea had been carried, to the detriment of the trees, may be imagined, when the reader is informed, that an act of parliament has lately been obtained to prohibit it, under very severe penal∣ties. But to return to our author.

He next considers the sensible qualities of Tea, its fragrant odour, and styptic taste; and from its place in the System, botanically considered, with respect to the natural orders, he thinks it highly probable, that what Kaempfer relates of its narcotic quality, when green, is consonant to truth. And, from similar instances, he proves that this quality may readily be thrown off by that degree of heat which the sudden exsiccation of the leaves require.

In discussing the virtues of Tea, he observes, that the Chinese recommend the use of it in all lethargic

diseases, but condemn it in ophthalmies, colics, and palsies. From Kalm, he tells us, the Indians of North America knew not the inconveniences of carious teeth, debilitated stomachs, nor the wo∣men difficult labours, until the introduction of Tea among them. That the physicians at Ham∣burgh, Amsterdam, &c. attribute the frequency of the Leucorrhaea among the women of condition to their indulgence in this liquor. And further, that Boerhaave ascribed to the sipping hot Tea, a schirrosity in the glands of the oesophagus, which he met with on dissection, and which he thought a disease not known to the antients.

The author subjoins some observations on the important and extensive influence of Tea in a mer∣cantile view, and as an article of luxury; and concludes with the history of the introduction of the living plant into Europe, as above mentioned, hinting also at the possibility of naturalizing it in other countries. A plate of the Bohea Tea shrub is annexed.

138. POTUS CHOCOLATAE. A. Hoffman. 1765.

We are now come to the last, and what our au∣thor thinks the most salubrious, of the three ele∣gant articles of luxury that the moderns have ac∣quired by the discovery of the East and West Indies. Chocolate is the produce of an American intertro∣pical tree, flowering twice in a year, and singular in producing its fruit from the body or trunk, and not from the branches. It belongs to the Pentan∣drous order of the Polyadelphous class; and is dis∣tinguished by the name of Theobroma (Cacao) foliis integerrimis, Sp. Pl. 1100.

We are presented with three methods of prepar∣ing Chocolate, as practised by the Indians, by the Spaniards, and by others, as follow: The Indians, to one pound of the roasted nuts, put half a pound of sugar, dissolved in rose-water, and half a pound of flour of Mays, or Indian corn. The Spaniards, to six pounds of the nut, add three and an half of sugar, seven pods of vanillas, one pound and an half of flour of Indian corn, half a pound of cinna∣mon, six cloves, one drachm of capsicum, and whatsoever is thought requisite of the roucou-nut to improve the colour, together with amber∣grease or musk, to impart an agreeable scent. In the other, and more common way, to seventeen pounds of nuts are added ten pounds of sugar, twenty-eight pods of vanillas, one drachm of am∣bergrease, and six ounces of cinnamon.

The Vanillas are the pods silled with minute seeds, from a parasitical climbing plant, described under the name of Epidendrum Vanilla, Sp. Pl. 1347, belonging to the Gynandrous class, with the Orchides, and like them reputed an aphrodisiac. Spices are added to give pungency, and mitigate the oleaginous quality of the nut.

Having detailed the history of the nut, the au∣thor considers Chocolate as an aliment, and in a medicinal view. He recommends it in emaciating diseases, both as aliment and medicine; and next very strenuously in hypochondriacal cases, and in confirmation adduces that of Cardinal Richelieu, who, he says, was restored to health by living on Chocolate. He is not less copious on its good effects against the Hemorrhoids; in aid of which he

relates a singular case, communicated to him by the President himself.

139. SPIRITUS FRUMENTI. P. Bergius. 1764.

The Arabians have the credit of inventing the alembic, and the distillation of ardent spirits; which they are said to have used principally, if not at first entirely, as solvents only, to extract the vir∣tues of simples, and exhibit them in the form of tinctures. Our author observes from Raymond Lilly, that they were unknown in Europe at the commencement of the 14th century; but the dis∣tillation of spirit from fermented grain is attributed to Arnoldus de Villa Nova, about the year 1315. Soon after this time Brandy was made in Sicily, first from spoiled grapes, and very early became an article of great commerce at Venice.

Having enumerated the properties of this in∣flammable fluid from Boerhaave's chemistry, and described a method of preparing the grain for dis∣tillation, as practised in Sweden, which is different from ours, the author discusses the salutary effects of Spirits, medicinally taken, as analeptic, diuretic, cordial, and stomachic; under all which heads, he lays down apposite rules for their use. Diluted with coffee, he recommends brandy as a diuretic in calculous cases. He much prefers it to wine, as a preservative against contagious dysenteries; and asserts, that this was clearly proved among the seamen of the Swedish fleet, in the expedition of 1742. He then considers the imprudent use of it; and, from its power in coagulating the fluids and indu∣rating

the solids, deduces its effects in producing in∣flammatory fevers, consumptions, dropsy, jaundice, hemorrhoids, tremors, phrensy, &c. and concludes with some well-digested observations on the general abuse of fermented liquors, and upon their influence on society, both in a political and moral view.

140. MENTHAE USUS C. G. Laurin. 1767.

Mint is one of those vegetables which have re∣tained their character in medicine from the earliest ages, it having been used by the Greeks and Romans. England, above all other countries, abounds with plants of this genus, of which there are not less than eleven species mentioned by the English bo∣tanists as indigenous, the Pulegium, which is a true species of Mint, being included.

In the natural orders of botany, Mint is among the verticillated plants, which are in general sup∣posed to have resolvent and nervine qualities: and from these powers arise the good effects usually ascribed to this plant, in a variety of disorders here particularly specified.

141. PURGANTIA INDIGENA. P. Strandman. 1766.

After some preliminary observations relating to the opinions of the empirical and dogmatic sects in medicine, as connected with his subject, and some encomiums on the institution of hospitals, as af∣fording a field of observation and experiment to the physician, which private practice does not allow, the writer presents us with a catalogue of

such vegetables as are endued with a purgative quality, confining his tract to such as are either indigenous, or easily cultivated in the gardens of Sweden. Under each he mentions the place of growth, the part used, its preparation, the dose, the effects, and the disorders in which it has prin∣cipally been employed as a purgative. We sub∣join a summary catalogue.

1. Rhamnus Frangula, Sp. Pl. p. 280. Frangulae Cortex. Bark of berry-bearing Alder.

2. Rhamnus Catharticus, Sp. Pl. 279. Spinae Cervinae Baccae. Buckthorn Berries.

3. Linum Catharticum, Sp. Pl. 401. Purging Flax.

4. Eupatorium Cannabinum, Sp. Pl. 1173. Hemp∣agrimony. Leaves. Root.

5. Genista Tinctoria, Sp. Pl. 998. Dyers-weed. Seeds and Flowers.

6. Prunus Spinosa, Sp. Pl. p. 681. Acaciae Nostratis Flores. Flowers of Black-thorn, or Sloe∣tree.

7. Berberis vulgaris, Sp. Pl. 471. Berberry Bark.

8. Convolvulus Sepium, Sp. Pl. 218. Root of the great Bindweed.

9. Valeriana officinalis, Sp. Pl. 45. Valerian Root.

10. Bryonia alba, Sp. Pl. 1438, Bryony Root.

11. Sambucus Ebulus, Sp. Pl. 385. Root of Dwarf Elder.

12. Lichen Aphthosus, Sp. Pl. 1616. Fine green Liverwort, or aphthose Liverwort. The author relates the case of a young woman, to whom this medicine had been given as an anthelminthic,

who voided under its operation, instead of the usual intestinal worms, a large quantity of the Larvae or Maggots, of the Phalena Pinguinalis, a species of Moth, described in the System, p. 882.

13. Lycopodium Selago, 1565. Firr Club-moss.

14. Thalictrum aquilegifolium, Sp. Pl. 770. Feather∣ed Columbine, or Meadow Rue. The Root.

15. Polypodium vulgare, Sp. Pl. 1544. Polypody.

16. Viola odorata, Sp. Pl. 1324. Root. Doubtful.

17. Gratiola officinalis, Sp. Pl. 24. Hedge Hyssop.

18. Asarum europaeum, Sp. Pl. 633. Asarabacca.

19. Rheum palmatum, Sp. Pl. 531. Rhubarb.

20. Mirabilis longiflora, Sp. Pl. 252. The au∣thor thinks it probable that the Jalap of the shops is a root of this genus. Some English botanists have rather supposed it to be a Convolvulus.

21. Momordica Elaterium, Sp. Pl. 1434. Wild or Spirting Cucumber. The fecula of the Juice.

The Hedge Hyssop, and Asarabacca, are emetics; and the author thinks the root of the Sweet Violet is endued with the same quality as the Ipecacuanha, which is now pretty well determined to be of that genus. See Syst. Nat. 2d ed. xiii. p. 669.

142. SIREN LACERTINA. A. Osterdam. 1766.

A complete history of the Lizard Siren, or Mud-Inguana, of Carolina, a new amphibious, biped, eel-shaped animal, furnished both with gills and lungs; the former placed entirely without the body. This animal is so singular in its structure, as to have occasioned LINNAEUS to form a new order, under the term Meantes, which is placed between the Amphibia and Nantes. It is sometimes

seen two feet long, and sends forth a cry somewhat like that of the young of the Duck kind, but more acute and clear. It is described and figured by Mr. Ellis, in the Phil. Trans. vol. lvi. p. 189.

143. METAMORPHOSIS HUMANA. J. A. Wadstrom. 1767.

An ingenious and elaborate dissertation on the changes which the human system undergoes in the several stages of life, from the birth to extreme old∣age, divided into twelve periods. Under each of these, Man is considered, with respect to all those changes which succeed each other, in the structure and dis∣charge of the several functions of the body; or otherwise, both anatomically and physiologi∣cally; with respect to the diseases of each stage; and finally, he is throughout contemplated in re∣gard to the powers of the mind, the affections, and the passions.

This detailed view is succeeded by tables, in which, under the same periods, is delineated the different temperature of the body; the different degrees of muscular strength; the powers of mo∣tion; the appetites; affections; passions; the ex∣ercise of the mental faculties, and their aptitude to works of genius, science, and judgment; the powers of speech and oratory; and the whole closes with a Scala Aetatum, containing all the tables brought together, and scientifically opposed to each other. This paper is closely connected with, and properly accompanies, the Senium Salo∣moneum, N^o 90, and the Diaeta Aetatum, N^o 129.

144. CURA GENERALIS. J. G. Bergman. 1766.

In a foregoing part of these memoirs, a short account was given of LINNAEUS'S Theory of Physic, or his Clavis Medicinae; in which was observed the distinction that he has made between the cortical and medullary, or in other words, the vascular and nervous systems of the human body. The present dissertation is a comment on the first part of the Clavis, relating to the diseases of the vascular system. Dr. Bergman traces the immediate effects, both upon the solids and fluids, of any excess or defect in the Air, Nourishment, Motion and Rest, Sleep and Watch∣ing, Excretions and Retentions. The Passions, as be∣ing more immediately connected with the medullary, or nervous system, do not belong to his scheme. Having discussed the ill consequences of these errors to the constitution, and remarked the dis∣eases originating from thence, he turns to the con∣sideration of the old canon, "that diseases are cured by their contraries," and, agreeably to the theory of his master, that such as spring from these errors are principally the objects of dietetic medicine, and are to be cured by Sapids, he pro∣duces the several classes of Aquosa, Sicca, Acida, Amara, Pinguia, Styptica, Dulcia, Acria, Mucosa, Salsa, and shews their power in preventing and curing diseases; concluding his tract with the distinction between the rational and empirical phy∣sician.

In mentioning the scurvy, and the effects of salted meat, he relates a memorable instance of

an arthritic patient, who, after taking, in one summer, 1800 boles of Mrs. Stephens's medicine, became in the highest degree afflicted with the genuine scurvy, which he thinks might fairly be attributed to the quantity of alkaline salt contain∣ed in that medicine.

145. USUS MUSCORUM. A. H. Berlin. 1766.

The uses of this class of vegetables in well-cul∣tivated countries, and in benign climates, can be but little known; in the northern regions they are conspicuous. The writer, after having mentioned those botanists who have particularly attended to this class, and given due praise to the matchless work of Dillenius on the subject, displays the particular advantages of mosses in the general economy of nature; for instance, the terrestrial Liverworts lay the first foundation of soil on barren rocks, as the Sphagnum, and many other bog mosses, do in marshy and boggy places. In human economy, nothing is more remarkable than the utility of the rein-deer moss, in the arctic regions. Many of the liver∣worts are ingredients in dyeing; and several mosses have their place in medicine, among which parti∣cularly may be mentioned the Lichen Islandicus, Sp. Pl. 1611. Iceland, or Eryngo-leaved Liver∣wort, of the virtues of which, in consumptions, Dr. Scopoli has written a distinct treatise, published in the Annus 2^dus Historico-naturalis. Lips. 1769.

The reader will find a paper, written by the au∣thor of this volume, on the uses of this order of

plants, in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1758, vol. l. p. 652—687.

146. MUNDUS INVISIBILIS. J. C. Roos. 1767.

The subjects of this thesis have been much agi∣tated of late years by the philosophical literati, who have been skilled in the use of microscopes. It turns principally on the discoveries of the Baron Munkhausen, relating to the smut of wheat and bar∣ley, and to the dust of the Lycoperda, or Puff-balls; Agarics, and other Fungi; which he has asserted to be no other than the ova of animalcula: from whence had arisen a doubt, whether mushrooms should be ranked with vegetables or animals. LINNAEUS adopted, though with great hesitation, the Baron's opinion, as appears from his Systema Nat. p. 1326; but his sentiments on this subject, after the experiments made by our late Mr. Ellis, who, at his request, instituted a course professedly to determine this point, do not appear. The re∣sult of Mr. Ellis's enquiry proved the negative, as may be seen by his papers, published in the Phil. Trans. vol. lix. p. 138, and Gent. Magazine for 1773, p. 316. Much curious matter on this sub∣ject occurs in Mr. Roos's paper; but we conclude with an important fact, related from the Baron's book, who recommends the seed wheat to be washed in a lye made of lime and sea-salt; by which prac∣tice, for twenty years, he had secured his crop from smut, although his neighbours around him had sometimes lost a third part of theirs. In the lat∣ter

part of the thesis, the author descants on ex∣anthematic animalcula, and appears to favour that hypothesis; candidly confessing, however, the dif∣ficulties that occur, and concluding with a string of doubts, proposed by way of queries, relating to this abstruse point.

147. USUS HISTORIAE NATURALIS. M. Aphonin. 1766.

This ingenious discourse, written by a young Russian nobleman, a student at Upsal, is one of the most entertaining and best-digested papers on the subject, that this collection affords, and cannot fail to carry conviction with it. It is divided into two parts: in the first, he displays the necessity of a knowledge of natural history at large, in leading the way to improvements in all branches of agriculture, and in gardening: the utility espe∣cially of being acquainted with the indigenous plants of the country, an object greatly neglected, and which, if more attended to, must lead, as he endeavours to shew, to the improvement of woods, hedges, the culture of barren ground, wet mea∣dows; to the extirpation of hurtful plants, and the better adapting pastures to the several kinds of cattle. To illustrate this latter position, he mentions a memorable fact, related by LINNAEUS in the Iter Scanicum, of a number of goats which were perishing in an island that abounded with the Reed Bent Grass, (Agrostis arundinacea) a plant on which horses feed with avidity, and thrive

greatly. Thus also, on the other hand, goats will riot and fatten on the Meadow Sweet, (Fili∣pendula Ulmaria), whilst horses, and horned cattle especially when they are young, will not touch it.

The second part abounds with curious observa∣tions concerning the economy of domesticated ani∣mals; in treating on which he points out both the most nutritive and noxious herbs to each species; descending afterwards to domestic fowls, and the inferior parts of the animal creation, which are more particularly the objects of husbandmen. A plate is added, on which is engraven, together with a rare species of Henbane, the Actaea Cimici∣fuga, Sp. Pl. 722, famous in Russia and Tartary, beyond all other things, for expelling bugs, and some other noxious insects.

148. NECESSITAS HISTORIAE NATURALIS ROSSIAE. A. De Karamyschew. 1766.

This paper is also written by a Russian noble∣man, and is intended to excite his countrymen to a diligent cultivation of the study of natural his∣tory, as a science eminently beneficial to a rising people. To this purpose he endeavours to raise their emulation, by shewing the progress it has made in the eastern nations of Europe, displaying its beneficial influences; and by exhibiting the vast field which the empire of Russia affords. He then gives some biographical anecdotes of those who have improved the natural history of that country, under the patronage and command of their sovereigns, from the time of Peter the First.

Such were Messerchmidius, Buxbaum, Gmelin, the last of whom sojourned in Siberia from 1733 to 1743. Krascheninnikow, Martin, Steller, Amman, and others. He then recites, from the Museum Petropolitanum, a list of zoological subjects for further investigation, which, although natives of Russia and Siberia, are yet very imperfectly known. He endeavours to persuade his countrymen to the culture of a number of useful vegetables, by pre∣senting them with a long catalogue of exotics, that have been in some sort naturalized at Abo in Fin∣land, under the care of Professor Kalm. His tract concludes with a list of plants which are natives of Siberia, extracted from the MSS. of Heinzellmann, Gerber, Lerche, and Schober; all which MSS. were in the hands of LINNAEUS. A figure of a specious Siberian plant accompanies this tract. It is the Fumaria Spectabilis, Sp. Pl. p. 933.

149. RARIORA NORWEGIAE. H. Tonning. 1768.

The pen of a learned, ingenious, and skilful naturalist is visible in this agreeable specimen of natural history. The writer first traces the origin of the science among the Danes, whose monarchs have lately been its celebrated patrons. Among the principal modern writers stands Gunner, the late Bishop of Dronthem, who, to the highest merit in his sacred profession, also added an exquisite taste for natural history, and a consummate know∣ledge in that science, as his writings fully testify. Neither is Mr. J. Strom forgotten, who published, in 1762, a natural history of Sondmore, in the diocese

of Bergen. After this literary introduction, the principal intention of the writer is to exhibit lists of the more rare subjects of nature, especially such as are not common in Sweden. Agreeably to this design, we have a catalogue of the peculiar plants of Norway, the alpine, some other rare species, and particularly of the Fuci, or Sea Wracks, with which the coast of Norway abounds. Also a list, from the Dronthem Act;, tom. II. of all the American fruits, which are thrown on the Norway shore every year, and which have raised much speculation among the curious, to account for their transmis∣sion so particularly to that part of Europe. The author asks the solution of this difficulty from the learned; inasmuch as they are sometimes found in no inconsiderable quantity, and so recent as to germinate, upon being properly secured from the climate. These fruits are usually the Cassia Fistula: Anacardium, or Cushew Nuts: Cucurbitae Lagenariae▪ Bottle Gourds: Pods of the Mimosa Scandens; Sp. Pl. p. 1501, called Cocoons in the West Indies: Pods of the Piscidia Erythrina, called Dog-wood Tree by Sloane: and Coco-nuts.

The author next pursues his catalogue through all the classes of animals, using only the Linnaean trivial names, and referring to the Fauna Suecica, to Gunner, and to Strom. It may be observed, that the latter writer thinks that what deceived the fishermen, and by their means Bishop Pontoppidan, under the appearance of a serpent of the extraordinary length described in his History of Norway, was no other than a string of sturgeon, which, at the stated time of the year, follow each other in a line in immense

numbers, with only their backs above water; which might suggest the idea of the waving motion of a serpent.

The remaining part of the tract chiefly respects the medicinal plants, and the diseases of the coun∣try. An account of some vegetable productions, which form an article of commerce, being exported in considerable quantities, among which are reck∣oned the Cloud-berry, (Rubus Chamaemorus, Sp. Pl. 708), and the Lichen Islandicus, mentioned in the account of the Usus Muscorum, N^o 145. Then follows a list of medicines easily obtained, or such as are in use among the country people. Among these the good effects of the Linnaea borealis, Sp. Pl. 880, in rheumatic disorders, are well known, and much celebrated. He relates, on the authority of the President himself, that two men, who had been confined to their bed for several months by ischiatic pains, were cured in three days by a strong decoction of it. Its operation appears to have been of the sedative kind, since the patients were thrown into a sleep, which lasted sixteen or twenty hours. He confirms the opinion of the Lepra arising from the Hair Worm, as mentioned in N^o 131 of this collection; and has some obser∣vations relating to the Colica Lapponum, described in M. Montin's thesis, N^o 27. The dissertation closes with the description of an African plant, called by LINNAEUS Gunnera, in honour of the Bishop of Dronthem.

150. ITER in CHINAM. A. Sparrman. 1768.

We presume this is the same person who af∣terwards made the voyage round the world with Dr. Forster, in Capt. Cook's ship, and has since travelled over a large tract of country in southern Africa, in pursuit of those gratifications which his zeal for natural history enabled him to enjoy. The present voyage, which was begun Dec. 28, 1765, and finished July 21, 1766, was made with Capt. Ekeberg, who has been mentioned as having first introduced the tea shrub into Sweden. This epi∣tome of the voyage consists of little more than an enumeration of those subjects of natural history, which occurred to the journalist, both at land and at sea; for as he makes use of the trivial names, all descriptions are superseded; except that, in the notes, some of those imperfectly known are more amply detailed.

OBSERVATIONS, tending to shew the Utility of botanical Knowledge in Relation to Agriculture, and the feeding of Cattle: accom∣panied with a Translation of LINNAEUS'S Pan Suecus, accommodated to the English Plants, with references to Authors, and to Figures of the Plants.

THE science of botany certainly holds its most dignified station when subservient to medicine; but its utility does not terminate in this alone, though it has too long been considered as having no other connection. This, notwithstand∣ing, is but a partial, nay even an injurious idea of it, for nothing has more retarded its usefulness than this contracted notion. It has a relation, in a variety of ways, to many other arts and sciences. Among which may be mentioned the art of paint∣ing and dying; but of all others Agriculture cer∣tainly claims the strictest relation, some of its most important branches being greatly dependent upon it, and others, from an happy application of it, being perhaps capable of further emolument. The subsequent paper, it is presumed, will, in some measure, illustrate this truth. But howsoever great the real dignity and importance of this art, yet, it must be allowed, that it has not been cultivated sufficiently on scientific principles, nor advanced in equal proportion with other branches of know∣ledge. It is not many years since Dr. Home ob∣served,

that Virgil and Columella, old as they are, remained almost the only writers worth con∣sulting upon this subject. The writings of Mr. Hart, Dr. A. Hunter, Lord Kaims, Mr. Young, and of many others since published in our own nation, we hope have superseded Dr. Home's remark; and, from that laudable spirit now diffusing among us throughout Great Britain, for the improvement of Arts and Sciences, under the protection of our pub∣lic institutions, we may expect to see every branch of agriculture studied as it deserves, and attended with that success which commonly results from the right application of knowledge to the pur∣poses of human life. On the continent, the Swedes are making large and daily progress in the im∣provement of this branch of economics. In France, Mr. Du Hamel has rendered himself conspicuous by his writings on this subject; and in various parts of Europe, societies have been formed with a professed view to this end. We cannot help mentioning, with peculiar pleasure, that of Padua, over which Dr. Arduin presides, who, by the mu∣nificence of the Venetian state, has a garden allotted for the cultivation of such vegetables as they wish to subject to experiments in agriculture, dyeing, and other arts. A noble institution, and worthy of imitation!

Amidst that almost infinite variety of vegetables, with which the beneficent hand of nature has re∣plenished our earth, those which go under the general name of Grasses form the principal food of our cattle; next to these, among the natural classes of plants, none are more acceptable than the

diadelphous or leguminous herbs: of this class is the Clover, so much cultivated in England; the Saint Foin, or Cocks-head; and the Lucern, or Medic∣fodder, in France. Besides these, our horses, horned cattle, sheep, &c. will all, in their turn, eat with equal pleasure, and some with more avi∣dity, a great variety of other vegetables. Nume∣rous instances occur where one species of animals will feed greedily upon those herbs which others refuse to touch, and will even almost famish rather than eat. Some plants are highly noxious, and even poisonous, to certain kinds of animals, while they are eaten by others without the least subsequent ill effect: to instance, the Cicuta Virosa, or long∣leaved Water Hemlock, the most virulent plant which grows spontaneously in England, (but hap∣pily is not common) is fatal to cows, when, through scarcity of food, they are obliged to eat it; yet sheep and horses feed on it with impunity, and goats even greedily devour it.

—Videre licet pinguescere saepe Cicutâ Barbigeras pecudes, homini quae est acre venenum. LUCR.

Facts of this kind must, in some measure, have been obvious to the most incurious of mankind, even in the earliest ages. The first race of shep∣herds had daily instances, among their flocks, of the selection and refusal of particular herbs, and subsequent observations must have multiplied and confirmed them. But they were still only known in the general, and no experiments had been insti∣tuted to ascertain the precise species thus eaten or

rejected. The facts are, at this time, undeniable. It is well known that Flag-flowers, Hounds-tongue, Henbane, Mullein, Nightshade, Hemlock, several Docks, Arsmart, Agrimony, Celandine, several Crowfoots, Marsh Marigold, Horehound, Figwort, many Thistles, Fern, and other plants, are commonly neglected by our horses, and horned cattle, and stand un∣touched, even in pastures where it might be ex∣pected that necessity should constrain them to eat any thing. These are but a few out of many in∣stances; there are more than is commonly imagin∣ed, and it was desirable, in consequence of these observations, that a course of experiments should be instituted to elucidate this instinct, in that part especially of the brute creation which is so imme∣diately subservient to mankind. The utility of such experiments must be evident, as they must necessarily lay the foundation of farther improve∣ments in the economy of cattle. The intelligent husbandman would, by this means, have it in his power to rid his pastures of noxious and useless plants, and give room for the salubrious ones.

In this view of the affair, it will be seen that physicians are not the only persons who may study botany to advantage; many others would find, not only a fund of pleasure from this study, but numberless other advantages resulting from the knowledge of the plants of their own country. In the instance before us, science has opened the way, and surely it is not too much to say, that it evi∣dently points to greater improvements, in one of the most important branches of agriculture, as it relates to the economy of cattle. More than this

ought not to be expected from its aid. It is to the intelligent grazier and the gentleman, well versed in the knowledge of the indigenous plants, fraught with careful observation, and practised in the eco∣nomy of cattle, that the rest must be owing. No∣thing but the want of this knowledge, in such gentlemen as reside in the country chiefly, can de∣prive us of the benefit which might otherwise ac∣crue from reducing it into practice. The eradi∣cating from pastures poisonous and useless weeds, would be but one, although indeed no mean one, among many other advantages. Further than this, the husbandman would be better enabled to suit his several sorts of cattle to the different pas∣tures in his possession, more to their benefit, and consequently his own. Even in marshy grounds, where it is a difficult undertaking to mend the soil, the growth of many plants might be encouraged, and the seeds of others sown, which are highly acceptable to different kinds of cattle. By degrees too we should undoubtedly be led to the cultivation of other vegetables besides clover, as fodder; and the foregoing observations imply, that this might be done in soils and situa∣tions where that would not thrive. Our hay would in consequence be much improved; for al∣though cattle will eat those herbs among hay, which they reject while green and growing, yet it does not follow that all are in their dried state equally nutritive and wholesome. The benefits, in fine, which would arise from a diligent and general pursuit of these hints, would undoubtedly be vari∣ous and extensive, and many more, in all probabi∣lity,

in a course of years, than can at present be thought of.

Agreeably to these ideas, a beginning has been made, under the auspices of our celebrated author, whose attempt was truly laudable, and worthy of himself. To this end, it is indeed certainly the province of the botanist to make the plants of his own country the principal objects of his atten∣tion. This has been eminently the case with LIN∣NAEUS, and his country will continue to reap the fruit of his labours. The result of these experi∣ments may be seen in a paper, called PAN SUECUS, printed in the second volume of the Amoenitates Academicae, the substance of which, so far as the experiments were made with plants common to this country, will be exhibited in the subsequent pages.

LINNAEUS conceived the first design of this in∣stitution from observations made in his Dalekarlian journey, which has been mentioned in the course of the preceding pages: he observed, that his horses left untouched, among other plants, Mea∣dow-sweet, Great Wild Valerian, Lilly of the Valley, Angelica, Rose-bay Willow Herb, Marsh Cinquefoil, Mountain Crowfoot Crane's-bill, Globe Crowfoot, and various shrubs. It was not till several years after, that these experiments were instituted; in which a number of his pupils were engaged; eight or nine of whom he mentions by name, and he had himself a large share in directing and conducting them. More than two thousand experiments were tried upon the horned cattle, goats, sheep, horses, and hogs: many were repeated ten, and some twenty

times, with the sole view of determining what vegetables these several animals would eat or re∣ject. It is easy to see that numberless difficulties must arise in the prosecution of this scheme, and that imperfection, in a variety of instances, must at last attend their greatest accuracy. In the mean time, care was taken, as far as circumstances would admit, that the experiments were made as unexceptionably as possible; and it must be con∣cluded, that the result upon the whole is true, as they have a real foundation in those unerring laws of instinct, to which nature has subjected the whole brute creation. The plants were all fresh gather∣ed, not bruised in collecting, nor offered to the cattle when they were either almost famished, or glutted with variety; nor yet in the spring-time, when many of them greedily devour almost any vegetable they can get, sometimes such as are fatal to them, and which at other times they will not touch. The plants were also, in many examples, offered to several individuals of the same species.

These trials were made only with the indigenous plants of Sweden, which are (at least three fourths) the same as ours in England. The plants growing spontaneously in Sweden, exclusive of the mosses and funguses, amount to about 900 species. Of such a number, in every country, many must be very rare; it is not therefore to be expected that all these could be brought to trial. Some, although plentiful in one part of the country, would be very sparingly found in another. From the result it appeared, that the horned cattle eat of the plants which were offered to them▪ only 276 species, and

that they rejected 218. The goats, of 449 kinds, refusing 126. The sheep, of 387, refusing 141. The horses, of 262 species, refusing 212. And of those which were offered to swine, they eat 72 kinds, and refused 171.

The Pa•• Suecus, it may be presumed, is but in few hands, at least of such whom the subject most concerns. It is written in Latin, and put into the most compendious form imaginable, by inserting only the trivial names of the plants, and referring to the number in the Flora Suecica, where the sy∣nonyms are given. In this form it is almost use∣less to persons unacquainted with LINNAEUS'S writ∣ings, and from an English reader is entirely hid. It appeared of importance enough to be thrown into an English dress, to which end it was necessary to give it a form different from the original.

So far as the trials were made with plants which are common to both countries, the result may be seen in the following pages, and they amount to no very inconsiderable number. Being taken nearly in the order in which they stood in the original paper, so the sexual system is of course preserved. Yet perhaps a more apt disposition of them might have been given, by arranging them according to their usual places of growth.

In order to render it more generally intelligible and acceptable, the English name of the plant is first given, then the Linnaean generical and trivial name, by which it may instantly be found, either in LINNAEUS'S own works, or in Mr. Hud∣son's Flora Anglica. To these follow three columns. The first contains the reference to the page in Dr.

Hill's British Herbal, which it may be presumed is in many hands, and which has now superseded, in a great measure, the Herbals of Gerard and Perkinson, being better accommodated to the purposes of bo∣tanic intelligence, and furnished also with figures. The second column refers to the page in RAY'S Synopsis of British Plants, where the synonyms of the two Bauhines, and those of Gerard and Parkinson, are quoted. By this means the reader is very compendiously directed to a variety of authors on each plant. For the sake of those who wish to see an accurate figure, a reference to the Flora Danica is added, a work coming out at the expence of the King of Denmark, and intended to contain all the indigenous plants of that kingdom, of which 840 plates are already done. Of these above 500 are natives of this kingdom, on which account it supplies, so far, the want of a work of the same kind here. It must, however, be observed, that in this column, under the Grasses, those excellent tables in Morison's Historia * 1.2Plantarum Oxoniensis are referred to. The columns on the other page contain the result of the experiments, for brevity's sake expressed as in the original, by nu∣merical characters, which it will be necessary to illustrate. There is a column retained for every

species of animals with which the experiments were made in Sweden; for, although goats are not so commonly kept with us, as in that country, yet it will at least be matter of entertainment, if not of utility, to see what choice of vegetables they will make.

When this figure (1) is made use of, it denotes that the plant is eaten by that animal to which the column is appropriated; (O.) horned cattle or Oxen; (G.) Goats; (Sh.) Sheep; (H.) Horses; (S.) Swine. Two units, thus (11) denote that the ani∣mal is very fond of the plant. When the cypher (0) occurs, we are to understand that the plant is rejected by that animal. When both are found together in a column, thus (10), or (01), they denote that it was sometimes eaten and sometimes rejected: the former is supposed to signify, that it was generally eaten, but sometimes refused; the latter, the reverse. Where no figure occurs, it is to be understood that no opportunity had been taken of making a trial of that plant upon those animals. The native place of each plant is added, and the month in which it flowers, in as compen∣dious a manner as possible, as this seemed to be a requisite addition; also its duration, whether an∣nual (A.), biennial (B.), or perennial (P.). To the whole are collected and subjoined, from the last edition of the Flora Suecica, the Flora Oeconomica, RAY'S Historia Plantarum, HALLER'S Enumeratio Stirpium Helvetiae, and others, a few notes, point∣ing out particularly the noxious plants, or directing the reader's observation to any other article that seemed worthy of regard.

Notes

• * 1.1

  The country seat and garden of Mr. Clifford was at Hartcamp, about three miles from Haerlem.
• * 1.2

  On this head it is much to be regretted, that these tables are not republished separately, with the history of the Grasses and Grain annexed; a work which, if executed by a proper hand, could not but be acceptable to all lovers of rural economy. This view might be rendered still more complete, by extending it to all those plants which are par∣ticularly the objects of this paper.