Mechanick exercises: or the doctrine of handy-works. Applied to the arts of smithing joinery carpentry turning bricklayery. To which is added Mechanick dyalling: ... The third edition. By Joseph Moxon, ...

MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works

Applied to the ART of House-Carpentry.

BEING now come to exercise upon the Carpenters Trade, it may be expected, by some, that I should insist upon Archi∣tecture, it being so absolutely necessary for Builders to be acquainted with: But my An∣swer to them is, that there are so many Books of Architecture extant, and in them the Rules so well, so copiously, and so compleatly handled, that it is needless for me to say any thing of that Science: Nor do I think any Man that should, can do more than Collect out of their Books, and perhaps de∣liver their Meanings in his own Words. Besides, Architecture is a Mathematical Science, and there∣fore different from my present Undertakings, which are (as by my Title) Mechanick Exer∣cises: yet because Books of Architecture are as necessary for a Builder to understand, as the use of Tools; and lest some Builders should not know how to enquire for them, I shall at the latter end of Carpentry give you the Names of some Authors, especially such as are Printed in the English Tongue.

Some may perhaps also think it had been more proper for me in these Exercises to have introdu∣ced Carpentry before Joinery, because Necessity, (the Mother of Invention) did doubtless compel

our Fore-fathers in the beginning to use the con∣veniency of the first, rather than the extrava∣gancy of the last. I confess, I considered it my self, and had in my own Reason been persuaded to it. but that I also considered that the Rules they both work by are upon the matter in the same, in Saw∣ing, Mortessing, Tenanting, Scribing, Paring, Plain∣ing, Moulding, &c. and likewise the Tools they work with the same, though some of them some∣what stronger for Carpenter's Use than they need be for Joiner's; because Joiners work more curi∣ously, and observe the Rules more exactly than Carpenters need do. And therefore I say it was, that I began with Joinery before Carpentry; for he that knows how to work curiously, may, when he lists, work slightly; when as they that are taught to work more roughly, do with greater difficulty perform the curious and nice work. Thus we see Joiners Work their Tables exactly flat and smooth, and shoot their Joint so true, that the whole Table shews all one piece: But the Floors Carpenters lay are also by Rule of Car∣pentry to be laid flat and true, and shall yet be well enough laid, though not so exactly flat and smooth as a Table.

Yet though the Rules Joiners and Carpenters work by are so near the same, and the Tools they work with, and Stuff they work upon, the same; yet there are many Requisites proper to a Car∣penter, (especially a Master Carpenter) that a Joiner need take little notice of, which, after I have described the Carpenters Tools that are not exprest among the Joiners, I shall speak to.

§ 1. Of several Tools used in Carpentry, that are not used in Joinery. And first of the Ax.

THe Ax marked A in Plate 8. is (as you see) different from what the Joiners Hatchet is,

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both in Size and Form; theirs being a light Hatchet, with a Basil edge on its left side, because it is to be used with one hand, and therefore hath a short Handle: But the Carpenter's Ax being to hew great Stuff, is made much deeper and heavier, and its edge tapering into the middle of its Blade. It hath a long Handle, because it is used with both their Hands, to square or bevil their Timbers.

When they use the Ax, the Timber hath com∣monly some Bauk or Log laid under it near each end, that the edge of the Ax may be in less danger of striking into the ground, when they hew near the bottom of the Timber. And they commonly stand on that side the Timber they hew upon.

§ 2. Of the Adz, and its use.

THe Adz marked B in Plate 8. hath its Blade made thin, and somewhat arching. As the Ax hath its edge parallel to its Handle, so the Adz hath its edge athwart the Handle, and is ground to a Basil on its inside to its outer edge: Wherefore when it is blunt they cannot well grind it, unless they take its Helve out of its Eye.

Its general Use is to take thin Chips off Tim∣ber or Boards, and to take off those Irregularities that the Ax by reason of its Form cannot well come at; and that a Plane (though rank set) will not make riddance enough with.

It is most used for the taking off the Irregulari∣ties on the framed Work of a Floor, when it is framed and pin'd together, and laid on its place; for that lying flat under them, the edge of the Ax being parallel to its Handle (as aforesaid) cannot come at the Irregularities to take them off; but the Adz having its edge athwart the Handle will. Again, upon some Posts framed upright, and range with other framed Work close to it,

the edge of the Ax cannot come at the Irregulari∣ties for the reason aforesaid, but the Adz will. And the like for the Irregularities of framed Work on a Ceiling, &c.

When they work upon the framed Work of a Floor, they take the end of the Handle in both their Hands, placing themselves directly before the Irregularity, at a small Distance, stradling a little with both their Legs, to prevent Danger from the edge of the Adz, and so by degrees hew off the Irregularity. But if they hew upon an Up∣right, they stand directly before it.

They sometimes use the Adz upon small thin Stuff, to make it thinner, (but this is many times when the Ax, or some other properer Tool, lies not at hand) and then they lay their Stuff upon the Floor, and hold one end of it down with the Ball of the Foot, if the Stuff be long enough; if not, with the ends of their Toes, and so hew it lightly away to their size, form, or both.

§ 3. Of Carpenters Chissels in general.

THough Carpenters for their finer Work use all the sorts of Chissels described in the Art of Joinery yet are not those sorts of Chissels strong e∣nough for their rougher and more common Work, and therefore they also use a stronger sort of Chissels; and distinguish them by the name of Socket-Chissels: For whereas those Chissels Joiners use have their wooden Heads made hollow to receive the Iron Sprig above the Shoulder of the Shank, Carpen∣ters have their Shank made with an hollow Socket at its Top, to receive a strong wooden Sprig made to fit into the Socket, with a square Shoul∣der above it, the thickness of the Iron of the Socket, or somewhat more; which makes it much more strong, and able to endure the heavy blows of the Mallet they lay upon the head of the Chis∣sel.

And the Shanks and Blades are made strong∣er for Carpenter's Use than they are for Joiners.

Of these Socket-Chissels they have of the several sorts described in Joinery, though not all several∣ly distinguished by their Names; for they call them Half-Inch, Three-quarter-Inch Chissels, Inch and Half, Two-Inch, to Three-Inch Chissels, according to the breadth of the Blade. But their Uses are the same mentioned in Joinery, though the manner of using them be somewhat different too: For, as I told you in Joinery, the Joiners press the edge of the Blade into the Stuff, with the strength of their Shoulders, but the Carpenters with the force of the blows of the Mallet. And the Joiners guide their Chissels differently from what the Carpenters do their Socket-Chissels; for the Joiners hold the Shank and Blade of their Chissels, as I described in Joinery, Sect. 11. but the Carpenters hold the Shank of their Chissels in their clutched left Hand, and beat upon the Head with the Mallet in the right. See the Figure of Socket-Chissel in Plate 8. C. with its Head a out of the Socket.

§ 4. Of the Ripping-Chissel, and its Use.

THe Ripping-Chissel described in Plate 8. D. is a Socket-Chissel, and is about an Inch broad, and hath a blunt Edge. Its Edge hath not a Basil, as almost all other Chissels have, and therefore would more properly be called a Wedge than a Chissel But most commonly Carpenters use an old cast off Chis∣sel for a Ripping-Chissel.

Its Office is not to cut Wood, as others do, but to rip or tear two pieces of Wood fastned together from one another, by entering the blunt Edge of it between the two pieces, and then knocking hard with the Mallet upon the head of the Handle, till you drive the thicker part of it between the two pieces, and so force the power that holds

them together (be it Nails, or otherwise) to let go their hold: For its blunt Edge should be made of Steel, and well tempered, so that if you knock with strong blows of the Mallet the Chissels Edge upon a Nail (though of some considerable Sub∣stance) it may cut or brake it short asunder. If you cannot, at once, placing the Ripping-Chissel, part the two pieces, you must use two Ripping-Chissels, placing the second at the remotest en∣trance in the breach, and driving that home, will both open the breach wider, and loosen the first Ripping-Chissel, so that you may take it again, and place it farther in the breach: And so you must continue edging farther and farther, till you have separated your intended pieces.

It is sometimes used when Carpenters have com∣mitted Error in their Work, and must undo what they did, to mend it. But it is generally used in all Alterations, and old Work.

§ 5. Of the Draw-knife, and its Use.

THe Draw-knife described Plate 8. E. is seldom used about House-building, but for the ma∣king of some sorts of Houshold-stuff; as the Legs of Crickets, the Rounds of Ladders, the Rails to lay Cheese or Bacon on, &c.

When they use it, they set one end of their Work against their Breast, and the other end a∣gainst their Work-bench, or some hollow Angle that may keep it from slipping, and so pressing the Work a little hard with their Breast against the Bench, to keep it steddy in its Position, they with the Handles of the Draw knife in both their Hands, enter the edge of the Draw-knife into the Work, and draw Chips almost the length of their Work, and so smoothen it quickly.

§ 6. Of Hook-Pins, and their use.

THe Hook-Pin is described Plate 8. F. a the Pin, b the Hook, c the Head. Its Office is to pin the Frame of a Floor, or Frame of a Roof to∣gether, whilst it is framing, or whilst it is fitting into its Position. They have many of these Hook-Pins to drive into the several Angles of the Frame. These drive into the Pin-holes through the Mor∣tesses and Tennants, and being made Taper, do with a Hammer striking on the bottom of it knock it out again; or they most commonly strike under the Hook, and so knock it out. Then if the Frame lie in its place, they pin it up with wooden Pins.

§ 7. Of the Level, and its use.

THe Level described in Plate 8. G. aa the Le∣vel, b the Plumbet, c the Plumb-line, dd the Perpendicular mark'd from the top to the bottom of the Board. The Level is from two to ten Foot long, that it may reach over a considerable length of the Work. If the Plumb-line hang just upon the Perpendicular dd, when the Level is set flat down upon the Work, the Work is Level: But if it hang on either side the Perpendicular, the Floor, or Work, must be raised on that side, till the Plumb-line hang exactly upon the Perpendicular.

§ 8. Of the Plumb-line, and its use.

THe Plumb-line is described in Plate 8. H. a the Line-Rowl, b the Line. It is used to try the upright standing of Posts, or other Work that is to stand Perpendicular to the Ground Plot; and then they draw off so much Line as is necessary, and fasten the rest of the Line there, upon the Line-Rowl with a Slip-knot, that no more Line turn off· They hold the end of the Line between

their Finger and Thumb half the Diameter of the Line-Rowl off one corner of the Post, or Work; and if the Line and Corner of the Post be parallel to each other, the Post is upright: But if the Post be not parallel to the Line, but its bottom stands more than half the Diameter of the Line-Rowl from the Line, the Post hangs so much over the bottom of the Post on that side the Line bears off, and must be forced backwards till the side of the Post and the Line become parallel to each other. But if the bottom of the Corner of the Post stands out from the top of the Line, the Post must be forced forwards to comply with the Line.

§ 9. Of the Hammer, and its Use.

THe Hammer is described in Plate 8. I. a the Face, b the Claw, cc the Pen at the return sides of the Claw. This Tool was forgot to be described in Joinery, though they use Hammers too, and therefore I bring it in here. Its chief Use is for driving Nails into Work, and drawing Nails out of Work.

There is required a pretty skill in driving a Nail; for if (when you set the point of a Nail) you be not curious in observing to strike the flat face of the Hammer perpendicularly down upon the perpendicular of the Shank, the Nail (unless it have good entrance) will start aside▪ or bow, or break; and then you will be forced to draw it out again with the Claw of the Hammer. There∣fore you may see a reason when you buy a Ham∣mer, to chuse one with a true flat Face.

A little trick is sometimes used among some (that would be thought cunning Carpenters) pri∣vately to touch the Head of the Nail with a lit∣tle Ear-wax, and then lay a Wager with a Stran∣ger to the Trick, that he shall not drive that Nail up to the Head with so many blows. The

stranger thinks he shall assuredly win, but does assuredly lose; for the Hammer no sooner touches the Head of the Nail, but instead of entring the Wood it flies away, notwithstanding his utmost care in striking it down-right.

§ 10. Of the Commander, and its Use.

THe Commander is described in Plate 8. K. It is indeed but a very great wooden Mallet, with an Handle about three foot long, to use in both the Hands.

It is used to knock on the Corners of Framed Work, to set them into their position. It is also used to drive small wooden Piles into the ground, &c. or where greater Engines may be spared.

§ 11. Of the Crow, and its Use.

THe Crow is described in Plate 8. L. a the Shank, bb the Claws, c the Pike-end. It is used as a Lever to lift up the ends of great heavy Timber, when either a Bauk, or a Rowler, is to be laid under it; and then they thrust the Claws be∣tween the Ground and the Timber, and laying a Bauk, or some such Stuff behind the Crow, they draw the other end of the Shank backwards, and so raise the Timber.

§ 12. Of the Drug, and its Use.

THe Drug described in Plate 9. A. is made some∣what like a low narrow Carr. It is used for the carriage of Timber, and then is drawn by the Handle aa, by two or more Men, according as the weight of the Timber may require.

There are also some Engines used in Carpentry, for the management of their heavy Timber, and hard Labour, viz. the Jack, the Crab, to which belongs Pullies and Tackle, &c. Wedges, Row∣lers, great Screws, &c. But I shall give you an

account of them when I come to the explanation of Terms at the latter end of Carpentry.

§ 13. Of the Ten-foot Rod, and thereby to measure and describe the Ground-plot.

WE shall begin therefore to measure the Ground-plot, to which Carpenters use a Ten-foot Rod for Expedition, which is a Rod about an Inch square, and ten foot long; being divided in∣to ten equal parts, each part containing one foot, and is divided into 24 equal parts, and their Sub-divisions.

With this Rod they measure the length and breadth of the Ground-plot into Feet, and if there be odd Inches, they measure them with the Two-foot Rule. Their measure they note down upon a piece of paper, and having considered the situa∣tion of the Sides, East, West, North and South, they draw on paper their several Sides accordingly, by a small Scale, either elected, or else made for that purpose. They may elect their Two-foot Rule for some plots; for an Inch and an half may commo∣diously serve to set off one Foot on some small Ground-plots, and then you have the Inches to that Foot actually divided by the Marks for the half quarters on the Two-foot Rule. But this large Scale will scare serve to describe a Ground-plot a∣bove ten Foot in length, because a small sheet of Paper is not above 15 or 16 Inches long, and therefore one sheet of Paper will not contain it, if the Ground-plot be longer: Therefore if you make every half quarter of an Inch to be a Scale for two Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 20 Foot in length: And if you make every half quar∣ter of an Inch to be a Scale for four Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 40 Foot. And thus by di∣minishing the Scale, the sheet of Paper will con∣tain a greater number of Feet.

But having either elected, or else made your Scale, you are to open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale your Ground-plot hath in length, and then transfer that Distance to your paper, and to draw a straight Line between the two points, and mark that straight Line with East, West, North or South, according to the situation of that side of the Ground-plot it represents. Then a∣gain open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale one of the adjoining Sides contains, and transfer that Distance also to your paper, and draw a Line between the two points, and note its situation of East, West, North or South, as before. Do the like by the other Sides; and if either a Quirk, or any Addition, be added to the Build∣ing, on any side of your Ground-plot, you must de∣scribe it also proportionably.

Then you are to consider what Apartments, or Partitions, to make on your Ground-plot, or second, or third Story, and to set them off from your Scale, beginning at your intended Front. As for Example, Suppose your Ground-plot be a Long-square, 50 Foot in length, and 20 Foot wide: This Ground-plot will contain in its length two good Rooms, and a Yard behind it 10 Foot long. If you will, you may divide the 40 Foot into two equal parts, so will each Room be 20 Foot square: Or you may make the Rooms next the Front deeper, or shallower, and leave the remainder for the Back-Room: As here the Front-Room is 25 Foot, and the Back-Room 15 Foot deep, and a setting off of 8 Foot broad and 10 Foot long tak∣ing out of the Yard, for a Buttery below Stairs (if you will) and Closets above Stairs over it. But what width and depth soever you intend your Rooms shall have, you must open your Compasses to that number of Feet on your Scale, and set off that Distance on the East, West, North or South,

Line, according to the Situation of that side it re∣presents on your Ground-plot. If you set it off the East Line, you must also set it off on the West; if on the North Line, you must also set it off on the South Line: Because between the two Settings off on the East and West Lines, or North or South Lines, you must draw a straight Line of the length of your intended Partition. And in this manner you must from every Partition draw a Line in its proper place on the Paper, by measuring the Dis∣tances each Partition must have from the outside of the Ground-plot.

And thus you are also to describe by your Scale your Front, and several sides of the Carcase; allowing the Principal Posts, Enterduces, Quar∣terings, Braces, Gables, Doors, Windows, and Orna∣ments, their several Sizes, and true Positions by the Scale: Each side upon a Paper by it self: Un∣less we shall suppose our Master-Workman to un∣derstand Perspective; for then he may, on a sing∣gle piece of Paper, describe the whole Building, as it shall appear to the Eye at any assigned Sta∣tion.

§ 14. Of Foundations.

HAving drawn the Draft, the Master-Work∣man is first to cause the Cellars to be dug, if the House shall have Cellars. And then to try the Ground, that it be all over of an equal firm∣ness, that when the weight of the Building is set upon it, it may not sink in any part. But if the Ground be hollow or weaker in any place, he strengthens it, sometimes by well ramming it down, and levelling it again with good dry Earth, Lime-Core, Rubbish, &c. or sometimes with ram∣ming in Stones, or sometimes with well Planking it; or most securely by driving in Piles. But driving in of Piles is seldom used for Timber

Houses, but for Stone, or Brick Houses, and that but in few places of England neither, but where the Ground proves Fenny, or Moorish. Therefore a farther account shall be given of Foundations, when I come to exercise upon Masonry, &c.

Then are the Celler-Walls to be brought up by a Brick-layer with Brick; for small Houses two Bricks thick, for bigger two and an half Bricks thick, or three or four Bricks thick, according to the bigness of the House, and quality of the Ground, as I shall shew when I come to Exercise on Bricklaying.

But if the House be designed to have no Cellars (as many Country-Houses have not) yet for the better securing the Foundation, and preserving the Timber from rotting, Master-Workmen will cause three, or four, or five course of Bricks to be laid, to lay their Ground-plates upon that Founda∣tion.

The Foundation being made good, the Master-Workman appoints his Under-Workmen their se∣veral Scantlins, for Ground-plates, Principal Post••, Posts, Bressummers, Girders, Trimmers, Joysts, &c. which they cut square, and frame their Timbers to, as has been taught in the several Exercises up∣on Joinery, (whither I refer you) and there set them up, each in its proper place, according to the Draft.

The Draft of a Foundation I have described in Plate 10, according to a Scale of eight Foot in an Inch; where you have the Front AB 20 Foot long, the sides AC and BD 50 Foot long. The Shop, or first Room, EE 25 Foot (as aforesaid) deep. I make the first Room a Shop, because I in∣tend to describe Shop-windows, Stalls, &c. though you may Build according to any other purpose: The Kitching, or Back-Room FF 15 Foot deep. A Buttry or Closet, taken out of the Yard, marked G,

10 Foot deep, and 8 Foot wide: H a Setting off in the Yard, 4 Foot square for the House of Office. I Leaving way in the Shop for a Stair-Case 6 Foot, and 11 Foot. K The Yard. L The Sink-hole 1 Foot square. M Leaving way in the Kitching 6 Foot deep, and 4 Foot wide for the Chimneys.

I do not deliver this Draft of Partitions for the most Commodious for this Ground-plot, nor is the House set out designed for any particular Inhabitant; which is one main purpose to be considered of the Master-Workman, before he make his Draft; for a Gentleman's House must not be divided as a Shop-keeper's, nor all Shop-keepers House a-like; for some Trades require a deeper, others may dispence with a shallow∣er Shop, and so an Inconvenience may arise in both. For if the Shop be shallow, the Front Rooms upwards ought to be shallow also: Because by the strict Rules of Architecture, all Partitions of Rooms ought to stand directly over one another: For if your Shop stands in an eminent Street, the Front Rooms are commonly more Airy than the Back Rooms; and always more Commodious for observing publick P••ssages in the Street, and i•• that respect it will be inconvenient to make the Front Rooms shallow: But if you have a fair Pro∣spect backwards of Gardens, Feilds, &c. (which seldom happens in Cities) then it may be conve∣nient to make your Back-Rooms the larger for Entertainment, &c. Bu•• I shall run no farther in∣to this Argument; for I shall leave the Master-Workman to consult Books of Architecture, and more particularly the Builder, which, in this case, they ought all to do.

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