The history of religion: particularly of the principal denominations of Christians, ... Containing a succinct and genuine account of their original and present constitution, discipline, doctrines, worship, and ceremonies: ... By an impartial hand. [pt.1]

CHAP. I. Of the promulgation of Christianity. The establishment of churches, particularly of the church of Rome: con∣taining the most remarkable transactions of that church, and the variations in the constitution, doctrine, wor∣ship, and ceremonies thereof, for seventeen centuries.

CENTURY THE FIRST.

WHEN man was sunk into ignorance and superstition, and there were scarce any re∣mains of the uncorrupt religion of nature; when the powers of reason and philosophy were either not employed, or their efforts proved ineffectual to recover mankind to the knowledge of the one true God, the maker and governor of the universe, and to give them just and worthy notions of his perfections and providence, and the worship due to him. To restore religion to its native purity and lustre; to settle mora∣lity and the social virtues upon their true and native foundation, and to give divine laws a proper sanction and influence, the supreme God and Father of all,

who, at sundry times, and by divers methods of divine revelation, spake unto the fathers by the mouth of his holy prophets, did, in the fulness of time, and in the riches of his grace, speak unto us with peculiar authority and excellence by his own Son.

This great event was predicted by many ancient prophecies, and ushered in with seraphic joy; an angel proclaiming his advent with repeated Hallelu∣jah! Glory to God in the highest! on earth, peace and good will towards men!

This event came to pass in the reign of the emperor Augustus, which, with the consequent fall of heathenish idolatry, and the conversion of the Gentiles by the preaching of the gospel, was as amazing a revolution as ever happened in the world, and is with propriety stiled the Christian Aera or Epocha.

When the kingdom of the Messiah approached, John the Baptist was appointed and sent by God, to preach and exhort his hearers to repentance, and to forsake every course of vice, and thereby to prepare their minds for the reception of that dispensation, and the fit sub∣jects of that kingdom, in which eternal and immutable righteousness should be chiefly and ultimately recom∣mended.

And when, in divine wisdom, our Lord was bap∣tised and entered on his public ministry, we find his doctrines suitable to the dignity of his character and mission, and to the excellent and important end of his coming; of which it may be necessary to give a general account.

Jesus Christ, the great author and founder of the Christian faith, not only explained and inculcated the great principles and duties of natural reli∣gion, * 1.1 spiritual adoration, purity and inte∣grity of heart, unblameableness of life and conversation: The essence of all which he declares to be love intensely towards God, and extensively towards men, included in living soberly, righteously, and

godlily. * 1.2 But he lays open, by his public ministry, his divine character and mission, confirmed by incon∣testable proofs, in order to awaken the attention of mankind, and engage them upon a rational conviction to become his disciples and followers * 1.3; in order to which he taught and instructed his audience, what were the great principles and duties of his gospel — repentance towards God, * 1.4 and faith in him, as the Son of God, and the only mediator between God and man—strictly enjoin∣ing an unfeigned, impartial, uniform, and persevering obedience, an entire submission to his laws, as necessary to constitute us christians, the subjects of his kingdom, and entitle us to the privileges and rewards promised in his gospel. This is called, the doctrine according to godliness § 1.5.

Jesus Christ having thus begun to establish his king∣dom, and prescribe rules to his subjects and votaries, in order the better to answer the important purposes of religion, recommended, and enjoined, their uniting together in communities for public worship, and the increase of their knowledge and virtue. He likewise instituted two rites, * 1.6 commonly called Posi∣tive institutions, to be observed, viz. baptism and the Lord's supper; the former as a rite whereby they were publicly to profess their disciple∣ship to him ‖ 1.7; the latter, as a memorial of his death † 1.8, which he was shortly to submit to, in obedience to the divine will, for their salvation ‡ 1.9; and that he should rise again as the pledge and assurance of the resurrection

of all men, and of the infallible accomplishment of the promises of reward, or denunciation of future punish∣ment, which were the sanction of his gospel ‖ 1.10.

It was Christ's appointment, that people should first be proselyted and gained to profess themselves his dis∣ciples; * 1.11 then to be admitted to outward communion; and then were further taught and required, to observe all things whatso∣ever he had commanded, these constituted the members of Christ's church. And without a supplement to the New Testament, proof will be wanting, that Jesus Christ hath vested any with authority to alter or make void his original institution * 1.12.

And if we examine the writings of the New Testa∣ment, we shall find that one end and design of our Lord, in laying a foundation for those friendly societies, * 1.13 was, that his disciples being united, and living under the power and influence of his gospel, might be actuated by a friendly and brotherly af∣fection, to encourage, support and comfort each other under every difficulty, and, by a good example, to provoke one another to love and to good works.

Another valuable purpose intended to be answered hereby, was, that those societies might be lights to the world, become public examples of virtue, and thereby recommend the gospel to more general accep∣tance. Christian societies are intended to be like a city set on a hill, that cannot be hid; that is, they are in∣tended to be a collection of persons, who for their plainness and simplicity, their justice, honesty, and in∣tegrity; their modesty, temperance, and sobriety; their peaceable, and quiet, their loving, friendly, and bene∣volent behaviour, may be an evidence of the blessed effects of the gospel of Christ.

This is indisputably evident from the general tenour of our Lord's discourse in his excellent sermon on the mount; * 1.14 and from thence we find what our Lord means, by believing in him; not a bare assent to the truth of this propo∣sition, that Jesus is the Christ; but he means by it, the attending to that message which he was sent to deliver to the world, and the conforming our minds and lives according to it: and having thus shewn what temper and behaviour his disciples and followers ought to put on, he represents to them the mighty consequence of such temper and actions. Mat. vii. 21, 22, 23. Not every one that saith unto me, Lord! Lord! shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doth the will of my Father, which is in Heaven. And our Lord, ver. 24, 25, says, Therefore, whoever heareth these sayings of mine, and doth them, I will liken him to a wise man who built his house upon a rock; hereby intimating, that it was the Christians best security in times of trial, not merely professing Christ, or giving him the highest appellation, nor even prophesying in his name, would recommend them to the rewards pro∣mised in his gospel, without a temper of mind and course of life conformable thereto.

To believe in, and submit to be governed by the laws of Christ, are what denominate a Christian, and contract the relation betwixt him and them, and which constitute him the head, and they the members of his body; so that Christians, as Christians, have no other head, that is, they have no other authoritative power or governor over them, but their one common head or governor, viz. Christ Jesus, our Lord; they have no other law, considered as christians, but the laws of Christ to direct their behaviour by.

From hence we see what is to be understood by the term universal or catholic church, * 1.15 viz. that it includes all those who, through∣out the face of the whole earth, profess faith in

Christ, and acknowledge him to be head and lord of all, and submit to him as such ‡ 1.16. Thus Irenaeus speaks of the church dispersed throughout the whole world.

The church of Christ, or the kingdom of Christ, is the number of men, whether small or great, whether dispersed or united, who truly and sincerely are subjects to Jesus Christ alone, as their lawgiver and judge, in matters relating to the favour of God, and their eternal salvation † 1.17. From hence it is plain wherein the unity of faith, at this time, did consist. Not in an uniformity of rites and customs, in which the eastern and western churches greatly differed; but in an harmonious assent to the essential and fundamental doctrines ‖ 1.18.

Christ is therefore represented as the Christian's patern, an excellent and worthy example of every good word and work. * 1.19 Christ preached his own life, and lived his own doctrine, and thereby he was at once a standing monument of the practicableness of virtue, and of the present peace and happiness that flows from it; in him we have an example of a quiet and peaceable spirit of modesty and uprightness, of benevolence and charity towards men, and of devotion and piety towards God, in which, so far as his disciples are careful to imitate their lord and master, they would recommend his doctrines to the world.

Christ did not lay a foundation by his doctrine, or encourage by his example, that, among his Disciples and followers, some should be singled out from their brethren, to be possessed of great revenues, live in stately palaces, wallow in luxury and ease, and lord it over those by whose labours they are maintained; placed on thrones, or garnished stalls, and seats of honour, assuming and exercising dominion over their

brethren; and that others should be subject to them, bow down to them, and call them Rabbi! Rabbi! as though they were invested with divine authority and in∣fallibility, that, on the contrary, he has strictly forbid it, Matt. xx. 25, 26, 27, 28. But Jesus called them (viz. his disciples) unto him, and said, Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are great exercise authority upon them; but it shall not be so among you; but whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister, and whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant; even as the Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, chap. xxiii. 8, 9, 10. But be not ye called Rabbi; for one is your master, even Christ; and all ye are brethren. And call no man your fa∣ther, upon the earth; for one is your father, which is in heaven: neither be ye called master, for one is your master, even Christ * 1.20.

As Christ proposed his own example for his follow∣ers to imitate; so, in a particular and special manner, he recommended humility, and gave them an example of his own great condescension, in performing the meanest office to his disciples, in the instance of washing their feet, which is related at large, and with the plainest injunction to his disciples, to go and do likewise, John xiii. 4, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.

But as our Lord foresaw, from the most probable circumstances, that there would be some difference of sen∣timent, some whose principles and conduct would con∣tradict the genuine simplicity of his gospel, * 1.21 he left some farther directions, by which his disciples should regulate their conduct to∣wards each other, under those circumstances; and in the strongest terms recommends love to one another, as the criterion, or characteristic of their discipleship to him, John xiii. 35. and forbids rash judging and cen∣suring

one another, as inconsistent with that character, and enjoins them to be at peace among themselves, as they had professed to acknowledge but one master, and to be united by that profession as brethren, Matt. vii. 1. Mark ix. 5. and Matt. xxiii. 8.

And as if our Lord had particularly intended to guard all those who called themselves his disciples, against persecution for conscience sake, and of destroying mens lives under the pretence of promoting the cause and in∣terest of his gospel, he strictly commands that the tares and the wheat grow together till the harvest.

Jesus Christ hath likewise given Christian societies some cautions and directions, with respect to their de∣votions, Matt. vi. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. But when ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathens do, * 1.22 for they think they shall be heard for their much speaking; be not ye therefore like unto them; for your Father knoweth what things ye have need of before ye ask him. After this manner therefore, pray ye. Our Father which art in heaven, &c. Whe∣ther we consider this as a form of prayer, or only as a guide and a direction to Christian societies, with re∣spect to the object and the subject of their prayers; the dispositions and qualifications of the persons pray∣ing, and the grounds of their acceptance with God, it comes to the same, because the same useful instruc∣tions are held forth in either case. Here Christians are taught to direct their prayers to God the Father, whose paternal kindness disposes him to do more abundantly for his dutiful children than they can ask or think.— Another encouraging motive to prayer, which our Lord gave to his disciples, was, that they should ask the Father in his name, John xvi. 23. Whatsoever ye shall ask the Father in my name, he will give it you; here∣by assuring them that God the Father had dignified his own Son, * 1.23 by the acceptance of him, as the alone mediator between himself and his creatures.

Another encouraging motive which our Lord gave to his professed disciples, was the promise of divine assistance, in aid to the weakness of human nature, to co-operate with their sincere endeavours after virtue. I will pray the Father, says our Lord, and he will give you another comforter, which will abide with you for ever, John xiv. 15, 16, 17 * 1.24.

Thus we see the foundation of the Christian church, as it was laid by Jesus Christ himself: what were the qualifications requisite to constitute the members of it; what were the ends to be proposed and answered by such societies; and what were the benefits that would arise from thence; namely, that his voluntary and faithful persevering followers, should enter into the kingdom of heaven, and enjoy eternal life.

And that the gospel might be preached to all na∣tions, and that the Gentiles, as well as the Jews, might be brought under its influence, and consequently might share in its benefits, * 1.25 Christ chose twelve men, (of which one proved a traitor to him, and to fill up whose place Matthias was chosen) to be with him in his preaching and ministry among the Jews, to be witnesses of what he both taught and did, and whom he intended to appoint and qualify to preach the same gospel to the rest of mankind. And accordingly Christ, after he was put to death by the Jews and Romans, rose again from the dead, on purpose that he might strictly charge and command, and that he might excite and enable these his apostles to preach his gospel as aforesaid, and thereby pursue the great end and purpose of his coming. Luke xxiv. 26, 27, 28, 29. Thus it is written, and thus it behoved Christ to suffer, and arise from the dead the third day, and that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among

all nations, beginning at Jerusalem. And ye are witnesses of these things; and behold I send the promise of my Father unto you, but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem until ye shall be endued with power from on high. This promise of the Father, or the enduing them with power from on high, was made good to them at the feast of Pentecost. Matt. xxviii. 18, 19. And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth: go ye therefore and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. To the persons before-mentioned were afterwards added two more, viz. Paul and Barnabas, that in the exercise of their ministry, up and down the world, these fourteen apostles might offer to all, without distinction, the gospel of Christ, and by their preaching and example encourage others voluntarily to become Christians.

The publication of the gospel being ordained as the means to call, and engage, and prevail with sinners, in consideration of the proofs thereby given, and the be∣nefits therein offered, to believe in Christ as the promised Messiah, and to take him with their whole hearts to be their sole teacher, lawgiver, and judge; to make open pro∣fession of that faith and self-dedication to him, and to love unfeignedly all his disciples, as they would be the members of Christ's church or kingdom: * 1.26 the banner of a Christian is not the picture of a cross hung upon a pole, or made upon his forehead; but it is a virtuous and unblameable conversation, or a mind and life con∣formed to the gospel of Christ.

And accordingly we find that, pursuant to the com∣mission which our Lord gave to the apostles, saying, As my Father hath sent me, so send I you, (which, by the way, shews the extent of the apostolic commission) they went forth to different parts to establish the kingdom of the Messiah, and to preach the gospel to all, whether Jews or Gentiles, whether Barbarian, Scythian, bond or free. Thus St. Andrew principally preached the gospel

in Scythia, St. Bartholomew in India, St. Matthew in Parthia, St. John in the Lesser Asia, &c § 1.27.

It may here be proper, though it may seem a di∣gression, to take notice of the peculiar as well as super∣natural qualifications of the apostles to their special of∣fice and dignity; for besides their extraordinary call and commission, of which we have already taken notice, these were more especially stiled the ambassadors of God to men, for which they were qualified by the communi∣cation of spiritual gifts, and of miraculous powers. They had, indeed, seen our Lord, and were sufficiently qualified to be witnesses of the truth and reality of his resurrection from the dead, upon which grand fact they were to found the evidence of the Christian doctrines, which they had, in great measure, learnt from him, as eye and ear witnesses of his doctrines, life, and miracles. But besides this, they had the effusion of the spirit, whereby they were qualified to preach the gospel in the different parts of the world, and to work miracles in attestation of their mission and doctrine. These spiritual gifts and powers are mentioned, 1 Cor. xii. 8, 9, 10, 28, 29, 30. To them was committed, by the same spirit, the word of wisdom—the word of knowledge— the gift of discerning spirits * 1.28—and in consequence of this, of binding or loosing, remitting or retaining the sins of men † 1.29 — They had also the gift of prophecy —

—the gift of tongues—the gift of interpretation of tongues, and the gift of fortitude is generally reckoned with the former. By these, and the like supernatural gifts, with which they were indued, by the effusion of the spirit, on the day of Pentecost, or communicated to them sometimes instantaneously, they were enabled to give such proofs of their mission and doctrine, as might tend to the furtherance of the gospel.

Thus St. Peter and St. John cured a man who was forty years old, and had been lame from his birth, Acts ii.4. And St. Peter raised Dorcas from the dead, and St. Paul raised Eutychus, which power did not extend to other apostles.

And we no where find, that this power was inherent in, or capable of being wantonly exerted by them; but absolutely dependent on the power and pleasure of the Supreme Giver.

It is likewise observable that, though pursuant to our Lord's promise, infinite wisdom saw fit to add superna∣tural qualifications, for the great ends and purposes of their office, besides the privilege of being cotemporaries with Christ, and learning from him the great doctrines and duties of the Christian religion; yet our Lord cautions his apostles against an absolute dependence on such ex∣traordinary communications. Behold, says he, I send you forth as sheep among wolves; be ye therefore wise as serpents and harmless as doves, intimating that, notwith∣standing their special call and commission, and the ex∣traordinary assistance they should receive, they were, nevertheless, to remember they were dependent on the divine energies, and had no claim to infallibility, as they were men, and should therefore conduct themselves with care, prudence, and circumspection.

One of the most distinguishing miraculous powers communicated to the apostles, was the ability of con∣ferring on others some spiritual gifts; and it has been often asserted, that they did this to some of the adult converts wherever they came; though what particular gifts or powers those converts should receive, in conse∣quence of their prayer and imposition of their hands, was not solely at their choice, but dependent on the will and direction of the Divine Spirit, who knew best what was proper, both for particular persons, and for the common interest of Christianity † 1.32. This extraordi∣nary manifestation of the spirit, which attended the public ministration of the gospel, is sometimes repre∣sented as a plenteous and visible effusion of the divine spirit * 1.33, and at other times, in a lesser degree, conferred by the laying on of the hands of the apostles. These peculiar and extraordinary gifts and powers of the apostles, plainly shew how well qualified they were for their important undertaking, by demolishing the false religion, which had so long prevailed in the world, and establishing the principles of Christianity with all its

genuine effects, knowledge, righteousness, and happi∣ness, in the world.

The learned are indeed much divided with respect to the miraculous powers residing in the apostles, and communicated by them to their successors, or subsisting in the Christian church since their time. These are points I shall not attempt to determine, but refer the readers to some of the most learned and judicious wri∣ters on the subject † 1.34.

The apostles, in consequence of their office and com∣mission, were likewise to erect or establish churches in every place; and to appoint pastors or elders, * 1.35 whose office and business it should be to watch over the particular societies of Christians for their good, by teaching and instructing, by reproving and admonishing, and by performing every good office for the establishing of their faith and virtue, and it was their method to constitute the first or ablest converts, in every city or place, to that office * 1.36, by and with the consent of that society.

And the Apostles, we are informed, were not only indefatigable, but very successful in their apostolical office, planting the churches of Jerusalem, of Samaria, Caesarea, Antioch, Philipi, Thessalonica, Berea, Co∣rinth, Ephesus, Colosse, Troas, Ptolemais, Damascus, besides many others in Asia, as Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea, &c ‖ 1.37.

Mr. Whiston has given us the following catalogue of the first thirty bishops ordained by the apostles.

		A.D.
I. Jerusalem,	1 James, the Lord's brother, by the apostles,	30
	2 Simeon, the son of Cleophas, by the apostles,	71
	3 Judas, the son of James, by the apostles,	74
II. Caesarea,	1 Zacchaeus, the Publican,	64
	2 Cornelius, the Centurion,	67
	3 Theophilus by Luke,	86
III. Antioch,	1 Euodius,	Peter 50
	2 Ignatius,	Paul 67
IV. Alexandria,	1 Annianus,	Mark 62
V. Rome,	1 Linus, the son of Claudia,	Paul 55
	2 Anencletus,	Peter 67
	3 Clements,	Peter 67
VI. Ephesus,	1 Timothy,	Paul 57
	2 John,	John 70
VII. Smyrna,	1 Aristo I.	John 64
	2 Strataeus, the son of Lois,	John 70
	3 Aristo II.	John 78
VIII. Pergamus,	1 Gaius,	John 67
IX. Philadelphia,	1 Demetrius,	John 67
X. Cenchrea,	1 Lucius,	Paul 67
XI. Crete,	1 Titus,	Paul 67
XII. Athens,	1 Dionysius,	Paul 67
XIII. Tripoli,	1 Marathones,	Paul 67
XIV. Laodicea,	1 Archippus,	Paul 67
XV. Colossae,	1 Philemon,	Paul 67
XVI. Berea,	1 Onesimus,	Paul 67
XVII. Galatia,	1 Crescens,	Paul 67
	2 Acquila,	Paul 67
XVIII. Asia,	1 Niceras,	Paul 67
XIX. Aegina,	1 Crispus,	Paul 67

Each of these comes under the denomination of a particular church, that is of a company of believers at one time, and at the same place, associating themselves together, and concurring in the participation of all the institutions and ordinances of Jesus Christ, with their proper pastors or ministers § 1.38.

At first the numbers in such churches were very few: Tertullian says, that three were sufficient to make a church; probably in allusion to our Lord's promise, that where two or three were gathered together in his name, he would be in the midst of them. Their number, how∣ever, was indefinite, but their character is that of the elect, called and sanctified by the will of God. They were first called Christians at Antioch, and, in innumer∣able places, they are called the brethren, because of their brotherly love and affection; and the faithful, in opposi∣tion to those who did not believe in the Lord Jesus, or his gospel † 1.39.

HISTORY of the CHURCH of ROME.

It is evident from the New Testament, that soon after Christianity was promulged by the apostles, there was a Christian church established at Rome, a community called of God to be saints, * 1.40 such as had by baptism been planted to∣gether in the likeness of Christ's death, and professed to walk in newness of life; who are said to have obeyed from the heart the form of doctrine delivered unto them—to stand in the Christian church by faith—and that their faith was celebrated through∣out the world. Romans i. 7, 8. Romans vi. 4, 5 ‖ 1.41.

The general doctrine of the church of Rome is, that Peter was not only appointed by our Saviour the chief of the apostles; but that he was constituted the first bishop of Rome, and head of the universal church, and that after having been seven years bishop of Antioch, he was, in the modern phrase, translated to Rome, and continued to be bishop there twenty-five years, and then suffered martyrdom under the emperor Nero. A. D. 64, according to Blair, 68; according to Whiston.

But it is not certain which of the apostles first preach∣ed the gospel at Rome; some assert, that St. Peter came to Rome only occasionally to visit that church, and was, by order of the Emperor Nero, crucified with St. Paul, who was charged with having made many prose∣lytes to Christianity there.

But that Peter never was bishop of Rome, is demon∣strated by many credible historians and divines * 1.42, parti∣ularly Budaeus de Eccles. Apostolic.

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That Christ ever established a monarchy in his church, or appointed Peter his viceroy, who invested the bishops of Rome, as his successors, with dominion over the whole church of Christ, are points so solidly confuted, that we may safely pass them over as things utterly un∣known in the most primitive and pure ages. On the contrary, it is undeniable, that when, towards the end of this century, * 1.43 the first and eldest of the presby∣ters at Rome, as in other churches, was distinguished by the title of bishop; that appellation imported no more than chief among the elders, who were otherwise all equal in office, duty, and privilege § 1.44; from hence the title of bishop took its rise.

The church of Rome was then subject to no other, and no other church subject to it, the bishop having no superintendence over other churches.

As for the word diocese, by which the bishop's charge is now usually expressed, as including many churches in it, I do not remember, says Sir Peter King ‡ 1.45,

that ever I found it used in this sense by any of the ancients; * 1.46 but there is another word still retained by us, by which they fre∣quently denominated the bishop's cure, that is, parish: so in the synodical epistles of Irenaeus, the bishopricks of Asia are called parishes. Eusebius has given a variety of instances to confirm this reading, viz. the bishop of the parish of Athens, the bishop of the parish of Corinth, &c. denoting the same as we now call a parish, wherein a competent number of Christi∣ans, dwelling near together, having one bishop, pastor, or minister, set over them, with whom they all met at one time, to worship and serve God. The word signi∣fies a dwelling one by another; thus, according to Eu∣sebius, lib. iv. c. xv. p. 228. the church of Smyrna writ to the church that parished in Philomelium; and the epistle of Clemens Romanus is, to the church of God parishing at Corinth. Hitherto we find there were no superintendents over many churches but the apo∣stles; none appointed by them as patriarchs, or metro∣politan bishops; no prelates over many churches, or over other presbyters; no one claiming rule, and the other subject to him,

There are, indeed, some authors have made a distinction between bishops and presbyters, and they quote Ignatius, * 1.47 who lived at the beginning of the second century, as appropriating the title of bishop, 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or overseer, to that minister who was the more immedi∣ate overseer or governor of his parish; and that of elder or presbyter, to him who had no particular care or in∣spection of a parish, but was only an assistant or curate to a person that had; the word 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or bishop, denoting a relation to a flock, or cure; 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉, or presbyter, signifying only a power or ability to take the charge of such flocks or cure; the former implying an actual discharge of the office, the latter a power so to do. This distinction was sometimes followed by the succeeding fathers; but oftimes, according to primi∣tive

usage, they indifferently apply those terms to each of those persons § 1.48: so that it is evident that the superio∣rity of the bishop, in office and character, was, to this time, at best precarious, destitute of divine institution, or direction of the apostles, but was introduced in the next century, as we shall shew in its proper place.

For these reasons probably the Rev. Mr. Bolde has asserted, that episcopacy was not essential to a particular Christian church; or that a visible society of creditably professing Christians should have a special relation to, or dependence on, one man, of a dignified character, who shall claim a right to preside over, and govern many assemblies of Christians; I speak only of a parti∣cular Christian church, and not concerning particular churches established by civil governments ‖ 1.49. He adds, It is likewise agreeable to primitive practice, that a par∣ticular Christian church, subsisting agreeably to Christ's in∣stitution, derived a power to appoint a person, or per∣sons, so qualified as he directs, to officiate amongst and unto them ‡ 1.50. But they were first to become, as it were, candidates for the ministry; must be approved of by the majority; and separated, or set apart to this office, by the laying on of the hands of the bishop, or presbytery; and when the bishop of a church was dead, all the people of that church met together in one place, to choose a new bishop. Thus Sabinus was elected bishop of Emerita, by the suffrage of all the bro∣therhood; and Fabianus was chosen bishop of Rome † 1.51.

And this order of admitting none to any ecclesiastical function but by an election of the faithful, in a gene∣ral assembly, was inviolably observed in the church for more than 200 years * 1.52.

As the apostles office and business was to propagate the gospel, and to ordain the elected bishops or elders, for the care of particular churches; * 1.53 and the most important charge of preaching, explaining, and inculcating the great doctrines and duties of the Christian religion; whose business it should be to administer the sacraments of baptism, and the Lord's supper, to the people or church over whom they were appointed; so the apostles, as the occasion and circumstances of things required, and the better to answer the purposes of Christian, societies, did, by and with the advice and approbation of their fellow Christians, appoint the office of Deacons. Those, at their first appointment and institution, were six in number, who occasionally baptised, but generally only assisted at the administra∣tion of baptism, at the Lord's supper, in the care of the poor, and the visitation of the sick: hence the offices of bishops and deacons in the Christian church, to answer the purposes beforementioned, were always esteemed of apostolical institution.

The particular ceremony by which any bishop, pastor, or deacon, was set apart after the choice of the people, was by the laying on of hands of a bishop, or presby∣ter, and prayer. By these solemn acts, * 1.54 many of the ordained elders were not only set a-part, but it pleased God, as an eternal evidence of their mission, to confer extraordinary gifts and graces, whereby they were qualified, in an extraordinary manner, for the discharge of their im∣portant office † 1.55, and even to their successors. It is

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generally allowed, some supernatural and extraordinary gifts and powers were communicated for planting Christian churches, and their greater edification: but how long this continued in the Christian church, the learned are not agreed.

The ordinance of laying on of hands by the bishop or presbyter, was likewise performed on the newly∣baptised. * 1.56 and this was some times attended with extraordinary gifts, such as might tend to the furtherance of the gospel; but was not in general performed with any such promise, or followed with such wonderful effects, but was then used as a rite of the Christian church, by which was signified their being separated and dedicated to the service of God.

Thus we have not only taken a view of the foun∣dation of the Christian church, as it was laid by Jesus Christ himself, but likewise of the peculiar qualifica∣tions, duty, and business of the apostles, for propagat∣ing the gospel and establishing Christian churches throughout the world, in the first century of the Christian church; and hitherto the apostles, notwith∣standing their dignity, did not pretend to infallibility, did not assume authority over the consciences of their fellow Christians, but gave many instances of their zeal, diligence, and faithfulness; the more venerable and praise-worthy, as it was always accompanied with modesty and humility. As the apostles received this commission from Christ, they were bound to confine

themselves wholely to it, and not to exceed the limits of it: they were his servants who sent them, and the message they received from him, that, and that only, were they to deliver to the world. Thus St. Paul says of himself, that God had committed to him the word of reconciliation, 2 Cor. v. 20. and that he was an am∣bassador for Christ, that he preached not himself, but Christ Jesus the Lord, and himself the servant of others for Jesus sake; that he had no dominion over others faith, 2 Cor. i. 24. no power to impose upon them arbitrary things or articles of faith, which he had not received from Christ; and that this was the principal matter of his comfort, that he had not shunned to de∣clare all the council of God. Acts xx. 27.

The apostles recommends a free and impartial en∣quiry after truth, and enjoins it on his fellow Christians to search the scriptures; and it is evident, by compa∣ring some passages of the evangelists with their epistles, that the canon of the books of the Old Testament was ascertained by them * 1.57: and St. Paul directs his epistles to the Corinthians, to all that in every place call upon the Lord Jesus; and the other epistles of the apostles in general, are inscribed, with equal latitude, and were, with the other parts of the New Testament, made the criterion of truth to all Christians.

Indeed we have no full and certain account of the doctrine taught by Christ and his apostles, but from the records of the New Testament; * 1.58 and as these contain the whole revelation of the gospel, all that we are to believe and practise as Christians, it is an undeniable consequence, that Christians can no better demonstrate their sub∣jection and fidelity to Christ, as Lord and lawgiver in his church, than by acquainting themselves with the sacred records of truth, and religiously adhering to

them, as the only rule and standard of their faith and worship † 1.59.

If you ask, what form of worship took place in this early age of the Christian church, Tertullian informs us, the scriptures were first read, then psalms sung, then a sermon preached, and prayers presented ‡ 1.60. Thus Justin Martyr writes: they first begun their public worship with reading the writings of the prophets; and as soon as they had them in M. S. the epistles of the apostles; afterwards they sung psalms, then they preach∣ed the word, which was a commentary on the lessons read, and then concluded with prayer and inter∣cession ‖ 1.61.

The discipline they observed was no other than the execution of those laws prescribed by the apostles, for the correction and prevention of such offences as were incident to the members of the church of Christ, in which great regard was had to the nature of the offence, and, except in the most criminal instances, was always exercised with much lenity and gentleness, in the consciousness of their own imperfection and liability to err.

It is indeed observable, that notwithstanding the simplicity of doctrines, worship, and ceremonies, that was preserved in the apostolic age, there were some different apprehensions amongst the Jewish proselytes to Christianity, touching some of the Jewish rites; and, for the sake of truth and peace, we find the apostles thought it requisite to consult together, and accordingly assembled at Jerusalem, A. C. 53. in which the apostles dispensed with an observation of the ceremonial law, seeing that the Christian dispensation was sufficient to the salvation of its votaries. Acts xv. 11.

They likewise held another council at Jerusalem, A. D. 60. in which they tolerated some legal obser∣vances

for a time, that by such condescension the weaker part, both of Jews and Gentiles, might be gained to the belief and profession of Christianity, Acts xxi. 1••—22.

There is no mention made in the New Testament, nor any other authentic proof in this century, that any council was called to compile canons for the order and govern∣ment, or creeds and summaries of saith, for uniformity of sentiments in the Christian churches. Decrees of this kind much better suit with the ambition and authority assumed by some ecclesiastics in later time: though I am sensible a work of this kind has long since made its appearance in the world under that specious cha∣racter * 1.62: but we have many testimonies of the primitive

Christians invariable regard to the doctrines and exam∣ples of our Lord and his apostles; and by the Stead∣fastness of their faith, simplicity of their worship and behaviour, were an honour to their profession as Chris∣tians; but notwithstanding these exemplary lives, there was such an opposition in the principles of Christianity, to the practices and views of the heathen Emperors, that they persecuted the Christians with the greatest severity.

The first persecution of the Christians began at Rome, * 1.63 A. D. 64. Among others St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyrdom * 1.64.

That called the second persecution of the Christians, began in the reign of Domitian, A. D. 95 † 1.65.

This, however, as it was a trial of their faith, their patience, their sincerity, their fortitude, and magnani∣mity, those virtues shone so conspicuous in their lives, even unto death, as render them amiable and illustrious examples to future generations.

CENTURY THE SECOND.

Century the second affords us some instances, in which the church of Rome varied from her primitive state * 1.66.

The union of different churches in succeeding times, however salutary in itself, was attended with many abuses, especially the union of those churches which had before, either by their situation, or by new congrega∣tions, been connected, furnished a spacious opportunity for one church to acquire more authority than others; and this was chiefly the case of those churches, as were most considerable in number, or could claim aposto•••••••• foundation, or in the capital of a province.

All these circumstances contributed to raise the credit and dignity of the church of Rome: her bishop gradually distinguished himself more and more from the 〈◊〉〈◊〉. We meet with encomiums upon that church so early as in the second century: but these, by no means, prove that other churches submitted to her; the contrary ma∣nifestly appears from the instances of the Asiatic churches in that early dispute, concerning the fitness, expediency, and duty of observing Easter, commonly called the celebration of Easter * 1.69.

The first considerable invasion on the church liberties was made by Victor, bishop of Rome, about the year 195, relating to the time of celebrating Easter day. The Christians of Asia the Less kept it on the 14 day after the first new moon that followed the vernal equinox, on what day soever it happened. On the contrary, the churches of Rome, France, Corinth, &c. held, that Easter day ought always to be on a Sunday. Victor, who could not easily decide the controversy, without more a-do excommunicated all the Christian churches of Asia—at least so far as to withdraw from, and refuse communion, with the Asiatic churches on that account, according to Eusebius, to whom we refer the reader.

The office of a bishop was now held superior to that of Presbyters; but it is not demonstrable, that the bishops of Rome had titles of honour superior to other bishops, or a right to controul the conduct of other churches † 1.70

The late bishop Hoadly * 1.72 says, We think we can demonstrate, that in the primitive times, the administration of ecclesiastical affairs was in the hands of bishops, who had presbyters subject to them, that as the apostles maintained a superiority over the presbyters of the churches they constituted, so, upon occasion of their absence, they settled others in this superiority; that as these, thus succeed∣ing the apostles, had the power of ordination committed to them, so their successors, in the following ages, claimed this power as their right, and looked upon ordination to be their office in the regular course of things.

Bingham * 1.73 treats more largely of the antiquity, authority, and dignity of episcopacy, their honorary titles, and venerable character.

Again the personal characters of the bishops and fathers in this century, give them no superiority or advantage over other churches, or their successors, since it is ap∣parent they were less learned and more credulous, and in many respects more defective, than some of later time; for there was never any period of time in all ecclesiastical history, in which so many rank heresies were publickly professed, nor in which so many spurious books were published under the names of Christ and his apostles, and apostolic writers * 1.74.

However, a variety of opinions prevailed in this century, * 1.75 insomuch that the bishops began to compose formularies or creeds for their respective churches, or in opposition to some principal errors; and this seems to be the earliest period when part of what is called the apostles creed was introduced § 1.76

Mr. Whiston asserts, that the Eusebian or Arian doctrine was, for the main, the doctrine of the church for the two first centuries * 1.77. This doctrine was differently understood and represented at that time by Alexander; and, in like manner, the doctrine of Alex∣ander misrepresented by Arius. Arius expressly asserts, in a letter to Eusebius, his intimate friend, "This is what we have and do profess, that the Son is not unbegotten, nor in any manner a part of the unbegotten God, nor from any part of the material world; but that, by the will and council of the Father, he existed before all time and ages, perfect God, the Only-begotten and Unchangeable; and that, therefore, before he was begotten or formed, he was not; but that there never was a time when he was not * 1.78.

A superstitious veneration for utensils and vessels be∣longing to the church took place, so that none but the * 1.79

priests were permitted to handle them * 1.80. Laws were made for fasting on particular days, and followed with many superstitious observances † 1.81. Great controversies arose about the lawfulness of baptizing infants, which have ever since continued a dispute in the Christian church ‡ 1.82. Others were for limiting baptism to the time of Easter and Whitsuntide, while others held that all times were alike § 1.83. Others practised a trine im∣mersion, and Tertullian mentions it as a common prac∣tice ‖ 1.84. But others immersed the body only once, and adult believers made up the main body of the baptized † 1.85. Baptism was then accompanied with the imposition of hands, which was looked upon as the completion of baptism, generally performed by a trine immersion of the Catechumen, at the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost * 1.86.

The third persecution of the Christians, under Tra∣jan the emperor, commenced A. D. 107. The fourth began under the emperor Adrian, 125; the fifth un∣der Marcus Aurelius, A. C. 160.

CENTURY THE THIRD.

In the third century the bishops exalted themselves highly above other pastors, and drew many dangerous consequences from the doctrine of one catholic church. Some bishops even claimed a superiority to others, but

they were at the same time jealous of each other, and the doctrine of the equality of bishops admitted of no supe∣riority § 1.87; they considered the bishop of Rome as one of their brethren, and were offended at Stephen for pre∣tending to prescribe laws to them, though they will∣ingly allowed the Roman church to be one of the prin∣cipal.

It is therefore impossible that the other bishops should acknowledge him as their judge. Advice given in friendship and confidence implies no jurisdiction. It is admitted, however, that in the third century, a more immediate foundation was laid for that authority and pre-eminence which was afterwards assumed; but that neither the bishops of Rome pretended to be infallible, nor others thought them so, is the more clear and de∣monstrable: they themselves giving proof of the con∣trary, both by their example, and by the stress they laid on councils.

The church of Rome consisted at first of teachers and hearers; the first were either elders or deacons, but so early as this century their offices were greatly in∣creased, viz. bishops, presbyters, deacons, sub-deacons, acolothist, readers, &c. but no mention was then made of the office or privilege of cardinals. In the most im∣portant concerns, the assent of the people was required, and the usual circular letters were sent to them ‡ 1.88.

The bishop usually obtained his office by election, in which the laity also voted. The imposition of hands was occasionally performed by bishops in different places, of whom some attended on that occasion.

The priests, deacons, and other clergy, says father Paul, were also presented by the people, and ordained by the bishop; or else nominated by the bishop, and, with the consent of the people, ordained by him. No person that was unknown was admitted, nor did the bishop ordain any but such as were approved, or indeed

proposed by the people, whose concurrence was thought so necessary, that the Pope St. Leo, as he was sirnamed, proves at large the invalidity of a bishop's ordination without. In this all the fathers of the church in those times agree; and Constance, being chosen bishop of Milan by the clergy, St. Gregory thought he could not be consecrated without the consent of the inhabitants, who being at that time retired to Genoa to avoid the ra∣vages of the barbarous nations, a message was sent to them at his instance, to know their pleasure concerning it ‖ 1.89. Historians differ in characterising the Christians at this time. St. Cyprian, in his account of the state of the church just before the Decian persecution, about the year 250, tells us, that the body of Christians chiefly aimed at increasing their patrimony; that there was no sound faith or true devotion in the priest, no benevolence in their works, no discipline in their manners; that it was common to contract marriage with unbelievers, and that Christians were prostituted to the Gentiles; that bi∣shops, neglecting their divine stewardship, and the re∣lief of the necessitous brethren in the church, became stewards in secular affairs, and in consequence many errors and irregularities prevailed ‡ 1.90. The learned have reckoned ninety different heresies, which all sprang up within the three first centuries § 1.91.

But, perhaps, these accounts will be thought par∣tial, and unfavourable to the state of religion at the close of this century, when the christian church is so ge∣nerally represented as retaining her primeval purity till after this period. I shall therefore give an abstract from Dupin's History of the Church:

He says, that "the fathers of the church to this time taught, that the principles of faith were the holy scrip∣tures and tradition; that mysteries were to be believed, though they could not be comprehended; they spoke of

the nature of God, and his attributes, in a most excel∣lent manner; they opposed, with great success, the false divinities of the heathens, and the errors of those who admitted of more gods than one; but they owned the Trinity of three persons in one only God; acknow∣ledged the divinity and eternity of the Word, and of the Holy Ghost, and in general all the articles of the apostles creed * 1.92."

There are extant some creeds or summaries of the Christian faith, drawn up at the close of this century, intended for the unity of faith in particular churches, as those of Jerusalem, Caesarea, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome; by comparing which together, the reader will perceive how the unity of the faith was preserved, with a diversity of expression; and is an evident proof, that one universal form had not been pitched upon and prescribed to the whole church: every bishop was at liberty to draw up a creed for the use of his own church, only keeping to the analogy of faith and sound doc∣trine ‡ 1.93.

Sir Peter King gives us the following account of the worship and ceremonies of the primitive church, viz. that they began their service with reading the scriptures. Then every one sang a hymn or psalm out of the Bible, or of their own composing—that they sometimes sang alternately, and sometimes conjointly. Then began their sermon by way of exposition of the lesson and exhortation, generally by the bishop of the parish. Afterwards all the congregation rose up to prayers, which were offered through Christ. They used the Lord's prayer at the beginning of their devotions; yet they did not use that only, but such other supplications to God, as the variety of their circumstances required. They usually prayed standing with their hands and eyes lifted up to heaven, the minister exercising his gifts in suitable matter and apt expression. Baptism,

he says, was performed by the bishop or pastor of the respective parish to Catechumens, who had given a firm assent to the articles of the Christian faith, and likewise some proof of their resolution to lead a good life. He also admits, that infants were baptised in this century, and immediately received the sacrament; that this was generally called the Lord's supper, which was eating bread and drinking wine, first set apart by prayer and thanksgiving, in commemoration of Jesus Christ. They partook of it, says Socrates, in a table gesture, eating as at their love-feasts * 1.94.

Pliny the younger, the heathen, confesses to the emperor Trajan, that the cause of the Christians was a matter worthy of deliberation, by reason of their number and character—that they usually, on their so∣lemn days, met together before sun-rising, and sang hymns to God and Christ, whom they worshipped, and obliged themselves, by an oath, not to commit any wickedness † 1.95.

Mr. Cave gives us a large and most amiable account of the primitive Christians: he says, their piety was active and zealous: afflicted innocence triumphant, their patience unconquerable under the greatest trials and persecutions: in short, down to this period we shall see the divine and holy precepts drawn into action, and the most excellent spirit of the gospel breathing in the hearts and lives of those primitive Christians ‡ 1.96.

Nevertheless, they were greatly persecuted, insomuch that some were put to cruel deaths, and others driven from their habitations. That called the sixth perse∣cution of the Christians commenced under Septimus Severus, A. D. 202. The seventh persecution began in the reign of Maximus Severus, A. D. 235. The eighth in the reign of Decius, A. D. 250. The ninth

under Gallineus and Valerianus, A. D. 257 § 1.97. But, about the close of this century, there was a dreadful famine in the eastern part of the empire, where Max∣iminus reigned, and a fore plague, which affected the sight of persons; upon which the Christians could not help observing, that Maximinus had inflicted the pu∣nishment of depriving some Christians of their eyes; but that nevertheless they signalized themselves for their piety and charity towards all persons in this public calamity, and forced even the pagan adversaries to admire and commend their behaviour † 1.98.

CENTURY THE FOURTH.

The fourth century furnishes us with many trans∣actions of an interesting nature. Though hitherto Christianity appears to have been propagated with tole∣table simplicity, and the Christian church retained much of its primeval purity, especially with respect to manners, and in a great regard for the scriptures, the canon of which was settled about this time; and by these means the darkness of paganism was in a good measure banished from a great part of the known world. We are nevertheless informed, that "soon after, the Christian world fell into endless schisms and contentions, and had destroyed, in great measure, that peace, love and charity, which the gospel was intended to promote; and, instead thereof, provoked one another to malice. They lost, in a great degree, the substance of their religion, while they eagerly con∣tended for their own imaginations concerning it; and that by this means many of the superstitions and cor∣ruptions we now complain of in the church of Rome, were not only broached but established * 1.99."

For more than three hundred years Christianity lived and flourished under discouragement and frequent

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persecution. After the Roman empire became Christian it was greatly corrupted, till the empire fell, and made way for the dominion and grandeur of the bishop of Rome, under whom the corruption arose to an amazing height, and true Christianity was almost lost for several ages † 1.100.

Early in this century, in which the fathers Cyril, Basil, Gregory, and Ambrose, flourished, was insti∣tuted the monastic life; but, notwithstanding this in∣stitution, and the pretence of sanctity to countenance it, the love of power and riches appears from the consequences to be predominant, or that it was at best founded in superstition.

From this time the church became modelled by as∣suming priests; the divines attempted to explain the mysteries of religion by the rules of logic, and imposing articles of faith by authority, rather than convincing by argument.

In this century, the popes of Rome laid the found∣ation of that monarchical power and grandeur to which they afterwards rose.

One of the first and most essential steps was the erection of the dignity of patriarch, afterwards con∣firmed by the Nicene council; and thus the hierarchy or government of the church became modelled; ac∣cording to the constitution of the Roman empire. This being the design of their measures, another funda∣mental principle was added to it, viz. that the prece∣dence and authority of bishops over others, should be determined by the rank of the cities where they re∣sided; and of consequence, in process of time, as it could be effected, the bishop of Rome must have the supremacy; and this was managed with so much art, as to be confirmed in the next council, without ap∣pearing to have previously made a point of it § 1.101.

Constantine, who, for his gallant acts, was surnamed the Great, was the first emperor that declared himself a Christian, A. D. 312, and constituted the cross his banner: he restored peace and tranquillity to the Christians, he built many noble churches and oratories, wherein he suffered no Gentile altars or images to be placed, nor any heathenish festivals to be solemnized § 1.102. He also wrote a large pathetic epistle to the provincial governors of the east; where, with great wisdom and piety, he exhorts all his subjects to embrace Christi∣anity: but, when he had used many gentle methods to reclaim the Gentile world, he proceeded by more severe methods to quell the pagan idolatry; unco∣vered their temples, and exposed their idols; and at the same time took great care, that bishops or pastors were settled every where in the Christian churches. Though this great prince was not baptised till a little before his death, which was May 22, A. D. 338.'

But when the church, under Constantine and his successors, enjoyed the protection of the civil powers, the Christians compared their present with their past condition, and called to mind the sufferings of their predecessors, and the patience and fortitude which they had exerted, particularly in the last and severest persecution. These considerations raised in them an high, and indeed, in some measure, a just veneration for the martyrs. But it did not stop here, it ran into excess, and produced bad effects. Every rumour concerning the behaviour of those saints was received without examination, and represented as meritorious, insomuch that certain monks found their account in going about, under the pretence of selling their bones and reliques.

The fathers of those times, as Athanasius, Gregory, Nazianzen, but particularly Chrysostom, with his popular eloquence, contributed to the utmost of their power to encourage the superstitious veneration and

invocation of saints, the love of monkery, and the belief of miracles, wrought by monks and reliques. Some of those fathers, particularly Gregory, were in other respects valuable men: but this was the distem∣per of those times, and they were not free from it ‡ 1.103.

Thence arose religious addresses to the martyrs, who were considered as patrons and intercessors, which tended to lessen the reliance and gratitude due to Christ, and to substitute new expedients in the room of rational piety and strict morality.

Some instances during Constantine's reign are an unde∣niable proof where the government of the church was vested, and how the bishops of Rome were esteemed as to their authority in those days.

When Donatus stood condemned as a heretic by the churches of Afric, Constantine left him not to be judged by the bishop of Rome, at that time Miltiades, but appointed the bishops of Colen, Anthun, and Arles, to hear his cause; who not agreeing, he joined with them the said Miltiades; and after that, upon an appeal from their order, the emperor heard and deter∣mined it himself, pronouncing the bishop of Carthage innocent, and his adversaries deserving censure ‖ 1.104.

The sentiments of Arius, commonly called the Arian heresy, (which we have before explained) began to prevail. Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, opposed himself against him, and sent epistles to all the churches, and among the rest to Rome; but, without waiting for advice from them, excommunicated Arius. This kindling a great fire, Constantine was applied to, and the famous council of Nice was assembled by the im∣mediate command or precept of Constantine; and by this and other instances it appears by whose au∣thority councils were convened, at that time, and for some hundreds of years afterwards, but, if you ask Bellarmine, he says only by the pope,

not by the emperor, unless his holiness first approve of it § 1.105. And when this council were convened, observe their stile, viz. "We, here assembled by the grace of God and favour of Constantine our prince, beloved of God * 1.106". When this council was called by the sole order of Constantine, he also sat amongst them as president; the bishop of Rome was not there, but sent two depu∣ties, stiled presbyters. But so far was he, by his depu∣ties, chief there, that the first bishop, who opened the matter and gave his opinion, was Eustathius bishop of Antioch; and in the sixth canon of that council for ranking and ordering of bishops in their places, no mention is made of the pre-eminence of Rome to any other city, but this general phrase used, That every church shall retain her due honour † 1.107.

The number of bishops in this council were 318, be∣sides vast numbers of presbyters, deacons, acolothists, &c. Eusebius tells us, that some came to the council with worldly views of gain; and Theodoret, that others were subtle and crafty, and of a quarrelsome, malicious temper, which appeared immediately upon the opening of the council; for, notwithstanding the emperor was present, who admonished them to lay aside all their dif∣ferences, and to enter into measures of union and peace, they fell to gross reflections on each other, and raised great disturbances, insomuch that he was obliged to in∣terpose his authority, and with much persuasion silenced them.

When the emperor had brought them to some tem∣per, they fell in good earnest to creed-making, and drew up and subscribed that which, from the place where they were assembled, was called the Nicene ‖ 1.108.

By the accounts of the transactions in this assembly, given by Athanasius himself in his letter to the African bishops, it appears, that they were determined to in∣sert in the creed such words as were most obnoxious to the Arians, and thus to force them to a public se∣paration from the church * 1.109: and when those of the Arian party proposed in writing to the synod the form of faith they had drawn up, the bishops of the ortho∣dox side no sooner read it than they gravely tore it in pieces, and called it a spurious and false confession, and after they had filled the place with noise and confusion, universally accused them of betraying the doctrine ac∣cording to godliness; and when the Arians would have consented to forms of expression that were general and least exceptionable, the orthodox party would admit of no other phrases than, That the Son was consubstantial and of the same substance with the Father; and notwith∣standing the Arians urged, that this expression was un∣scriptural, the orthodox would not admit of any altera∣tion; and all the council subscribed the creed, (except five bishops, who, beside other objections, were dis∣pleased with the word Consubstantial;) and the ortho∣dox even proceeded so far as to cut off from communion all who would not agree to, and subscribe this creed. In this public manner did the bishops assert a dominion over the faith and consciences of others, and assumed a power not only to dictate to them what they should be∣lieve, but even to anathematize and expel from the Christian church all who refused to submit to their decisions, and own their authority; for after they had

carried their creed, they proceeded to excommunicate Arius, and his followers, and banished Arius from Alexandria. They also condemned his book, called Thalia, which contained his explication of his own doctrine. After this they sent letters to Alexandria, and to the brethren in Egypt, Lybia, and Pentapolis, to acquaint them with their decrees; and to inform them, that the holy synod had condemned the opinions of Arius, and exhort them to rejoice for the good deeds they had done, in cutting off all manner of heresy. Constantine, after this, dismissed the council, (not without some donations to gratify their avarice) recom∣mended to them peace and harmony, and to avoid am∣mosity against such as might excel, or be inferior to them: he likewise wrote to several churches, recom∣mending and enjoining an universal conformity to the council's decrees, both in doctrine and ceremonies, using this, among other arguments, that what they had decreed was the will of God, and that the agreement of so great a number of bishops was by inspiration of the Holy Ghost. But it is very natural to remark, after the anathemas and depositions agreed on by this council, which were the beginning of all the persecutions that afterwards raged, with how little propriety the dignity of inspiration was applied to them.

Many unhappy consequences very soon took place; for when the Emperor's recommending to the churches a submission to their decrees was not effectual, more violent measures were made use of; for out of his great zeal to extinguish heresy, he put forth public edicts against the authors and maintainers of it; against the Novatians, Valentinians, Marcionites, and others; or∣dained that the books written by any of them should be burnt; and if any kept them in their possession, or en∣deavoured to counteract his edict, they should, on con∣viction thereof, suffer death.

Thus the orthodox first brought in the punishment of heresy with death, and persuaded the emperor to destroy those whom they could not easily convert. The

scriptures were now no longer the rule and standard of the Christian faith; orthodoxy and heresy were from henceforward to be determined by the decisions of councils and fathers, and religion to be propagated no longer by the apostolic methods of persuasion, forbear∣ance, and the virtues of an holy life, but by imperial edicts and decrees; and heretical gainsayers not to be convinced, that they may be brought to the acknow∣ledgement of the truth and be saved, but to be perse∣cuted and destroyed. It is no wonder, that after this there should be a continual fluctuation of the public faith, just as the prevailing parties had the imperial authority to support them; or that we should meet with little else in ecclesiastical history but violence and cruelties, committed by men, who had left the sim∣plicity of the Christian faith and profession, enslaved themselves to ambition and avarice, and had before them the ensnaring views of tomporal grandeur, high preferments, and large revenues.

If one reads the complaints of the orthodox writers against the Arians, one would think the Arians the most execrable set of men that ever lived: but Socrates tells us, this was the practice of the bishops towards all they deposed, to accuse and pronounce them im∣pious, but not to tell others the reasons why they ac∣cused them as such ‡ 1.110.

Soon after these transactions, Arius died; and the manner of his death, as it was reported by the ortho∣dox, Athanasius thinks of itself sufficient, fully to con∣demn the Arian heresy, and an evident proof that it was hateful to God. The Christians, however, being blessed with Christian emperors, were of opinion, that the divine providence had, in a signal manner, raised up and protected Constantine, for destroying the enemies of the church; but there is usually much of rashness and presumption, in supposing the calamities of finners in this world are particular judgements of

God. Nor did Constantine himself long survive him. He was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine, Con∣stantius, and Constans. Constantine, the eldest, recall∣ed Athanasius from banishment, and restored him to his bishopric; upon which account there arose most grievous quarrels and seditions, many being killed, and several publicly whipped, by Athanasius's order, according to the accusations of his enemies. Con∣stantius, after his elder brother's death, convened a synod at Antioch in Syria, where Athanasius was again deposed for these crimes, and Gregory put into the see of Alexandria. In this council a new creed was drawn up, in which the word Consubstantial was wholely omitted, and the expressions made use of so general, as that they might have been equally agreed to by the orthodox and Arians. In the close of it several anathema's were added, and particularly upon all who should teach, or preach, otherwise than what this council had received, because, as they themselves say, They did really believe and follow all things delivered by the holy scriptures, both prophets and apostles. So that now the whole Christian world was under a synodical curse, the opposite councils having damned one another, and all that differed from them; and if councils, as such, have any authority to anathematize all who will not submit to them, this authority equally belongs to every council; and therefore it was but a natural piece of revenge, that as the council of Nice had sent all the Arians to the devil, the Arians, in their turn, should take the orthodox along with them for company, and thus repay one anathema with another.

Constantius II. was warmly on the Arian side, and favoured the bishops of that party only, and ejected Paul, the orthodox bishop, from the see of Constanti∣nople, as a person altogether unworthy of it. Mace∣donius being substituted in his room, who was in a different scheme, or at least expressed himself in diffe∣rent words, both from the orthodox and Arians, assert∣ing that the Son was not consubstantial, not of the

same, but of a like substance with the Father, and openly propogated this opinion after he had thrust him∣self into the bishopric of Paul; this the orthodox party highly resented, and persecuted those who favoured that opinion.

The truth is, that the Christian clergy were now become the chief incendiaries and disturbers of the em∣pire; and the pride of the bishops, and the fury of the people on each side, were now grown to such a height, as that there scarce ever was an election or restoration of a bishop in the larger cities, but it was attended with slaughter and blood, as it is evident from the accounts given by the ecclesiastical historians of Atha∣nasius, Macedonius, and others, that they treated one another with the same implacable bitterness and severity as ever their common enemies, the heathens, treated them, as though they thought that persecution for conscience sake had been the distinguishing precept of the Christian religion * 1.111.

This was the unhappy state of the church in the reign of Constantius, which affords us little more than the history of councils and creeds differing from, and contrary to, each other; bishops deposing, censuring, and anathematising their adversaries; and the Christian people, divided into factions under their respective leaders, for the sake of words they understood nothing of the sense of, and striving for victory, even unto bloodshed and death.

This occasioned much debate about the authority of councils and their liability to err in their decisions. It was suggested, that in a council convened by a Christian emperor, wherein some hundreds of prelates are assembled to deside a theological dispute, many are liable to be influenced by fear or dread of superiors of greater juris∣diction, either of falling under their displeasure of being reviled as heretics, or perhaps beggared and ruined by their refusing to be influenced by some active and do∣mineering

spirits; by a deference to the majority; by a love of applause and respect; by vanity and ambition; by a total ignorance of the question in dispute, or a total indifference about it; by private friendship; by enmity and resentment; by an indolent disposition; by an aversion to disputes, or love of peace and quiet∣ness, &c. which whoever considers will be ready to con∣clude, there is no great deference to be paid to the authority of councils. Even the authority of councils themselves were zealously asserted by the council of Constance and Basil, and condemned by the Lateran; nevertheless the dispute turned in favour of councils, and it was in general deemed heretical to speak against their authority. They who disclaim private judgement, and believe the infallibility of the church, act consistent∣ly in holding the infallibility of councils; but they who take their faith from the scriptures, and not from the church, should be careful not to require nor to yield too much regard to such assemblies * 1.112.

We have a rule, by which we may with safety, and with satisfaction, judge of their authority; a rule given us by our Master, By their fruits ye shall know them. We need only survey their acts and monuments, their behaviour, doctrines, decrees, and censures, and compare them impartially with the morality, the sim∣plicity, the prudence, the charity of the gospel; and by this we may judge of the authority of councils and fathers.

The forming of creeds or summary accounts of the Christian faith, till this century, were but few, and those concise, expressive only of the principal articles, and those not imposed on the churches; but in process of time, when the empire became Christian, and the decisions of assembled bishops were made under the in∣fluence of the court, and then enforced by the secular arm, the creeds they drew up were no longer mere ac∣counts of the principal doctrines for preserving a unity of faith, &c. but obtained the nature of decrees and

laws, henceforth precluding all private judgement, and under one shape or other binding the main body of the clergy, if not the whole Christian world. And indeed, what St. Gregory Nazianzen thought of the councils held in his time, that is to say, in the latter half of the fourth century, appears sufficiently from his letter to Procopius—that he never saw a good ending of any synod—the spirit of contention, or the spirit of ambi∣tion, and love of rule, still gaining the ascendancy over reason: nor does he except that council to which we are so far indebted for the Nicene creed, and at which he himself, to his sorrow, was present. They fall, saith he, into factions, and fight for the sake of thrones, i. e. of episcopal fees, and divide the whole world in a lawless or irreligious manner * 1.113.

In the beginning of Julian's reign, A. D. 361. he behaved himself with great moderation towards the Christians; yet his hatred to them soon afterwards ap∣peared so, that they were not permitted the education of their children, nor to be instructed in the Grecian lan∣guage and learning. He taxed them very heavily, and exacted fines from such as would not sacrifice; and when the governors of the provinces took occasion, from thence, to increase the oppression, insomuch that per∣sons of all ranks could not but complain of their cruelty, Julian answered, with a sneer, Your God hath com∣manded you to suffer persecution. And one of the reasons assigned for his severity was, that the Christian bishops shewed such a turbulent spirit, that he was ob∣liged to have a jealous eye over them, and bear a strict hand toward them. But the effects of his aversion to the Christians did not last long, for he was killed in the Persian wars, and reigned scarce two years.

Jovian succeeded him, who was a Christian both by principle and profession. But the bishops were soon for tampering with him: Athanasius writes to him in fa∣vour of the Nicene creed, and endeavoured to prevail

upon him to persecute the Arians. A synod also of cer∣tain bishops met at Antioch, who, though they had be∣fore opposed the Nicene doctrine, finding that Jovian favoured it, with great obsequiousness readily sub∣scribed it, and in a very complaisant letter represented that this true orthodox faith was the center of unity, while the followers of Macedonius, who rejected the word Consubstantial, sought to recommend themselves to his favour by the best representation they could give of their tenets. Jovian, who saw through the craft of those temporising bishops, answers, "I hate contention, and love those that study for peace;" declaring, he would trouble none on account of their faith, but would favour and esteem those who contributed to restore and preserve peace in the church. Themistius, the philosopher, very justly commended him on that account, and for despising the insinuations of those who would have persuaded him to violent methods in favour of a party, concerning whom, he said, they worshipped not God, but the purple * 1.114.

Valentinian and Valens, who succeeded him, em∣braced different parties in religion: the former, of the orthodox side, the latter, of the Arians. However, they both declared for liberty; but Valens soon suffered himself to be prevailed upon, by Eudoxus, bishop of Constantinople, to forsake both his opinion and his mo∣deration. They obtained leave from him to hold a synod at Lampsacus, where the orthodox carried their point, and deposed all the bishops of the Arian party † 1.115. This was so contrary to the moderation of Valens, that he was highly exasperated, who thereupon called a coun∣cil of Arian bishops, and commanded those, who formed the council of Lampsacus, to embrace the opinions of Eudoxus the Arian, and upon their refusal sent them into banishment, and gave their churches to their ene∣mies, sparing only Paulinus for the remarkable sanctity

of his life. After this he entered into more violent measures, which the Arian bishops were accessary to.

In the mean time great disturbances happened at Rome upon Liberius's dying, who was bishop of that city. Ursinus, a Dean of that church, and Damasus, were nominated to succeed him; the party of Damasus prevailed, and got him chosen and ordained: Ursinus being enraged at it set up a separate meeting, got him∣self ordained by some other bishops; and this occasioned great disputes among the citizens for the episcopal dig∣nity, and the matter was carried to such a height, that great numbers were murdered in the quarrel on both sides, no less than 137 persons being destroyed in the church itself, according to Ammianus * 1.116, who adds, "That it was no wonder to see those, who were am∣bitious of human greatness, contending with so much heat and animosity for that, because, when they had obtained it, they were sure to be enriched by the offer∣ings of the matrons; of appearing abroad in great splendor; of being admired for their costly coaches; sumptuous in their feasts, outdoing sovereign princes in the expences of their tables, &c." This is said to be the first quarrel for the see of Rome, A. D. 366.

Gratian, who succeeded Valens, was of the orthodox party, and recalled those bishops he had banished, and particularly favoured and promoted the orthodox faith.

Theodosius, who succeeded him, was a zealous abet∣tor of the orthodox party, and wrote a letter from Thessalonica to Constantinople, wherein he tells them that it was his pleasure that all his subjects should worship the Trinity as equal in divine honour: and where he could not persuade, he endeavoured to compel the bi∣shops to assent to, and declare their faith in the Nicene creed, under the threats of expulsion frem their churches: and the more effectually to extinguish the heresy, he summoned a council of bishops, in A. D. 383, to con∣firm that creed, and also made an addition to it, viz.

after the words Holy Ghost they inserted, The Lord the quickner proceeding from the Father, whom with the Father and the Son we worship and glorify, and who spake by the Prophets † 1.117.

The laws against heretics, collected in the Theodo∣sian code, stand as a shameful monument of the perfe∣cuting Anti-christian spirit, which broke out in this century, and grew more and more violent in the follow∣ing times, the Christians themselves imitating the cruel∣ties of the Pagans * 1.118.

Arcadius and Honorius, who were the sons and suc∣cessors of Theodosius, embraced the orthodox religion and party, and confirmed the decrees of the former emperor. Chrysostom, who was bishop of Constantinople, perfecuted the Arians. The Donatists in Africa perse∣cuted the orthodox, and thus persecution seemed to know no end.

Thus we find the Arian doctrine was alternately (ac∣cording to the disposition of the court) approved and condemned by many different councils. In this century, in the council of Alexandria, in the year 322, Arian and his followers were excommunicated in the council of Bythinia; two years afterwards they were declared orthodox; two years afterwards condemned and ana∣thematized in the council of Nice; and in the year 359 their sentiments were again approved and justified in the council of Seleucia; and about 400 Western bi∣shops in the council of Rimini, who first, indeed, condemned the Arians with great rigour, afterwards, in contradiction to their own former judgement, sub∣scribed the Arian confession of faith ‖ 1.119.

The doctrine of an absolute unconditional predestina∣tion of all events prevailed much in the Eastern church. Some authors conceive it was much more primitive, and would fain make it to commence from the aposto∣lic

age; but as it is inconsistent with the principal doc∣trines of the Romish church, we think there is not suf∣ficient authority to charge them with it. The reader may see the arguments in support of it * 1.120.

Many superstitious customs debased the purity of the Christian church in this century.—The making crosses of wood, metal, and in painting, were brought in by the emperor Constantine, who caused a cross to be made and displayed as his imperial banner, and from thence it became a fashionable ornament in a house, a token of loyalty, and of the orthodox or true catholic church † 1.121. —Pilgrimages and visits paid under pretences of devo∣tion to certain places called holy, such as the temple at Jerusalem and the Viaticum at Rome, took place in this century, but they did not carry it to such height as to imagine there was any real merit in it, as appears from the confession of St. Jerom —Giving the eucharist to children became a custom about the close of this century in the Bohemian and other Western churches, and did soon after prevail in the Eastern or Greek churches. The custom of baptizing infants had been founded on the interpretation of John iii. 3, 5, and this practice of giving the sacrament to children was founded on an explication of John vi. 53. Thus were baptism and the sacrament thought indispensible to salva∣tion: the practice of giving the eucharist continued in the Western churches till the eleventh or twelfth century, when it was laid aside upon the new doctrine of tran∣substantiation: and in many of the Greek churches the eucharist is still given to children ‡ 1.122. But, on the other hand, some were of opinion, that to defer baptism, till there was an apparent danger of death, was most safe, under an apprehension that sins, committed after bap∣tism, would scarcely be forgiven.

The tenth persecution of the Christians began at Nicomedia, Feb. 13, 303, and continued for ten years, ending June 13, 313, by an edict of Constantine and Licenius * 1.123.

CENTURY THE FIFTH.

In the fifth century we find the church of Rome made very considerable efforts to enlarge her power. Till about the year 432 the history of the popes was merely ecclesiastical, but from hence the affairs of the church were so interwoven with those of the state, that their history is both ecclesiastical and civil. The popes soon made a different figure from that which they had hitherto made: no longer mere bishops, but bishops and princes, and the bishop almost entirely lost in the prince; no longer contending only with their collegues for spiritual power and jurisdiction, but at the same time with the greatest monarchs for dominion; nay, employing the sword as well as the keys, and heading, as directed by their ambition or interest, both councils and armies † 1.124.

However, it is not only true that the patriarchs were hitherto looked upon or considered as equal; that the bishop of Rome held the other bishops to be his bre∣thren and collegues; but the name and idea of an uni∣versal bishop was deemed a contradiction and a mark of Anti-christ ‡ 1.125.

Infallibility was not yet assumed as the prerogative of the pope; and if it had, one would think several remarkable occurrences and facts in this century might be sufficient to convince the most prejudiced in favour of papal power, of its absurdity.

Innocent, who was bishop of Rome, 402, grievously persecuted the Novatians, and, as Socrates observes ‖ 1.126,

was the first bishop of that see, who disturbed them. —Celestine, one of his successors, imitated his injustice, and deprived the Novatians of the remainder of their churches, and not content with depriving them of their churches, prevented their private assembling, and even plundered them of all their substance.—Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, shewed himself a violent per∣secutor soon after his election: addressing himself to the emperor before the whole congregation, he said, Purge me, O emperor, the earth from heretics, and I will give thee the kingdom of heaven; conquer with me the heretics, and I will conquer with thee the Persians; and agreeable to his declaration, in five days after his consecration, attempted to set fire to the church of the Arians when they were assembled in it for prayer. * 1.127—Few of the bi∣shops were free from this wicked spirit. Socrates, in∣deed, excepts Atticus, bishop of Constantinople, who behaved much more mildly and gently; and Proclus also, who was brought up under Atticus, who was gen∣tle towards all men, from a persuasion, that this was a much more proper method than violence to reduce he∣retics to the true faith: and in this he imitated Theodo∣sius the emperor, sometimes called Theodosius II. who was not at all displeased that any should differ from him in sentiments. But under the reign of this em∣peror the Arians also, in their turn, used the orthodox with no greater moderation, burnt churches, put or∣thodox bishops to death, seized their books, and com∣mitted a variety of outrages for suppression of the or∣thodox faith † 1.128.

During these transactions, Nestorius the persecuted bishop of Constantinople, though tolerably sound in the doctrine of the real Deity of the Logos, yet excepted against the Virgin Mary being called the Mother of God. This occasioned a council to be convened at Ephesus, A. D. 434, of which Cyril was president,

and, as he hated Nestorius, he persuaded the bishops of his party to decree, that the Virgin was, and should be the Mother, and to anathematize all who should not confess her in this character.

Marcian, the successor of Theodosius in the empire, embraced the orthodox party and opinions, and was very desirous to bring about an entire uniformity in the worship of God. Agreeably to this his temper, Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, addressed him, soon after his pro∣motion, in these words; God hath justly given you the empire that you should govern all for the universal welfare, and for the peace of his holy church. The legates of Leo, bishop of Rome, presented him their accusations against Dioscorus, as did also Eusebius, beseeching the emperor that what he had advanced might be judged of, and determined by a synod. Marcian consented, and ordered the bishops to meet first at Nice, and after∣wards at Chalcedon. This was the fourth general council, A. D. 454, consisting of near 600 prelates: the principal cause of their assembling was the Eutychian heresy, viz. That Jesus Christ consisted of two natures he∣fore his incarnation, but that after this he had one nature only: he also denied that the body of Christ was of the same substance with ours. This council condemned his opi∣nions as heretical, and expelled him from the bishopric of Alexandria, and proceeded to settle the faith accord∣ing to the Nicene creed, the opinions of the fathers, and the doctrine of Athanasius, Cyril, Celestine, Hila∣rius, Basil, Gregory, and Leo; and decreed that Christ was truly God and truly man, consubstantial to the Father as to his deity, and consubstantial to us as to his humanity; and that it should not be lawful for any persons to utter or write, or compose, or think, or teach, any other faith whatsoever.

Leo succeeded Marcian, and zealously endeavoured to promote the orthodox faith.—But, under Zeno, the son-in-law and successor to Leo, notwithstanding his uniting and pacifying edict, great differences arose, and persecutions were commenced against the orthodox.

Anastasius, who succeeded Zeno, was himself a great lover of peace, and endeavoured to promote it both amongst the clergy and laity, and therefore ordered that there should be no innovation in the church what∣soever. But this moderation was by no means pleasing to the monks and bishops: some of them were great sticklers for the council of Chalcedon, and would not allow a single word of their decrees to be altered, nor communicate with those who did not receive them: others were so far from submitting to this synod, that they anathematized it; whilst others adhered to the pa∣cific edict, and maintained peace with one another, even though they were of different judgement concerning the nature of Christ. Hence the church was divided into factions, so that the bishops would not communi∣cate with each other: not only the Eastern bishops se∣parated from the Western, but those of the same pro∣vince had schisms among themselves. The emperor, to prevent as much as possible these quarrels, banished those who were most remarkably troublesome from their sees: but the monks and bishops frustrated all his at∣tempts for peace, by forcing one another to make new confessions and subscriptions, and by anathematizing all who differed from them, as heretics: they also treated the emperor himself with great insolence, and excom∣municated him as an enemy to the synod of Chalcedon * 1.129.

The Athanasian creed, as it is called, we shall just mention in this place, as the consubstantial doctrine, that is to say, that the substance or essence of the Son and Spirit were the same in kind, or rather species, with that of God the Father, so generaly prevailed about this time; though the creed now called Atha∣nasian had not then acquired that name, but was simply stiled the Catholic faith, and did not consist of the same articles as at present † 1.130.

Under the emperor Anastafius, Symmachus, bishop of Rome, expelled the Manichees from the city, and ordered their books to be publicly burnt before the doors of the church; and other persecutions were prac∣tised against them.

The Pelagian heresy (as it was called) sprung up in this century, and made no small progress; it consisted principally in asserting the absolute freedom of the hu∣man will; which occasioned a council to be held at Car∣thage in 412 and 417, and at Mileva and at Rome in 416.

Platina tells us, that amongst many other ceremonies introduced by pope Sixtus III. in this century, they beautified and adorned the churches, and placed upon the altar of St. Peter a golden image of our Saviour, en∣riched with jewels.

The prohibiting priests to marry, was instituted by pope Innocent, A. D. 410.

And the baptizing with sureties, or godfathers and godmothers, became a custom in this century * 1.133.

The sign of the cross in baptism was likewise intro∣duced into the church of Rome, the beginning of this century.

Giving the eucharist to children, introduced at the close of the last, was a matter of dispute all this century: it occasioned the first council at Toledo, 438, who left the matter undetermined: the second council, held in 675, determined in favour of it, and attempted to explain what had been before ambiguously delivered concerning it † 1.134.

Christianity was propagated in Scotland the latter end of this century, by the direction of pope Celestine 415 § 1.135.

CENTURY THE SIXTH.

In the sixth century, the church never considered the pope as head of all the churches in the world: he was a patriarch, and had the chief place among his brethren, because he resided at Rome; and hitherto they seemed to desire no more; and though he arrogated to himself that pre-eminence, he was ingenuous enough to acknow∣ledge, that the privilege was of human origin 〈◊〉〈◊〉 and they were not wanting to preserve this authority among the people by a pomp and splendor, as indecent as the arogant style, which some of them affected ‖ 1.136.

The infallibility of the pope of Rome was unknown as yet, amidst the enormities, errors, and contradictions, of several of them: it would, indeed, have been a ridi∣culous inconsistency, to give oracular authority to the sentences of such men.

The superiority of councils to the pope was therefore a point hitherto not disputed: the popes themselves de∣fired

such assemblies, and declared, that so far from having a power of altering their decrees, that on the con∣trary, their own opinions and doctrines were to be sub∣jected to the examination of councils. It was, indeed, a rule, that the bishop obtained his office by election; but the corruption of the times was such, that money had frequently a great share in it. The bishop was then subject to the civil magist ates of Rome, and acknow∣ledged, as his sovereign, the emperor of Rome, and afterwards the kings o•• Italy. It also appears from the canon law, that the usages of the Roman church, and the letters and epistles of the popes, gradually acquired the authority of laws § 1.137.

Very early in this century, the notion of the popes independency on councils was first broached: the occa∣sion of which was, that some crimes were laid to the charge of Symmachus, then bishop of Rome. His friends in the council pretended, "That no assembly of bishops had a power to judge the pope, and that he was ac∣countable for his actions to God alone," which was unan∣swerably confuted as soon as broached. One of the council immediately observed, they were convened for that purpose, and he was for that end summoned to ap∣pear before them.

Justin, who ascended the imperial throne, A. D. 518, revived the persecutions, as a mark of his greater zeal for orthodoxy than his predecessor: Anastasius Severus, bishop of Antioch, being warm against the council of Chalcedon, the emperor ordered his tongue to be cut out. Platina also tells us, that he banished the Arians, and gave their churches to the orthodox. Hormisda also, bishop of Rome, after the example of Symmachus, banished the remainder of the Manichees, and caused their writings to be burnt.

Justinian, his successor, succeeded him also in his zeal for the council of Chalcedon, and banished the bishops of Constantinople and Antioch, because they would not obey his orders.—He published a law, that there should

be no pagan or heretic in his empire, allowing three months only for their conversion: by another, he ren∣dered them incapable of being witnesses in any trial against Christians: he likewise prohibited the tran∣scribing any heretical book, upon the punishment of losing both their hands. These laws were principally enacted at the instigation of the orthodox bishops. Thus Agapetus, bishop of Rome, who had condemned An∣thimus, and deposed him from his see of Constantinople, persuaded Justinian to banish all those whom he had con∣demned for heresy. But notwithstanding all his zeal for orthodoxy, and the cruel edicts he published for the ex∣tirpation of heresy, he was infamously covetous; sold the provinces of the empire to plunderers and op∣pressors, stripped the wealthy of their estates upon false accusations. Evagrius * 1.138 likewise charges him with a variety of other unheard-of cruelties, and unnatural vices.

During the reign of Justinian, in the 24th year of it, was held the fifth general council at Constantinople, A. D. 553, consisting of about 165 fathers. The occa∣sion of their meeting was the opposition that was made to the four former general councils, and particularly the writings of Origen, which Eustochius, bishop of Jeru∣salem, accused, as full of many dangerous errors. In the first sessions it was debated, whether those, who were dead, were to be anathematized? One Eutychius looked with contempt on the fathers for their hesitation in so plain a matter, and told them, that there needed no deliberation about it; for that king Josias formerly did not only destroy the idolatrous priests who were living, but dug also those, who had been dead long before, out of their graves. So clear a determination of the point, who could resist? The fathers were immediately con∣vinced, and Justinian caused him to be consecrated bishop of Constantinople, in the room of Menas, just de∣ceased, for this his skill in scripture and casuistry. The consequence was, that the decrees of the four preceding

councils were all confirmed; those who were condemned by them, re-condemned and anathematized; particu∣larly Theodorus, bishop of Mopsuestia, and Ibas, with their writings, as favouring the impieties of Nestorius; and finally, Origen, with all his detestable and execrable principles, and all persons whatsoever, who should think or speak of them, or dare to defend them. After these transactions the synod sent an account of them to Justi∣nian, whom they complimented with the title of the Most Christian King, and with having a soul partaker of the heavenly nobility; and yet soon after these flatteries, his most christian majesty turned heretick himself, and endeavoured, with as much zeal, to propagate heresy, as he had done orthodoxy before: he published an edict, by which he ordained, That the body of Christ was in∣corruptible, and incapable even of natural and innocent pas∣sions; that before his death he eat in the same manner as he did after his resurrection, receiving no conversion or change from his very formation in the womb, neither in his volun∣tary or natural affections, nor after his resurrection. But as he was endeavouring to force the bishops to receive his creed, God was pleased, as Evagrius observes, to cut him off.

But after the year 560, the bishops being become the absolute dispensers of the fourth part of the goods of the church, they began to employ more of their care in their temporal affairs, and to make parties in the cities; so that elections were no longer carried on with a view to the service of God, but managed by faction and in∣trigues, which often proceeded to open violence. This gave the first alarm to princes, who had hitherto little concerned themselves in the choice of the ministry. Moved, therefore, partly by religious considerations, and partly by reasons of state, they now began not to suffer the clergy and people to determine elections by themselves, and according to their own passions: for seeing men no longer avoiding and flying from bishop∣rics, but even making interest for them by all the courtship and skilful sollicitations they could use, so

great a contest opened the way to seditions. These proceedings produced an edict, that no person elected should be consecrated without the approbation of the prince, reserving to themselves the right of confirming the great bishoprics, such as those in Italy, of Rome, Ravenna, and Milan. In this manner, that is, with the imperial sanction, the popes and bishops continued to be chosen. Through all the history of Gregory of Tours, from the time of Clowis, the first Christian king of France, until the year 590, we find no instance of any one bishop being made in any other manner, than by the nomination or consent of the king. It was easy for those bishops, when once they were made without the authority of the people, to exclude the people also from the choice of priests and deacons, and other ecclesiastical ministers, and to transfer that right to the emperor or prince alone: and thus the succession of bishops and clergy became greatly irregu∣lar; and, instead of being chosen and set apart to their respective offices by the people, whom they were ap∣pointed to watch over and minister unto, accord∣ing to reason and ancient usage, they were set apart by those invested with civil power.

And notwithstanding this order and method was broke through in after-times by arbitrary measures, it appears that, so late as the year 590, the pope was not deemed lawful pope till his election was confirmed by the emperor: hence Gregory the Great, being chosen by a great majority, but desirous to decline that dig∣nity, wrote to the emperor Mauritius, intreating him to refuse his consent, that the electors might thereby be obliged to chuse another. The person chosen was also stiled Elect, not Bishop, and yielded the first place in the church to the arch priest * 1.139.

Under Mauritius, John, bishop of Constantinople, in a council held in that city, stiled himself Oecumenical Bishop, by the consent of the fathers there assembled;

and the emperor himself ordered Gregory to acknow∣ledge him in that character. Gregory absolutely re∣fused it, and replied, that the power of binding and loosing was delivered to Peter and his successors, and not to the bishops of Constantinople; admonishing him to take care, that he did not provoke the anger of God against himself, by raising tumults in his church. This pope was the first who stiled himself, Servus Servorum Dei, Servant of the Servants of God; and had such an abhorrence of the title of Universal Bishop, that he said, "I confidently affirm, than whosoever calls himself Universal Priest, is the fore-runner of Antichrist, by thus proudly exalting himself above others."

But however modest Gregory was in refusing and condemning this arrogant title, Boniface III. thought better of the matter; and, after great struggles, pre∣vailed with Phocas, who murdered Mauritius, the em∣peror, to declare, that the see of the blessed apostle Peter, which is the head of all churches, should be so called and accounted by all, and the bishop of it Oecumenical or Universal Bishop. The church of Constantinople had claimed this precedence and dignity, and was sometimes favoured herein by the emperors, who declared, that the first see ought to be in that place which was the head of the empire. The Roman pontiffs, on the other hand, affirmed that Rome, of which Constantinople was but a colony, ought to be esteemed the head of the empire; because the Greeks themselves, in their writings, stile the emperor, Roman Emperor, and the inhabitants of Constantinople are called Romans, and not Greeks; not to mention that Peter, the prince of the apostles, gave the keys of the kingdom of heaven to his successors, the popes of Rome. On this foundation was the superiority of the church of Rome, to that of all other churches, built: and Phocas, who was guilty of all villainies, was one of the fittest persons that could be found to gratify Boniface in this request. Boniface also called a council

at Rome, where this supremacy was confirmed, and by whom it was decreed, that bishops should be chosen by the clergy and people, approved by the prince of the city, and ratified by the pope with these words, volumus et jubemus, for this is our will and command. To reward Phocas for the grant of the primacy, he approved the murder of Mauritius, and very honour∣ably received his images, which he sent to Rome; and, having thus wickedly possessed themselves of this unrighteous power, the popes as wickedly used it, soon brought almost the whole Christian world into subjec∣tion to them, and became the persecutors general of the church of God, proceeding from one usurpation to another, till at last they brought emperors, kings, and princes, into subjection, forcing them to ratify their unjust decrees, and to punish, in the severest manner, all that should presume to oppose and contradict them, till she became drunken with the blood of the saints, and with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus; Babylon the great, the mother of harlots and abominations of the earth † 1.140. Pretty early in this century persecutions recommenced at Rome against the Manichees.

The custom of anathematizing persons after death was introduced from apresumption, that all those whom they anathematized, and condemned as heretics, their sentence would be confirmed by the Supreme Being; but others more modestly pleaded only for its being their duty to shew their disapprobation of heretics, as well dead as living.

This was one part of the contest called the Three Chapters, which occasioned the meeting of several coun∣cils in this century. The second was concerning the writings of Theodoret against Cyril; and the third was concerning the letter of Ibas to the pope, whether orthodox or not * 1.141.

The dignity of the clergy of all ranks was a point much insisted on. Pope Felix, A. D. 528, asserted,

that the clergy were by divine right exempted from the power of the civil magistrate, and their misconduct only cognizable by, and liable to, the censure of the church, and the synods of each diocese and province § 1.142.

It likewise became a dispute, whether a pope, who is not true (that is, rightly elected and constituted) can be infallible. This was occasioned by two popes being chosen at the same time, viz. Boniface II. and Dioscorus, A. D. 5••0; but the great quarrel was ter∣minated by the death of Dioscorus ‖ 1.143.

Praying to the virgin Mary was received as a laudable practice by the Romish church, and many attributes ascribed to her ‡ 1.144.

Purgatory was a device of St. Austin's in this cen∣tury; but he both said and unsaid it, and at last, like a wise schoolman, left it doubtful. The papists were greatly divided about it; and it is more properly said to be a new doctrine started by him, than received as an article of faith in the Romish church in this century.

Praying for the dead was a practice that prevailed at the latter end of this century: a novelty of pope Gregory I. who likewise introduced the procession of the host, A. D. 592. Indulgences were also granted by him in the year 600, but not in the manner or for the pur∣poses as they were soon after, and now in general, un∣derstood, being then occasionally granted to Chri∣stians, when they had fallen into any heinous crime, either in denying their faith, or sacrificing to idols, through the fear of, or actual suffering, perfection; and for which, being enjoined a long penance, the pope had power to mitigate, which power of mitigation was called indulgence † 1.145.

The author of the History of Popery ‖ 1.146, speaking of the progress of popish doctrines and ceremonies, says,

"that hitherto papal indulgences, as now understood, were not so much as heard of—purgatory fire was un∣kindled—their mass was yet unmoulded—transubstan∣tiation unthought of—the doctrine of merits untaught— the cup in the sacrament not denied to the laity; and not till long after that prayers were made with the people in an unknown tongue: but from hence we be∣hold the church in her declining state; knowledge de∣cayed, superstition usurped the place of zeal, and both princes and prelates were more busied in ornamenting churches, or building nunneries, &c. than in raising up living stones, and edifying God's spiritual temple."

CENTURY THE SEVENTH.

In this century we meet with many remarkable oc∣currences.—At the beginning of it, Mellitus, the first bishop of London, in consequence of the high dignity to which he was advanced, went to Rome, as Bede in∣forms us, to consult with the pope concerning the affairs of the English church; on which occasion Boniface called a council of the Italian bishops, at which the bishop of London attended or assisted, and when it broke up, returned to London with the decrees of that court.

Pope Boniface shewed no small zeal in propagating the Christian religion in Great Britain; but, at the same time, he took care to introduce an undue veneration for the papal robes, for the authority and dignity of the sovereign pontiff, and for a variety of ceremonies which defaced the simplicity of the gospel. This pope's pall was first sent into England to Justus, who, in the year 624, succeeded Mellitus in the see of Canterbury; and the number of bishops were greatly increased, as well as of inferior clergy, who received their ordination from the bishop of Canterbury, by virtue of that great dig∣nity which had been delegated to him by the pope.

Another point aimed at was, to increase a veneration for the clergy, insomuch that pretty early in this cen∣tury

the clergy acquired a very great ascendancy over the people, and they voluntarily imparted a considerable share of their worldly substance, especially in some of the capital cities, as well as Rome, which in each city made one capital stock; and this was not divided be∣tween them and the poor, but was appropriated to the priest, and other collections were made for the poor: these capital stocks were called Patrimonies; a name not denoting any dominion or jurisdiction belonging to the Roman church, or the pope, but to signify the estate of every church, and was distinguished from the patri∣monies of private men, as we find in many places of the 12th book of the Code * 1.147.

And to create a greater respect for the estates be∣longing to the church, it was usual to annex the name of some favourite saint which that church held in great veneration; so the estates of the church of Ravenna were called the patrimony of St. Apollinare; that of Milan, the patrimony of St. Ambrose; and the estates of the Roman church, the patrimony of St. Peter in Am∣bruzzo.

The bulk of ecclesiastical historians fix the year 606 for the title of universal bishop, being conferred by way of pre-eminence on the pontiff of Rome; a dignity which had been assumed by the bishop of Constantino∣ple, and by others in the last century, but was now confirmed to pope Boniface III. who, being elected pope, prevailed on the emperor Phocas to take the title of universal bishop from the bishop of Constanti∣nople, and to grant it to him, and his successors, by his absolute decree, which passed for that purpose. His taking upon him this authority, or dignity, was thought the more extraordinary, as his immediate predecessor but one, and probably, the best and the greatest, so often condemned it in any bishop whatsoever, and rejected it with indignation, when offered to himself, as vain, proud, impious, blasphemous and antichristian, But

no sooner had they brought that ecclesiastical power to its highest pitch, than they began to extend their views, to join insensibly the temporal and the spiritual power; nor did their boundless ambition allow them, or the world, any rest, till they got themselves acknow∣ledged for universal monarchs, as well as universal bishops, over all where they had any jurisdiction ¶ 1.148.

The church of Scotland were much divided in their sentiments concerning the time of keeping Easter, and were with much difficulty reduced to the celebration of it according to the practice of the church of Rome.

About the year 634 commenced that grand dispute, which made so much noise in the East, whether there were in Christ two operating wills, the one human, the other divine, or only one will and one operation: this occasioned a general dissention, and the convention of several councils, and in the fifth and last session of the Lateran, A. D. 637, under the more immediate di∣rection of pope Honorius, it was concluded in favour of one will. But this did not terminate the dispute.

However, about the year 646 another dispute in∣tervened in regard to the titles and authority of the pope, the African bishop having addressed Theodore the pope in a very high stile, calling him father of fa∣thers and the supreme pontiff of all bishops: the new primate of Constantinople wrote to him as his brother, and concluded with saying, the apostles had all an equal share of power and of honour. This dispute subsided for a time, and gave place to the revival of the former.

In 649 a council was called by Martin, bishop of Rome, concerning the two natures and two opera∣tions in Christ, and the doctrine of one will and one operation condemned and anathematized ‡ 1.149. The form as follows: — "I Martin, by the mercy of God, bishop of the holy catholic and apostolic church of the city of Rome, have signed as judge this definition, con∣firming

the orthodox faith, and condemning Theodorus, formerly bishop of Pharan, Cyrus of Alexandria, Ser∣gius, Pyrrhus, and Paul of Constantinople, and their heretical writings, with the impious ecthesis and the im∣pious type."

This authoritative definition and decree gave great umbrage, and did not soon subside; for it appears, that the authority of the pope, so late as the year 669, was a matter of dispute: it was not acknowledged in Italy itself without the limits of the Suburbicarian provinces, the ancient limits of the jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome. Maurus, bishop of Ravenna, being soon after summoned by Vitalianus, to Rome, to give an account of his faith and his conduct, not only refused to obey the summons, but let the pope know, that he had no authority over him or his see. This unexpected answer provoked Vitalianus to such a degree, that he imme∣diately thundered against Maurus the sentence of ex∣communication; but of his excommunication he made no more account than he made of his summons; nay, thinking he had as good a right to excommunicate the pope as the pope had to excommunicate him, he re∣torted the sentence, and excommunicated him in his turn, which was thought a crime of so atrocious a na∣ture, that he was stripped of his priesthood and reduced to the state of a layman: but the bishop of Ravenna being supported by the exarch, he continued, in spite of the pope to exercise all the functions of his office till his death, and then left it in charge with his last breath, never to submit to the undue power assumed by the pope, which was strictly adhered to by his suc∣cessor * 1.150.

In 680, when Agatho was bishop of Rome, another council was held at Constantinople on the errors of the Monothelites, in a spacious 〈◊〉〈◊〉 of the imperial palace, called from the form of the building Trulla, that is, C••pola, from whence it has sometimes that name: it

consisted of 166 bishops. It was moved at their first session, that the opinions of the fathers should be care∣fully and diligently consulted, in order to determine this point with greater certainty; and accordingly the ten first sessions were spent in examining passages out of the fathers and approved councils; and in the 18th session was read, and approved, and signed, the defini∣tion and decree of the council, first acknowledging they received the five general councils; then they ana∣thematized the impious and execrable doctrine of one will, and the abettors of it, among whom was Honorius, bishop of Rome, Cyrus of Alexandria, Macarius of Antioch, and others; and in the conclusion the impe∣rial edict was read, requiring all the subjects of the em∣pire to conform in their belief to the present edict, on pain of being deposed, if ecclesiastics; forfeiting their honour and estates, if laymen of rank and distinction; and if private persons, to be banished the city of Con∣stantinople and all other cities in the empire. This se∣vere edict was founded on that doctrine being repug∣nant to the faith of the holy catholic and apostolic church, and the opinion of the fathers.

Such was the conduct and conclusion of the sixth ge∣neral council, declared to be of equal authority with the council of Nice, or any other council, and their de∣crees; according to pope Gregory the Great, equal with the gospels themselves; but by this council the infalli∣bility of the pope is irreconcilable with that of the council, Honorius the pope being thereby condemned as a heretic, his books ordered to be burnt, and he over and over anathematized. Hence it is observed by some authors, that one would think the papal infallibility would be given up by all who pretend to acknowledge the authority and infallibility of this council.

It is also remarked, as the conclusions of this coun∣cil were principally founded on the authority of the fa∣thers, this introduced such a veneration for them, that their authority was almost universally asserted to be the rule of faith and doctrine, anathematizing all who do

not from the heart believe, and with the mouth profess, every thing delivered by the fathers * 1.151; notwithstand∣ing, as our author asserts, they must then believe the most absurd and contradictory doctrines, doctrines even repugnant to scripture, to reason, and common sense † 1.152. For the primitive fathers went very far in superstition, even so as to imitate the gentiles in their worship of daemons; for they canonized saints, and honoured their relics; they varied the mode of baptism by suffusion, trine immersion; introduced exorcism; Chrism gave milk and honey to the new baptised, and in the eucha∣rist they mingled water with wine, gave the sacrament to children, and this continued to be the practice of the church to the twelfth century ‡ 1.153.

Pope Gregory I. who was so remarkable for super∣stition and invention, as to be surnamed the Great, in∣troduced

the doctrine of purgatory; and amongst other devices of the church of Rome in this century, the bi∣shops of Rome were first honoured with the triple crown.—It was required that the traditions of the Ro∣mish church should be deemed as sacred, as if deliver∣ed by the mouth of St. Peter himself.—The heathen temples (sacred to God) were dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and to other nominal saints, and it was decreed that the church should be an asylum to all who fled to it, though guilty of the greatest crimes.—No man was to marry a woman to whom his father had been godfather in baptism:—abstinence from certain meats and drinks on certain days was deemed meritorious: —all saints-day instituted by Boniface IV. A. D. 610 ‖ 1.154, and the number of feasts greatly augmented: — the feast of the circumcision: — the feast of the purification: — the annunciation of the Virgin Mary:—and the feast of the deposition or sleep of the Virgin Mary fixed to the 15th of August, and the practice of fasting on Sa∣turdays forbidden on pain of excommunication for the laity, and deposition of the clergy * 1.155.—But amongst other things, the Lord's prayer was decreed to be read in their public worship at Rome, and was, soon after, injoined on all the churches 618 ‖ 1.156; and organs were first brought into the Christian church by pope Vitalianus, about the year 660 † 1.157.

The sixth general council, held at Constantinople in 680, decreed, that Jesus Christ should be painted in a human form upon the cross, which picture of him should be put up in churches to represent, in the most lively manner imaginable to all Christians, the death and passion of our Blessed Saviour: at other times he was delineated in the form of a lamb, and the Holy Ghost by that of a dove * 1.158. Private masses became

more frequent, and they gave the communion in both kinds with leavened bread. Another council was held in 692 at Trullo; they made 102 canons, most of them of a trifling nature, others very severe and opres∣sive to such as differed in points of faith or discipline * 1.159.

Theodore, as he expresses it, had the satisfaction, be∣fore he died, of seeing most if not all the novel doc∣trines and Romish ceremonies established all over Eng∣land, and the churches of the Scotch establishment, in this century † 1.160.

CENTURY THE EIGHTH.

In the Eighth century we have many melancholy instances of the great corruption in the Christian church.

The number of church-officers was, indeed, in some measure fixed, and the several orders of archbishops, bi∣shops, deans, canons, curates, &c. &c. in a manner pretty near to what subsists at present in the Romish church ‖ 1.161.

The pope now assumed to himself the power of dis∣posing of the pall independently of the emperors, and declared by repeated decrees, it was unlawful for a metropolitan archbishop or primate to exercise any branch of his power till he had received his pall from Rome; and in several decrees the metropolitical juris∣diction and power were said to be conferred by the pall § 1.162.

Gregory III. in 734, by a solemn sentence, deprived the emperor Leo, both of his empire and the com∣munion of the faithful, because he would not admit of the worship of images ‡ 1.163 Pope Leo III. set the im∣perial crown on the head of Charlemaign, all the peo∣ple crying out, To Charles Augustus, crowned of God

great and peaceable emperor of the Romans, long life and victorious (after which salutations the emperor adored the pope himself by kissing his feet). The pope gladly approved the acclamations and homage paid by the people, especially as he saw by his being in∣strumental in investing the emperor with such dig∣nity, he thereby insured to himself greater power, dignity, and influence.

This is the latest date of the commencement of the Anti-christian reign, 756; the papal see having then established its temporal jurisdiction by being invested with the exarchate of Ravenna ‖ 1.164.

In Italy, where the wealth of the monasteries had not made them considerable before the year 750, they had passed unregarded by the Gothic kings, the em∣perors and the kings of Lombardy, so that the elec∣tion remained still in the monks, only with the superin∣tendence of the bishops.—But the bishops being be∣come uneasy to the monasteries, by their aspiring to too much power, the abbots and monks, to deliver themselves from this subjection, betook themselves to the popes beseeching him to exempt them from the bishop's jurisdiction.

This was gladly embraced by the popes who saw their interest in creating, by this means, an imme∣diate dependence on themselves in cities belonging to other governments, and in enlarging their autho∣rity over other bishops; besides that it imported ex∣treamly, that so great a body as that of the monks, who in those times were almost the only persons who addicted themselves to learning should depend entirely on the see of Rome, and this exemption quickly ex∣tended itself to all the monasteries, which, by this means, became more closely united to that see, and separated from the bishops. But St. Bernard, de∣testing this innovation, remonstrates to pope Eugene II. on the great abuse of an abbots refusing to obey his

bishop, and the bishop his metropolitan; that the church militant ought to govern itself after the ex∣ample of the church triumphant, where an angel never saith, I will not submit to an archangel. But what would this saint have said, if he had lived in one of the following ages? St. Bernard saith, Me∣zeray loudly condemns those exemptions, for, saith he, to exempt abbots from the jurisdiction of bishops, what is it other than commanding them to rebel? And is it not as monstrous a deformity in the body of the church, to unite immediately a chapter or an abbey to the holy see, as in a human body to join a finger to a head? But it is observable by the way, that the exemption from temporal rights, which the bishops themselves had granted them, opened the door to this spiritual exemption * 1.165.

The kissing the pope's toe was first submitted to by the emperor Justinian in 711. Laymen excluded as not eligible for bishops, priest or deacons, 768. The worship of images was first made a law to the church, by the second council of Nice, in the year 789, which council was afterwards opposed by that of Frankfort in 794 ‖ 1.166.

The dispute between the eastern and western bishops, whether the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father and the Son, or from the Father only, was decided, both in Spain and France, in favour of the former opinion; and whether Jesus Christ may be stiled the adopted Son of God, was decided in the negative, and the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father asserted.

CENTURY THE NINTH.

In the ninth century, the papal dignity received a remarkable increase, with respect to the church. The pope of Rome assumed the title of universal bishop, or head of the church; and strenuously laboured to im∣prove

this at first unmeaning title into something more substantial.

Though the eastern patriarchs were not wanting in a vigorous opposition, yet the bishops of Rome were very successful in subjecting most of the western churches to themselves. The means made use of for this purpose, and the principal causes of it, were the superstitious veneration for the pretended chair of St. Peter; — the divisions amongst the clergy, which pro∣duced the custom of appealing to the popes — the obli∣gation laid on the missionaries employed for preaching the gospel among the pagans, to instruct them in the authority and dignity of the pope—their zeal likewise in asserting and vindicating his pre-eminence to those of all other eccle∣siastics, which was confirmed by grant of privileges, and particularly by sending the pallium—the fantastical desire of some prelates to be consecrated by the pope himself — the separation from the eastern churches, which was always decried as heretical—the strict care taken to attach the body of the monks to the service of the see of Rome—the collections of the papal decretals, and of the canon laws of Rome, &c. were compiled for the direction of churches in general.

The extent of this authority cannot be precisely de∣termined: it appears to be much larger in churches newly planted, than those of earlier date § 1.167.

Infallibility could not be admitted against the evi∣dence of the fall of Honorius, and of the manifestly-wicked lives of some popes; nor does it appear to have been a point fixed, since it was thought necessary, that the pope should not only transmit his confession of faith, but also at his elevation take the solemn oath of reli∣gion: besides, the decrees of councils were preferred to the sentences of the popes. Some churches 〈◊〉〈◊〉 Africa and Aquilia asserted their freedom; some b•• shops did not allow the pope to be their judge; an•• the emperor and kings of Spain, France and England

still exercised their supreme power in ecclesiastical mat∣ters; and it is a ridiculous pretence, that the pope at this time had a right of creating and deposing kings: for, on the other hand, the sovereigns of the city of Rome, who were first the Greek emperors, then Char∣lemagne looked on the popes as their subjects, and did summon them judicially to appear before them.

Nevertheless, in this century, the bishops of Rome became possessed of territories and subjects, which at first proceeded from the princes and kings of France of the Carlovingeian line, who, in a great measure owing their promotion to the friendship of the pope, in the warmth of their gratitude, bestowed possessions in Italy on the see of Rome: but, then, they conveyed to the pope no more than an usufructuary enjoyment of certain territories, still retaining the sovereignty. In like manner the popes were invested with certain prerogatives, yet were subject to Charlemagne, as they had been before to the Greek emperors.

But the posterity of Charlemagne having been driven out of Italy in the year 884, pope Hadrian III. ordained, that the popes should, for the future, be consecrated without applying to the emperor at all ‡ 1.168. The emperor being yet young, and Germany all in commotions, this juncture invited the pope to exclude him entirely from the election of the bishops and abbots, and to that end sent him a monitory, whereby the emperor was forbid to concern himself any more with those dispositions * 1.169.

However, we may, in the last place, mention that, about the close of this century, the kissing of the foot of the pope took place, as a token of respect, which had before been paid to the high priest among the pagans.

From this time, to about the middle of the next century, wherein Italy laboured under the extremest

confusions, as well in the civil government as eccle∣siastical, especially in the papacy, we must not expect to find any traces or forms of good government in the church, but a mere chaos of impieties, and a general preparative and forerunner of the miserable revolutions and disorders which followed.

Popes were then excommunicated by their successors, and their acts cancelled and annulled, not excepting the very administration of the sacraments. Six popes were driven out, and dethroned, by those who aspired to their places.

Romanus I. did the same to Stephen VI. which Ste∣phen had done to Formosus; and Theodorus II. autho∣rised all the acts of Formosus; and John X. who suc∣ceeded Theodorus, confirmed the acts of Formosus, and condemned the judgment of Stephen VI. Two popes were put to death, Leo V. by Christophorus, and after∣wards Christophorus in the next century. In short, such a series of wild disorders gave occasion to historians to say, that those times produced monsters instead of popes. Fra. Paola makes a very judicious reflection on the disorders in those times: "I have not found (saith he) reasons sufficient to prove the history of pope Joan, no more than I have met with any to convince me of the contrary; however, to speak sincerely, I incline to the opinion of its being false; but not for its absurdity, that age producing things as extraordinary as a lady's being papess † 1.170."

The Greek church which had held many disputes with the western bishops, especially since the sixth century entirely separated from the see of Rome, with respect to some doctrines and ceremonies which will hereafter be specified.

The custom of observing Lent was first introduced into England by Ercumbert, the seventh king of Kent: at the beginning of this century several monasteries of nuns were established, the Roman ritual introduced into most

churches, the number of solemn and particular festivals was increased, fasting in the vigils commanded, and the feast of the presentation of the Virgin in the temple was observed by the Latins.

The consecrating of churches and altars was most re∣gularly observed, and the custom of burying in churches introduced.

CENTURY THE TENTH.

In the tenth century the election of the pope still re∣mained in the clergy, the senate, and the people, the soldiery not excepted; but the freedom of their election was corrupted by bribery and violence. Theodora, a famous courtezan, got her professed lover chosen pope, who was called John X. A. D. 915; and John XI. was chosen pope at the age of twenty.

Nor is there any century in which the Roman chair was disgraced by so many profligate popes as in this. The power of the popes being enlarged, and confirmed, they were considered as bishops of the world; and their ju∣risdiction was admitted in all matters, at least which are styled ecclesiastical. Princes now began to seek their friendship, and found their account in it too; and then it was no wonder if the authority of St. Peter's successors should be readily acknowledged, and their vanity foothed and flattered. Hence we find, that about this period the popes began to change their Christian names for others, and the bishop of Rome claimed the appellation of Pope in contradistinction from other bishops ‡ 1.171; and even asserted, that the bishops of Rome, as suc∣cessors of St. Peter, and vicegerents of Christ, have all power, both in heaven and earth. In order to establish this, a power was asserted of making articles of faith; and great zeal was used to subject all ecclesiastical per∣sons immediately to the see of Rome.

In A. D. 963, Otho of Saxony entered Italy, and subdued it by arms; and in order to settle some form of

government there, he assembled a little council of bishops, wherein he deposed pope John XII. but he had been made pope at the age of eighteen, and had disho∣noured the pontificate by adulteries and perjuries, and and the rest of his character was unsuitable to his office ¶ 1.172.

Otho obliged the Roman people, and pope Leo VIII. who had been put in the place of pope John, to give up to the emperors the right of electing popes for thirty-six years, and within that space, out of twelve two were elected peaceably, but the others not without tumult and disorder, which occasioned Benedict V. to be car∣ried prisoner by Otho I. Benedict VI. by Otho II. John XIII. was strangled by one who aspired to the dig∣nity; Boniface VII. robbed the treasury of St. Peter, and fled; Joannes XVII. or rather XVI. went into vo∣luntary banishment; so that Baronicus observes, though these are placed in the catalogue to make up the num∣ber, the church had then in effect no other head than Jesus Christ himself, and we may justly enquire after the infallibility.

In the midst of the confusions, the archbishop of Rheims took upon him the care of the French church. —In Germany, the emperor being no less pious than brave, and several of their bishops religiously disposed, they applied themselves to the prevention of disorders, and to promoting a reformation; insomuch, that the German churches are said to flourish at this time * 1.173.—In England, as king Alfred had restored the study of lite∣rature in the latter end of the last century, the kings, his successors, took some care about the reformation and ecclesiastical discipline: but we find the laws were enacted, and several regulations made, evidently shew their undue attachments to the see of Rome; such particularly as related to the payment of tythes, Peter-pence, and some others.

There was but little controversy about points of doc∣trine in this century, but in relation to the consecrated elements.—The translation of bishops was now frequent —Marriage was forbid to be celebrated on any Sunday, or in Lent—Bells were first consecrated—and the solemn canonization of a saint by the pope was introduced.

The general commemoration of all deceased saints was instituted at the end of this century.

And till towards the end of this century, the holy scriptures were read, and divine service celebrated, in the vulgar tongue † 1.174.

Octavianus was the first who changed his Name for the sake of obtaining the dignity of bishop of Rome, A. D. 956.

CENTURY THE ELEVENTH.

In the Eleventh Century we find the bishops of Rome were by no means content with confining their jurisdic∣tion to matters which may be stiled ecclesiastical; they were not satisfied with depriving princes of the right of investiture, and arrogating to themselves the confirma∣tion of the newly-elected bishops, as indispensibly requisite; but they assumed the disposal of the most profitable be∣benefices, as the surest means of providing for their creatures; and pope Alexander, in 1062, sold several bishopricks, which gave occasion to many bitter com∣plaints both in Germany and England * 1.175.

The appellation of pope, which originally signifies papa, was first appropriated to the bishop of Rome by Gregory VII. A. D. 1050.

The cardinals had the red hat now given them as an ensign of their dignity, and the election of the popes was limited to the cardinals, besides other singular pri∣vileges which they now enjoy.

Pope Gregory VII. forced the bishops to take an oath

of fealty to the popes, and by a decree enacted, that none should dare to condemn any one who had appealed to the pope.—Having first openly avowed, that as pope, he had an inherent and absolute power over all sovereigns, he took upon him to cite the emperor Henry to appear and answer for his conduct at Rome. Henry despised those citations, for which he was excommunicated by Gregory, who threatened the same to Philip I. of France, and issued his fulminations against most of the princes of Europe. He governed all the Western churches with an absolute authority, and did all that was in his power to get himself made the sovereign monarch of the universe.—The dictatus papae, which contains twenty-seven propositions in behalf of the highest pretensions of the court of Rome, was wrote by this pope. The papists confess they are ashamed of those propositions; and particularly the twenty-third, which declares, that the Roman pontiff being canonically or∣dained, becomes undoubtedly holy by the merits of St. Peter * 1.176.

Pope Gregory VII. besides his repeated excommu∣nications, and the frequent rebellions which he stirred up and fomented, prevailed even with the emperor's eldest son to join in rebellion against his father, who, by this means, was almost driven out of Italy; and the succeeding pope, Victor III. pursued the same methods in carrying on the war, poured out his excommunica∣tions afresh upon the Emperor, plyed him with frequent rebellions, urged his son Henry against him, and at length induced him to take arms; so that at last, after great vicissitudes of fortune, he came to an accommoda∣tion, but was deceived in the conditions, and in the end reduced to a private life, by a resignation of his empire to his son, whom he caused to be crowned king.

This unnatural son, when his father came to the diet, held at Mentz, with a numerous army, not long after, went to meet him, and casting himself at his feet,

begged pardon with all the outward marks of a sincere repentance: the emperor was wrought upon by this feigned submission, and they both went together to Bin∣gen, where the son deluded the father, raising a jealousy in him, that the archbishop of Mentz might keep him prisoner, if he entered that city before he was absolved from his excommunication: therefore, advising him to stay at Bingen, while he went to dispose the princes of the adverse party, at that diet, to a reconciliation, the emperor swallowed the bait. The son went to the diet without him, and by the instigation of the pope, got him∣self proclaimed emperor.

Pascal II. the fourth pope from Gregory VII. took up the spiritual arms of excommunication, to wrest the investiture of bishops and abbots out of the hands of the emperors, held a council at Guastalla in Mantua, and another at Troyes in France, and renewed the decrees of Gregory VII. that no laick should intermeddle with the collation of benefices. Violent quarrels, contests, and wars, ensued, which extended to the next cen∣tury * 1.177. But the emperor came to Italy with a powerful army, and obtained a revocation of that decree.

Some fathers of the council made use of this dilemma. "If the decree, by which the pope consented to yield up the investitures to the emperor, was lawful, it ought to be observed: but if it be unjust, and, as some say, he∣retical, the pope, as the author of it, is therefore un∣just and heretical also † 1.178."

Indulgences, as they are now understood, and the office of the Virgin Mary, as it is now used, by the church of Rome, had the sanction of a decree by the

council of Clermont, A. D. 1095 ‡ 1.179. About the end of this century the practice of disciplining one's self was in∣troduced;—the custom of doing penance for others took place;—the feasts of the four seasons were ob∣served; — several councils enjoined abstinence on Fri∣days and Saturdays; mass for the living was to be cele∣brated but once a day, a second permitted for the dead; the priests were enjoined penance, who, through negli∣gence, should let fall the hostia; — all the faithfull were obliged to communicate at Easter; — the communion was hitherto received under both kinds ‖ 1.180; — a decree was made in England against the marriage of priests, by Lanfranc, bishop of Canterbury, in a synod held at Winchester ‖ 1.181.

CENTURY THE TWELFTH.

In this century the pope of Rome and other eccle∣siastics attempted with great vigour to subject to themselves princes, and their kingdoms and states, urging, that the splendor of their dignity was to that of the majesty of emperors and kings as the effulgence of the sun to the borrowed light of the moon; and therefore they demanded from crowned heads the most extravagant marks of respect:—they then claimed the right of conferring royal dignity, and particularly pre∣sumed to consider the imperial crown as absolutely at their disposal, and by the pretenders they set up, dis∣posed of entire kingdoms, provinces, and countries: they excommunicated emperors, kings, and princes, on the slightest occasions; laid their dominions under an interdict; discharged their subjects from their fide∣lity, and even dissolved the sacred bonds of marriage * 1.182.

And Dupin † 1.183, much to the same purpose, tells us, that the church of Rome was disturbed by obstinate schisms; the popes at war with the emperors; the kings and bishops disputing about their temporal rights; the immunities of the church, and of ecclesiastical per∣sons, strenuously opposed, and in consequence, were as vigorously supported by the bishops, and maintained by the decrees of councils; the church over-stocked with monastic and other orders of monks; scholastic divinity made the common study of the clergy; and the dignity of the sacraments, and the external worship, were great∣ly affected by many prevailing heresies. The struggles and contentions betwixt the pope and the emperor were not confined to Italy and Germany alone, which were the kingdoms and dominions of the emperor; but se∣veral bishops in France took occasion to oppose the king; but, as they were not enough united to enter all into the same league with the pope, the king generally carried his point § 1.184.

In England, where the king had hitherto conferred the bishopricks and abbies, Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, in the year 1102, in obedience to the pope's decrees, began to refuse to consecrate bishops nominated by the king. This contest held for many years, the king, viz. Henry I. maintaining his right, and the archbishop, supported by the pope, opposing it: the king, in hopes to bring the pope to hear reason, sent an ambassador to Rome, who, provoked by the rough an∣swers and menaces of the pope, declared, that his master would never yield up his authority, though he lost his kingdom in its defence; to which the pope, with no less boldness, replied, he would never suffer the king to nominate to the benefices if he lost his head. The king, on the ambassador's return, exerted his au∣thority; and Anselm, the archbishop, was obliged to quit the kingdom; nor could he return without

complying with the king's pleasure.—But this prince dying, and a civil war ensuing, it was easy for the clergy to introduce into England what the pope had done in his empire.

In that space of time, between the years 1122, where∣in Henry renounced the investiture by the pope, and 1145, it became a rule almost every where in Germany, that, upon the death of a bishop, his successor should be chosen by the chapter, and confirmed by the metro∣politan; that the abbots should be chosen by the monks, and then confirmed by the bishop, if the monastery were not exempted and if it were, then the pope was to be applied to for his confirmation; that the other benefices, which were de jure patronatus, should be conferred by the bishops upon the presentation of the patron; and that all the rest should be at the entire disposal of the bishop. — Nevertheless, the election of the popedom came under no new regulation * 1.185.

However, the emperor held a right with respect to some churches; and the pope, unwilling to revive the old quarrel, as it were, shared snacks with him under various pretences.

France, however, retained the royal prerogative (call∣ed the Regale) of conferring all simple benefices vacant upon the bishops death, until a successor was appointed. — But near the close of the next century we find Boni∣face VIII. had a sharp contest with Philip of France, and ruined the kingdom, in great measure, by the ex∣communications, interdicts, &c. and, at length, de∣prived the king of his throne, and for some time gave it to the emperor Albert, depriving those of their be∣nefices, who held them under the king † 1.186. This proved one considerable means of enlarging the power of the pope.

Another considerable means of increasing the papal power was the business of tythes, first fruits, &c. which

was made to extend to fisheries, hay, wool, bees, &c. which were exacted under the severest censures. — And in order the better to promote their wealth and power, they revoked a law that had been made, that the church should reject the donations and legacies of pub∣lic sinners; but this obstacle was removed, and the pope and clergy endeavoured to prove those donations a kind of extenuations where they could not be pro∣nounced meritorious.

The large opportunities which the court of Rome had in their hands, of obliging by the disposal of so many benefices, drew thither a concourse of the clergy of all sorts; of those who had no beneficies, to obtain them; and those who had, to get them exchanged for better: and this occasioned frequent absence, they were obliged to purchase indulgence or absence of leave from their cures. — Commendams was also another pretty device: when an elective benefice became vacant such as a bishopric abby, — the care of it was recommend∣ed by the superior to some person of merit, or of inte∣rest, till another was chose: afterwards it was given for a certain time ‡ 1.187.

But among other measures that contributed to render the pope supreme governor of all Christendom, and to center the riches of the world in the treasury of the church, were the crusades or martial expeditions against infidels, especially as the clergy were fond of preaching against heretics, as they called them and their protectors. "This device," says Mezeray, "was a very successful means to aggrandize the pope; for they ordered princes to enroll themselves in those expeditions; they retained the sovereign command of those armies by their legates; and they became, in some sort, lords in chief of all who went to the crusade, not only because the pope exacted obedience from them, but because they took the other under their protection till their return, which

was like letters of state, and suspended all civil and criminal proceedings § 1.188."

But the greatest support of all this usurpation was the establishment of the inquisition in Italy, and the con∣firmation of Gratian's collection of canon laws. — Add to this the practice of canonization as an excellent means to secure constancy in the faith of the Romish church; to enrich the papal treasury; and to extend that power not only to the disposal of temporal crowns and king∣doms, but even of celestial crowns too, when it was subservient to their ambition or interest.

Pope Celestine III. was a remarkable instance of this boundless ambition, who having been formerly ob∣liged by Henry with several favours, was more inclina∣ble to crown him, in order to which the young empe∣ror hastened to Rome with his empress, and they were both crowned by this holy father in an unprecidented and most remarkable manner. The ceremony is thus related * 1.189: after the emperor had taken his oath to de∣fend the church, and the patrimony of St. Peter, &c. the emperor and empress were brought into the church and placed by the pope; and mass being solemnly ce∣lebrated by him, he anointed first the emperor, using certain solemn words, and afterwards the empress; then sitting down in his pontifical chair, he held the imperial crown between his feet, and the emperor kneeling and bowing down his head, and likewise the empress did respectively receive the crown from his feet, which was no sooner on each of their heads, but the pope, with his foot, spurned it off to the ground, in token that he had power to depose them at his pleasure: after which, the cardinals standing round received the said crown, and reverently put it upon the head, first of the emperor and then of the empress, and then con∣cluded the coronation with pomp and magnificence un∣heard

of till that time. Indeed the court of Rome was amazingly splendid by the great number of officers belonging to it, and the many rites and ceremonies that were observed in all their public acts of reli∣gion.

The ninth general council was held at Lateran, A. D 1123, wherein they granted remission of sins to such who went a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, or in aid to the catholic Christians against infidels, and ex∣communicated such as, having been crossed by the pope for that purpose, relinquished their pilgrimage ‡ 1.190. And the tenth general council, 1139, was only, or principally, to declare the decrees of pope Peter of Leon null and void.

In this century several institutions took place: two military orders of monks were appointed, viz. those of St. John of Jerusalem, who were to take care of the pilgrims who went to that city: — the other were the templers, whose office it was to provide for the safety of pilgrims, by fighting in their defence against such as opposed or molested them * 1.191.—The Benedictine order of monks, which had been introduced in the East, prevailed in the West, and were, by permission of the pope, be∣come almost independent of their bishops.—The bi∣shops had in almost all churches their officials to per∣form divine service for them:—academies were gene∣rally established throughout Italy and France to qua∣lify for the office of the priesthood:—the canonization of saints was appropriated to the pope by Alexander III. 1160, and the remission of certain sins reserved to the pope: others were pardonable by the bishops in gene∣ral: communion in both kinds was yet retained:— baptism was chiefly administered on solemn days: but what is more remarkable, the holy inquisition, as it is impiously called, with all the train of the most arbitrary and tyrannical persecutions and torture, generally fol∣lowed

by the most inhuman and cruel deaths, was erected, A. D. 1198 † 1.192, but according to others, it did not commence, or be put in full force till the year 1204, against the Albigenses.

CENTURY THE THIRTEENTH.

In the Thirteenth Century we see the power of the popish prelates at its greatest height; but withal so strained, that it was natural for the cords to break. That summit of power seems to terminate with pope Boniface the VIIIth, towards the close of this century, who arrogated to himself the power of deposing princes by divine right—published a bull, by which he forbid all princes to exact any thing out of the ecclesiastical revenues.—He likewise instituted a jubilee, whereby he granted plenary indulgences to all who should visit the church of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome, and ordained the same should be observed every century. The open∣ing of this jubilee brought vast numbers to Rome, and pope Boniface, to shew his sovereign authority in temporals as well as spirituals, appeared at the public solemnities, sometimes in his pontificals, and at others in an imperial dress, with this motto, Ecce duo Gladii. Indeed, in respect to the pope of Rome's supremacy over the whole church, the ancient maxims were still retained, and instances are not wanting of their putting them in practice when they had opportunity * 1.193.

Father Paul gives us a compendium of these mat∣ters: he says, "By various methods the popes drew to themselves a great part of the collation of benefices in all the Christian kingdoms in the west; but, in the eastern churches, they were not allowed to dispose of one benefice. In Italy, indeed, they met with such great success, that they flattered themselves they should impose on all Europe.

In England, where the benefices are very rich, the Roman courtiers made such mighty acquisitions, that,

in the year 1232, the clergy and military men of the kingdom formed a confederacy or association, and pil∣laged all the goods and revenues of the beneficed Ro∣man clergy throughout the island. The pope com∣manded the king, under pain of excommunication, to chastise them with his temporal arms, and the bishops to excommunicate them; but the confederacy was too strong, either for the king to punish, or the bishops to excommunicate them.

Pope Innocent IV. somewhat incensed at it, sent one Martin, a kinsman of his, to renew the pretensions of the court of Rome. The English complained to the king, that the Italians had got possession of all the be∣nefices, and the king drove Martin out of the king∣dom; and, making a computation of the revenues, which the pope drew out of the kingdom, found that they were equal to his own revenues, which amounted to 60,000 marks: and, upon his laying these griev∣ances before the pope, in the council of Lyons, where he presided, he was answered, that the council was not assembled for that affair, nor was that the season to remedy it. He had called it, he pretended, to give succours to the Holy Land; but his true motive was, to excommunicate the emperor Frederic * 1.194.

Nevertheless, the court ceased not to make new at∣tempts in the year 1253, requiring the bishop of Lin∣coln to confer a benefice upon a Genoese; which he rejected, at it was against the canons of the church: but he was nevertheless excommunicated by the pope. However, this good man died before the sentence could be executed, and the pope was so malevolent, that he ordered a process against him, to take him out of his grave, and sent it to the king to execute.

In the year 1258, Alexander IV. his successor, on the like occasion, excommunicated the archbishop of York ‡ 1.195, who withstood the prosecution with great

fortitude; and, drawing near his end, wrote a very pious letter to the pope, exhorting him to suppress these innovations so injurious to the church, and so dangerous to the safety of his own soul.

As for cardinals, nothing can be surprising that is said of them, when one considers the stile of the court of Rome, regibus aequi parantur ‖ 1.196: whence they con∣clude, saith he, that no revenue is too great for them, that is not super-abounding for kings themselves; and it is for this reason, that popes have granted them the privilege of being capable of holding all sorts of bene∣fices, either secular or regular. But is there any thing in this that exceeds the ordinary terms of speaking on this subject, seeing it is the tenet of every canonist, that the pope can grant dispensations for holding as many benefices as he pleases? and this was sometimes done contrary to the letter of the law, and therefore, in some parts of Europe, treated with marks of de∣testation.

But, at length, this supremacy became greatly cur∣tailed by some of those advocates and champions for truth, who, notwithstanding any or all the discourage∣ments, dared to assert the scriptures as the only rule of faith * 1.197.

The popes themselves gave many flagrant instances of their fallibility, even in doctrine, crowned heads opposed their insolence, and publicly declared them heretics, and that too with the approbation of many eminent divines. But the great blow to this supre∣macy was the maxim first reduced to practice, by the councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basil, and by the two last established as an article of faith. That the pope is subject to a general council, and bound to obey their decrees; and that, in case of necessity, he is even obliged to apply to them for their judgment and pro∣tection. Which doctrine proved the more fatal at Rome, as it has been received by the Gallican church, who

have ever since strictly adhered to the two following maxims, always looked upon in France as indisputable.

The first is, that the pope has no authority or right to command or order any thing, either in general or particular, in which the temporalities or civil rights of the kingdom are concerned.

The second is, that, notwithstanding the pope's su∣premacy is owned in matters purely spiritual, this is to be understood as under the regulation, and subordinate to, the decrees of councils, canons, &c. and the an∣cient and present privileges of that nation † 1.198. This was further ratified in the fifteenth century.

But we nevertheless find, that they retained a vene∣ration for the holy catholic father, and adhered to as many of his favourite tenets and customs, as consisted with their civil establishment.

CENTURY THE FOURTEENTH.

This century affords many dreadful examples of the popes and bishops exciting and inflaming catholic princes against the Albigenses, and all others, whom they stigmatised with the name of heretics, either by public crusades, or private tribunals before inquisitors, to destroy them. Accordingly several religious orders were instituted in this century, viz. of the preaching brothers, whose office and business was to be zealous declaimers against the Albigenses. They had a mo∣nastery at Paris, in St. James's house, thence called Ja∣cobins—another order of minims—of Augustine her∣mits—Carmelites—the order of Maria de la Merci— of servites and celestins: these grew so numerous, that Gregory X. at the general council, forbid establishing any new ones § 1.199. Bowing at the name of Jesus was introduced into the church, by the decree of the

second council of Lyons, 1212; kneeling at the com∣munion, by pope Honorius, 1214 ‡ 1.200. That called the feast of the holy sacrament was likewise instituted in the church of Rome, but not universally received till the next century. Auricular confession was made ne∣cessary to salvation by the council of Lateran, the twelfth general council, 1215; and transubstantiation, after a dispute of four hundred years, concerning the nature of the sacrament of our Lord's supper, pope Innocent III. determined the matter, and procured a decree for making it an article of the catholic faith in the Lateran council, 1215 * 1.201.

The thirteenth general council was held at Lyons, 1245, as well for civil as ecclesiastical affairs. Three points were aimed at by the pope, viz. to relieve the empire of Constantinople against the Greeks, the em∣pire of Germany against the Tartars, and the Holy Land against the Saracens: for these purposes, they decreed the twentieth part of the revenues of all eccle∣siastical benefices, and the tenth of the revenues of the pope; but exempted the croisado priest from any con∣tributions in this council. The pope excommunicated the emperor Frederic, and dispossessed him of his em∣pire, on suspicion of his having been dilatory in supply of the papal chair, and, to shew his own great autho∣rity now, he possessed it ‖ 1.202.

The fourteenth general council was held at Lions, A. D. 1274, for the relief of the Holy Land, for the reunion of the Greek church, and for the reforming the church discipline. In the fourth session, the union of the Greek church was attempted, but on such points of faith as were of an indeterminate nature, particularly relating to the Trinity, and the union proposed could not be effected.

The fourteenth century further evinces, that the popes could not longer enjoy that vast degree of gran∣deur

to which they had aspired, nor support their in∣tolerable usurpation in quiet: their authority was often called in question, till they were obliged to de∣sist in part from their pretensions. Philip, king of France, gave several great blows to the papal authority; and from the ensuing schisms of double elections, when the opposite factions chose different popes at the same time, an occasion was taken to bridle the popes autho∣rity, by calling councils, which often proceeded so far as to depose the holy fathers. To this may be added, that the translation of the papal chair, by Clement V. from Rome to Avignon, where the popes constantly resided for seventy years together, carried along with it several inconveniencies, which proved greatly prejudi∣cial to the ecclesiastical monarchy. Among others, the popes authority being founded upon this belief, that St. Peter had been at Rome, and by his presence had communicated a particular prerogative and holiness to that chair, it was very much questioned whether the same could be transferred to Avignon * 1.203.

Boniface IX. was the first who exacted annates, i. e. one year's revenue of every bishopric and abby, at each installment † 1.204; had published a bull, and declared him∣self to be sovereign lord, both in temporals and spiri∣tuals. King Philip of France burnt this bull, and sent the following answer to the pope:

Philip, by the grace of God, king of the Franks, to Boniface, who sets up for sovereign pontiff, little or no health. Be it known to your great extravagance, that we are not subject to any person whatsoever as to what regards temporals; that the collation of churches and prebendships belongs to us by a royal right, and that we have a power to appropriate the fruits of it to ourselves.

After the popes had assumed great part of the power to themselves, of which they had stripped the emperor, John XXII. in the year 1316, made a decree,

that for three years, whoever obtained a benefice of more that twenty-four ducats of yearly rent, should pay one year's value, for the expedition of his bull.

Some few years after the institution, or reservation of annates, king Edward, in the year 1373, sent an am∣bassador to pope Gregory XI. then at Avignon, to press him to annul the reservations entirely, which, after it had been in agitation, were the next year totally abo∣lished by this pope.

But a great schism arising in the church upon his death, which happened in the year 1378, and produced two popes, and confequently two courts, the neces∣sary expences to support them were also doubled. Thus all inventions for fleecing the people were set on work with fresh vigour. Simony appeared no where so bare∣faced, the two courts holding an open market for benefices; and every essay was made that was possible to strip the ordinary collators of the right of pre∣senting.

Hitherto the court of Rome had not taken off the mask, nor had so avowedly owned that passion she had for money; but pope Urban VI. left it no longer to conjecture, why he concerned himself with the collation of benefices, when he declared, that no presentation should be good, where the value was not expressed * 1.205.

By these methods the apostolic chamber came to a juster knowledge of the value of the annates. This was thought by some to be no better than putting up the benefices to auction: but on the other hand, it was insinuated, that it was only to prevent the holy chamber being defrauded of their right.

No body can deny, but that the disorders were no∣torious in the Roman courts on this occasion; and that many neighbouring kingdoms were so greatly alarmed and disgusted at the variety of tricks and shifts they saw practised, that they came at last to acknowledge neither of the competitors for pope. Germany refused

to submit to the reservations. Innocent VII. sent his legate into Germany, to grant new bulls for certain sums to such as had come in by episcopal collation, and to compound for the first fruits. But the emperor Charles IV. forbad the levying them, saying it was necessary to reform the manners of the clergy, but not their purses.

These confusions received a considerable increase by the addition of a third pope, which, with the king of France's measures, will be related in the history of the next century.

Moreover, the Greek church, says Dupin, was disturbed by frivolous questions; the order of francis∣can monks torn in pieces by odd opinions, and extra∣vagant practices; diverse errors taught by divines, condemned by the bishops, or universities; and several disorders suppressed by the institutions of councils and bishops. The divines which flourished in this age, fol∣lowed the methods of the schools, as their predecessors had done. The commentators upon holy scripture pro∣duced nothing great nor excellent; and the historians, nothing exact or perfect. But the study of the civil law, and the languages, acquired a great degree of perfec∣tion; and the love of certain profitable sciences must be acknowledged to have prevailed in this century † 1.206. But it is likewise notorious, that the catholics have castrated many valuable books, and suppressed every thing that might serve for the defence of the temporal authority; and made such alterations and additions to several books reprinted, as might best serve to promote the doctrines and practices of the church of Rome: an evident proof of their degeneracy and corruption ‡ 1.207.

This century is also remarkable for the opposition made in England to the grosser errors of popery, by Wickliffe, and his adherents, of which we shall have occasion to treat in another part of this work.

§ 1.208

The fifteenth general council was held at Vienna, 1311, for condemning the templars, and the extinction of their order.

With respect to offices and ceremonies, the plurality of benefices was commonly practised; the commendams of abbeys became very frequent; excommunications, and other ecclesiastical censures, were made use of to enforce the payment of tithes or tenth from the people, and to maintain the clergy in their immunities * 1.209, and the office of churchwardens first appointed.

Notwithstanding the prohibition of the Lateran coun∣cil, some new religious orders were established, as the order of Jesuits, afterwards confirmed by Urban V. 1367; the order of St. Saviour; the order of St. Am∣brose.

CENTURY THE FIFTEENTH.

The Fifteenth Century of the church is full of great transactions: the schism of the popes, which appeared at the beginning of it, was, for many years, the great care and business of the prelates and Christian princes of the west; besides this, the difference between the council of Basil and pope Eugenius IV. and the project of the re-union of the Greeks to the Latin church, were the great concerns of Christendom: but the former had not those mischievous consequences which were feared, nor the latter the success which was hoped for. Among many other remarkable events, the op∣position made in several parts of Germany to the errors and enormities of the church of Rome had this ten∣dency, to put men upon the study of useful learning, upon searching the scripture and tradition; and it obliged the prelates to labour after a reformation of the clergy, so generally and so justly complained of; as also to make many regulations in the discipline of the church; in which the church of France more particularly distin∣guished

itself, and furnishes us with the best part of the history of this century ‖ 1.210.

This schism is generally considered with regard to the measures they had taken, and the effects of them; the business of collation, of benefices, the reservation of annates, &c. had very much incensed some of the neighbouring princes, who were jealous of their sub∣jects property. One of the first steps taken by the king of France was, his letters of subtraction, as they were called, which is a declaration of withdrawing from his obedience, published in the year 1408, which had a very good effect. But in the year 1409, a third pope was elected, to whom, though France paid obedience, yet she stood firm in maintaining the king's edict by which all reservations, annates, and other exactions of the court of Rome, were forbid, until they were settled by a lawful general council; and it happened at that time, that the parliament of Paris were in part composed of counsellors that were well established in the ecclesiastical laws; and those made a noble stand against the en∣croachments attempted to be made by the pope's eccle∣siastical judges.

In the sixteenth general council, held at Constance, the schism of the popes was extinguished, by one of the popes having renounced, after he had fled from the council and been brought back again and deposed, viz. John XXIII. And the two others having been deposed, viz. Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. in the year 1417. Martin V. was elected pope at the general council.

Great hopes were entertained, that the council and the pope together, the two most powerful concurrents upon earth, would set themselves to reform the many abuses that had crept into the church; and, indeed, the council recommended it to the pope: but from their desire of returning home, and some difficulties which they found attended it, it was put off for a more convenient season,

under the direction of a future council; so that council terminated April 12, 1418 * 1.211.

But they first condemned the errors of John Huss and Wickliffe, and in which John Huss was condemned to be burnt.

The French not being willing to stay so long, a de∣cree was made in the parliament of Paris, that no obe∣dience should be paid to the pope, unless he first ad∣mitted, and acknowledged the king's edict † 1.212, which suppressed the reservations and exactions of money in France.

The pope, being apprized of this by his nuncios, agrees to it for that time; but having gained some mem∣bers of the university to his party, in the year 1422, he again attempted to make the reservations: however, he failed in the attempt, and they proceeded to the imprisonment of all his adherents, the rector of the uni∣versity, and divers others of the members and fellows; and upon the pope's putting the city of Lyons under interdiction, because that city obeyed the king's edict, the parliament strictly forbad their obedience to it.

This dispute lasted till the year 1424, when matters were compromized betwixt them; they had, as it were, divided the power, and the advantages: but it did not prove to the satisfaction of either parties, so it lasted but a little while. However, at the end of about seven years, Martin died, to whom succeeded Eugene IV. during whose popedom, in 1431, the council of Basil took in hand the reformation so necessary. All reser∣vations were prohibited, except of those benefices which were vacant in curia, the annates, and many other ex∣actions peculiar to that court.

The pope finding such a check given to his power, after many attempts to obtain an alteration, came to an open rupture with them. The pope dissolved the council—the council deprived the pope, and chose an∣other.—This

bred another schism in the church.—France and Germany received the decrees of this council; and in the year 1438, the famous Pragmatic Sanction, which Mezeray calls the bulwark of the Gallican church, was published in France, which restored the elections to the chapters, the collations to the ordinaries, and abo∣lished the reservations.

In this century, viz. at the council of Bourges, 1438, their decrees were principally taken out of those of the council of Basil: for when pope Eugenius used his ut∣most endeavours to dissolve the council of Basil, and to destroy its authority, the fathers of the council sent their deputies into France to present the decrees and consti∣tutions which they had made for the reformation of, ecclesiastical, discipline to Charles VII. and the church of France. The king, not willing to do any thing in a matter of that importance, immediately convened a council of bishops to examine those decrees. The result was, giving a blow to the supremacy, by that maxim, first reduced to practice by the councils of Pisa, Constance, and Ba∣sil, and by the two last established, as an article of faith, "That the pope is subject to a general council;" which doctrine proved the more fatal at Rome, as it has been received by the Gallican church as a mark of distinction.

But all the regulations made by them against those innovations in their dominion, served but to sharpen the industry of the court of Rome, to find out other expedients which might prove effectual for these ends, under other pretexts, as well as to supply, by a multi∣plication of new rights, their defect of power in matters wherein the interposition of princes had restrained them.

It was about this time resignations took place, it be∣ing never before allowed to churchmen to quit the cure that had been assigned them; and till now it was thought incumbent on the minister, who had undertaken a charge, and received a recompence for it, that he should continue to perform it to the end of his life: but how∣ever, this being permitted and encouraged, it turned to the advantage of the court of Rome, as it made

the more frequent, and enlarged the sum arising from annates.

When the resources of this kind began to dry up, in∣dulgences and remission of sins were thought of in their room, to be bestowed on such persons who should con∣tribute money for the holy war, or any other pious uses: and this matter was carried so high, that every one knows, that the changes, that were made in con∣sequence of those indulgences, in Germany and many other parts of Europe, and which commenced pretty early in the next century, make no small part of eccle∣siastical history.

In Italy, where the council of Basil never was re∣ceived, and the adherence to the pope was more strong, the reservations had taken deeper root, every pope re∣newing them with ease, and introducing new preten∣sions and impositions, and shewing no instance of miti∣gation in the rigour of any of them, except where some expedient had been found to work the same effect an easier way.

In Germany, where the council of Basil was by some admitted, by others not, there was great diversity in the decisions concerning beneficiary causes. To provide against and reconcile these differences, Nich. V. and the emperor Frederic III. in the year 1448, made a con∣cordat, concluded in the pope's name, to the following tenor: — That the benefices vacant in court should be reserved to the pope, and that the rest of the elective benefices should go by election * 1.213.

In France there were warm disputes subsisting for a considerable time, sometimes the pope seeming to get the better in the controversy, and sometimes the king of France.

At length Leo X. framed a concordat with king Francis I. of France, that the pragmatic sanction should be abolished, and the election of bishops and abbots should be taken from the cathedral and colle∣giate

churches, and given to the king, who was to name a fit person, and the pope to confer the benefice; it was farther concluded, that the pope could not give ex∣pectatives, nor make any reservations, general or special: though there was great difficulty in getting this concor∣dat to be received, the university appealing to a general council lawfully convened, yet the king's authority and interest prevailed, and it was put in execution throughout.

Thus, after several popes, had between 1076 and 1150, thundered out so many excommunications, and occasioned much rebellion and bloodshed, in order to wrest from princes the collation of bishoprics, and to give the election to the chapters: on the contrary, the quarrel seems now inverted, and Pius II. and five of his successors have, with the same zeal and constancy, been struggling to take the election from the chapter, and give it to the king, which Leo the Tenth at last accomplished: so true it is, that a change in interests draws along with it both a change, and even a contra∣diction, in doctrines.

In a council held at Rouen, 1445, we have forty constitutions chiefly relating to the discipline of that church: there is one of them against the superstion of those who gave particular names to the images of the Virgin, such as our lady of recovery, our lady of pity, consolation and grace: — they forbid the carry∣ing about the relics of saints in order to get money: clandestine marriages were likewise prohibited: others related to the morals and habits of ecclesiastics, the celebration of holy days, the payment of tenths, orna∣ments of churches, &c. These regulations are taken from the councils of Basil, Lateran, the pragmatic sanction, decretals, and other provincial councils * 1.214.

The feasts of the Virgin's conception and of our Lord's transfiguration were instituted by Calixtus III. 1456 † 1.215: — the taking away the chalice was done by

the council of Constance, A. D. 1420 § 1.216: — the sacra∣ments fixed to the number of seven in the council of Florence, 1439 ‖ 1.217, — and the order of templars abo∣lished ‖ 1.218.

CENTURY THE SIXTEENTH.

M. Dupin in (the preface to) his history of the six∣teenth century observes, that the ecclesiastical history of this age deserves the particular attention of all who have any concern for religion, there being no century in which there have been greater revolutions in the church. — The pope of Rome saw, with grief, a great part of Europe forsake their allegiance to his holiness; several provinces of Germany, England, and Scotland, and several kingdoms of the North, were departed from his authority; and France, which till then had been free from such monsters, as he calls them * 1.219, pro∣duced some who were not less hurtful to the state than to the church:—"But, says he," "if the church catholic lost a good deal of its extent this way, it endeavoured to recompence the loss in some sort, by the reformation of manners and discipline, putting a stop to the licen∣sing clandestine marriages, and by punishing scandalous crimes, according to the rights of the ecclesiastical laws. For this purpose so many decrees and regulations were made in ecclesiastical assemblies, and especially in the council of Trent, which, Dupin likewise, tells us, were to condemn errors to preserve the purity of the faith, and to labour after the reformation of discipline.

Father Walch has given us a more particular, and I presume impartial, view of this remarkable period. — He says, That in the first part of it, the internal corruption of the church of Rome was

become such, as to exclude all external order and de∣cency: — in the middle it received such a shock, as it had never before felt, by the amazing progress of the reformation; and the latter part of this period was em∣ployed in preserving the wreck, and restoring, or reco∣vering, what had been lost. This has been attended with many remarkable consequences, some of which follow.

As to the spiritual monarchy of the pope, it was at first greatly endangered by those who bore testimony to the truth, in spite of the base example of pope Pius II. and particularly by the proceedings of king Lewis XII. of France, and of the council of Pisa against pope Julius II.

But the advantage became irreparable, when gra∣dually a considerable part of Germany, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Hungary, and Poland, be∣sides all England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia, received the doctrine of the reformation, and withdrew entirely from their obedience to the see of Rome.—Besides this, those nations, which still adhered to the doctrine of the church of Rome, not only admit∣ted principles quite irreconcilable with the doctrine of an infallible head of the whole church, but also parti∣cularly, by the frequent complaints against the see of Rome, and their earnest solicitations for a council, threatened it with no small danger; and Charles V. was even actually employed, at least in Germany, in decide∣ing religious points judicially.

Adrian VI. in 1522, sent a letter to the duke of Saxony and other princes, to extirpate the heretics, the Lutherans, by fire and sword, notwithstanding he confessed to them, that there were great abuses in the church of Rome, and that the ecclesiastics themselves stood greatly in need of reformation: and even while the council of Trent were convened 1546, and de∣nouncing their anathemas against the protestants, the pope and emperor prepared another sort of arms against them, in order to destroy their lives, as the surest means

to suppress heresy: but in this the emperor was too politic for the pope, for he took care to sell some of the churches patrimony to defray the expence.

All this incited the see of Rome to study expedients for the better support of the Roman catholic religion, and more especially of the authority of the pope, and to secure it from further declension. About this time the order of Jesuits, by the approbation and confirma∣tion of the pope, received its entire establishment, and became a pillar, of which the papacy stood greatly in need, in 1540.

The council of Trent was very artfully made use of to answer these ends, quite contrary to its original de∣sign. The Roman legates were suffered to preside in it, and they had not the liberty of agreeing to the opi∣nions, or resolutions, of the fathers, without the pre∣vious consent of the pope. All the doctrines, which contradicted the Romish errors, were condemned with∣out hearing the protestants; and all the doctrines, pe∣culiar to the church of Rome, were solemnly confirmed; a majority of votes was influenced to suppress the doc∣trines assented to by the greatest part of the doctors then present, or they were decided by an authoritative sentence from Rome, if they had the least tendency to the prejudice of the papal court: those questions, for instance, so fruitful in altercation, whether episcopacy be of divine original, and whether the pope was to be accounted the head of all churches, or of the universal church, were concluded in the affirmative without de∣bate; and the papal court reserved and confirmed to itself, the amendment of its own abuses; and in the last place, it was deemed the prerogative of the pope to interpret all the decrees; and it must be owned, that these methods had their * 1.220 desired effect in those provinces where the decrees of this council were ac∣cepted without limitation: but the pope had the mor∣tification

to find that whole nations, especially France, Spain, and Hungary, either absolutely refused their compliance, or by their exceptions, or reservations, plainly shewed, that their opposition arose from the very doctrine therein contained of the supremacy of the pope: and hence, that very important distinction be∣twixt the perfectly and partially obedient sons of the holy father.

As we shall have further occasion to treat of the authority, the decisions, and decrees, * 1.221 of this great assembly, relating to points of doctrine, discipline, and ceremonies of the Roman church; a short account of the several sessions will be sufficient in this place * 1.222.

The pattern or method of proceeding in the council of Trent was taken from the latter occidental councils, and especially from the last council of Lateran, by hav∣ing the several matters and things laid before several persons appointed, which were denominated particular congregations; and then it was reported to the general assembly of bishops: and this was done with great ce∣remony, and the decrees read at the conclusion by one of them, each of the other signifying his sentiments, by saying placet, or non placet. — We likewise find, that many of the bishops met with a design to establish the superiority of the church, and general councils over the pope; to promote a reformation in the church; and likewise with moderate dispositions towards such as might differ from them in sentiments, and recommend∣ed to their collegues humility and charity: but this will not hold true of the majority: the pope's legates were present, and had an undue influence, as will appear in the sequel. — One instance appeared even in the second session, when many of the council were for opening that session, with some proposals for a general reforma∣tion; but the pope's legates opposed it, and after some

debate, cardinal Pool obtained, as a proper expedient, that the symbol of the Nicene, or creed of the church of Rome, should be confirmed; some made a jest of that, as it had been received in the church for twelve hundred years; however, the more penetrating saw through the policy of that scheme, viz. that nothing might afterwards be proposed in opposition to it. — The third session was principally taken up with the progress that the reformation made in Germany; the elector Palatine having re-established the communion under both kinds, the marriage of priests, and the service in the vulgar tongue; which gave great offence to the pope's legates. — In the fourth session, pursuant to the order given by the pope, they proceeded to take under their consideration the scriptures. This was re∣duced to four heads, chiefly relative to such points as were intended to be condemned in the protestants, viz. the sufficiency of holy scripture, and the necessity of traditions; the second, of the canonical books and their number; the third was about the authority of the vul∣gar translation, and the necessity of having recourse to the originals; and the fourth related to the proper inter∣preters of scripture: and it was concluded, that all matters and things condemned should be by Ana∣thema.

In the fourth session they also entered upon the doctrine of original sin, to which there was a great opposition: they discussed some of the subtleties of that question, as, How Adam's sin, which consisted in the transgression of a law, could be conveyed or transmitted to his poste∣rity? and nine articles of the Zuinglans were con∣demned as not expressive, or consistent, with the doc∣trine of original sin, though they admitted a depravity or corruption of nature. The prelates dispute much, but appear to be ignorant of the point, or the argu∣ments, of the Zuinglans. This introduced a dispute concerning the immaculate conception of the Blessed Virgin. — The fifth session related to preachers, in which the mendicant monks took possession of the pul∣pits,

but residencies enjoined upon them. — In the sixth session the subjects of grace and justification, in which the point of absolute predestination, final perse∣verance, and the imputed righteousness of Christ, were taken into their consideration; and at length the decrees were made with great ambiguity, and with such pro∣visoes, as permitted the pope, or the church, finally to determine it. — In the seventh session the council dis∣cussed the points of baptism and extreme unction: their ordinances on these points were merely trifling, notwithstanding they bestowed anathema's on such who did not deem them sacred; some abuses from plurality of benefices were mentioned, but it terminated in the authority of dispensations. — The eighth session was concerning the removal of the council to Bologna, which passed in the affirmative.

The ninth session, and first of Bologna, settled only the formularies of the assembly. In 1547, a diet at Augsburg was held, in which they promised to submit to that council; nevertheless, when the council did not coincide with their principles, they acted in opposition it, more from policy than regard to truth, and though much in favour of protestants, and liberty of conscience, was not regarded by many of them as substantial and lasting.

In 1549 pope Paul died. Julius III. succeeded him, who was prevailed on, by the emperor, to re-establish the council at Trent, wherein the emperor was to pre∣side, and the protestants of Augsbug have free liberty to be heard concerning the points of faith in which they differed from the church of Rome: but we meet with no such happy consequences arising from it, nei∣ther in the eleventh nor twelfth session. However, in the thirteenth session, the council enters upon business, chuses the point of the eucharist for doctrine, and the jurisdiction of bishops for reformation; the first of these was debated for some time: at length, decreed, that communion in one kind was sufficient, and pronounced

anathema's against such as denied the real presence, transubstantiation, the adoration, of the host, &c.

In 1521 was held the congregation, consisting only of doctors of the canon law, for handling the matter of discipline, which is the original of the jurisdiction of the tribunals of the church. This congregation was held at Trent, but did not interfere with the council of prelates. Gropper votes for the abolishing an eccle∣siastical tribunal, and wrote against it. This introduced the original of degradations, &c.

The thirteenth session of the council of Trent con∣firmed the decrees and anathemas of the council, in the former session, against those who denied the commu∣nion in one kind, the real presence, &c. Penance, extreme unction, and the reformation in favour of the episcopal jurisdiction, were points determined; but they could not agree with respect to decrees, which were therefore referred to some future time; afterwards was re-assumed in the third convocation of the council under pope Pius IV.

The fourteenth session, the council refuse to hear the protestants, notwithstanding the emperor's promise; however, a new, safe conduct was obtained for some of the protestants of Wirtenberg and Bohemia, and au∣dience was given to the ambassadors of Saxony, which principally engaged the attention of the council the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth sessions: however. in August, 1552, the landgrave of Hesse was enlarged, liberty of conscience granted under cer∣tain restrictions, and banished ministers recalled.

In 1553, another remarkable event intervened. Edward VI. king of England died, July 6, and Mary, his sister, succeeded to the throne, who pretended at first, that she would alter nothing in religion, though she was a Roman catholic; but this promise was soon counteracted by her attempts to introduce the Roman catholic religion into these kingdoms.

In 1555, a diet was called at Augsburg, for com∣posing the troubles in religion, during which the pope

died. Paul IV. succeeded him, whose character was that of proud and insolent. The diet made a decree in favour of liberty of conscience, which so displeased the pope, that he listened to the persuasions of some, to support his authority by the sword; but party quar∣rels with princes seem to have diverted him from the intention he had formed.

In 1558, Mary, queen of England, died, and her sister, Elizabeth. succeeded, which was looked upon as a mortal blow to the see of Rome. She thought it to no purpose to dissemble, with respect to her princi∣ples; and therefore sent advice to her sisters ambas∣sador at Rome, and ordered him to acquaint the pope of her advancement to the throne. The pope answered, that she had been very bold to take the crown and name of queen without his leave.

In 1561, the pope, by his bull, invites not only catholic but protestant princes to the council of Trent, and dispatches the abbot Martimengo to the queen of England; but, as soon as it was known to her, she forbad him to enter her dominions. A conference was likewise appointed at Poissy, between the Roman ca∣tholics and the protestants. The council at Trent met in 1562, called the seventeenth session, or the first of the third convocation, in which the books written in support of heresy, as they termed it, were ordered to be suppressed, and an edict published for the safe con∣duct of the German protestants. In the eighteenth session, they enter upon the point of the residence of bishops, and the question, If it be of divine right? was started and argued with great warmth, which lasted the nineteenth session. In the twentieth, they re∣assumed the dispute of communion in both kinds, and concluded it again in the negative; and it was confirmed in the twenty-first session, then the matter of the sacra∣fice of the mass was chosen for their deliberation. This head was divided into thirteen articles, wherein were comprehended all the controversies about that subject, which are at this day argued between the church of

Rome and the protestants, viz. Whether the mass be a propitiatory sacrifice? Whether it derogates from the sacrifice of Jesus Christ? Whether Jesus Christ, by say∣ing, Do this, hath appointed the sacrifice of his body? Whether private masses be lawful and good? Whether it be lawful to celebrate masses in honour of saints? Whether the ceremonies of the mass are good and holy? Whether there be errors in the canon of the mass? Whether the words of consecration ought to be pro∣nounced with a low voice? with other questions of little importance.

The French stayed at the council with very little sa∣tisfaction; for they saw that matters of the highest mo∣ment were determined with very little regard to the prelates of their nation, and by the Spanish, Portu∣guese, and Italian bishops, and that all proposals to a reformation were over-ruled by a number of pension∣ary bishops, asserting, that the court of Rome was mistress of all deliberations, as well as propositions: so that the giving or with-holding the cup from the laity was referred to the decision of the pope.

The twenty-second session affords us further proof, that the bishops were ill satisfied of the infallibility of the council; and the ambassadors of France received new orders from their court, for asserting their disap∣probation of the measures taken by the council. The sacrament of orders was handled, and whether the Holy Ghost be given in ordination; which was deter∣mined in the affirmative. The Germans question the divine right of episcopacy, which occasioned very warm debates.

The French begin the new year, 1563, with thirty-four new demands, relating to abuses, which greatly alarmed the pope when communicated to him. A decree is sent from Rome concerning the pope's autho∣rity, which met with much contradiction. They like∣wise debated the subject of marriages and divorce, and of the celibacy of priests; wherein it was con∣cluded, that it could not be said, without heresy,

that a priest could marry notwithstanding their vow. The pope, much dissatisfied with the conduct of some of the French, ordered the tribunal of the inquisition to proceed against them.

The twenty-third and twenty-fourth session turned upon some difference that had arisen between the pope and the king of France, and with the queen of Na∣varre, on the suspicion of heresy.

The twenty-fifth and last session of this council, held Dec. 3, 1563, the prelates and ambassadors went to church with the usual ceremonies, when Jerome Ragaz∣zone, titular bishop of Nazianzo, made a sermon in praise of the council, recapiculated the good laws and ordinances which were made in it, and read the decrees concerning purgatory, the intercession and invocation of saints, images, and their worship; they also read the decree for reformation of monks, containing twenty chapters, and one was added to shield the pope's autho∣rity, and to leave him in full liberty to dispense with all the canons. — The second day they also read the decrees concerning indulgences, the choice of meats, fasts, and holy days; they made an act of reference to the pope about the index expurgatorius, missals, bre∣viaries, ceremonials, and the care of making a cate∣chism.

This last session of the council gave as little satisfac∣tion as the rest had done; for after all the fair promises of setting about a reformation, there was nothing of im∣portance effected, except some regulations that pro∣perly belonged to civil government. Germany slighted the council to the highest degree; for the prelates of this nation had not been present in the last convocation; very few bishops from Hungary or Poland; none at all from England, Swedeland, Denmark, or the Low Countries; the French bishops came only at the latter end; and including the Spaniards, they did not exceed the number of forty: all the rest were Italians, to the number of 150, and therefore it had the name of the Council of the Pope and the Italians. The pope, on

the 26th of December, gave the bull of confirmation, wherein he forbids, under pain of excommunication, the publishing of any commentaries, or observations, upon the councils, ordaining, in all doubtful cases, re∣course to be had to the holy see.

What regard was paid to this council by the French, is evident from the following citation: for, at the closing of the council of Trent, Du Ferrier, the king's ambassador, entered his protest against every thing of a civil nature, that had been transacted in that assembly. We find, by a letter of John de Mervilliers to his nephew, the bishop of Rennes, ambassador to the court of Vienna, dated from Fontainebleau the third of March, that "As soon as the cardinal was returned from the council, the presidents of the parliament and the king's council, were summoned to court to see the decrees and acts of that assembly; and the matter be∣ing debated, the attorney general said, That with re∣gard to the doctrine, the parliament did not intend to meddle with it, but held every thing as sound and ortho∣dox, that was determined in a general and lawful coun∣cil: but, as for the decrees of discipline and reforma∣tion, they had found in several things, derogatory to the rights and privileges of the Gallican church, and therefore to be rejected * 1.223."

Further means for promoting the grand point of the pope's supremacy, were the inquisition of Italy, the Je∣suits, the Missions prohibiting books, and other mea∣sures to divest all temporal sovereigns from any juris∣diction in spiritual affairs. — These things sufficiently shew the pope's design to erect an universal supremacy; yet, in the exercise of it; the pope's hands have been tied by the cardinals and congregations. — This power seemed to increase, and the popes became more and more shackled, which no pope better understood than Sixtus V. who first conceived that protestantism might accidentally be turned to the advantage of the pope; but this project was defeated by the general constitu∣tion of Europe, the pragmatic sanction.

CENTURY THE SEVENTEENTH.

In this century we find the popes have been more concerned for the preservation than the increase of their power and authority, and they seem to have been thoroughly sensible of the necessity of such conduct.

Their spiritual monarchy, in its external limits, has, doubtless, been rather contracted then extended, though the persecutions of the protestants in Germany, Hun∣gary, and France, have not indeed been totally with∣out effect. The several accessions of great princes to the church of Rome have not been detrimental to the pope; and the missions, among the heathens and Eastern nations, have unquestionably contributed some∣thing to the propagation of the Romish faith.

But it would be no difficulty to shew, that all these means have been far from answering their end in the manner expected; that the endeavours used for bring∣ing back the protestants under the old yoke, especially in England, have miscarried; that the protestants, by a closer union, and the progressive increase of their power, have gradually, in effect, weakened Roman ca∣tholic houses; and the propagation of popery has been not a little restrained by public laws * 1.224.

It is only in the writings of the bigots of Rome, and in the prossessorial chains of the Jesuits, that the inward constitution of this supremacy remains unal∣tered; for if, instead of looking into the Roman cate∣chism for what ought to take place, we consider the actual state of things, we must admit the ob∣servation of Monsieur Voltaire, though made some time since, "That in the opinion of the great, at least, the infallibility of the pope, with the power founded in it, is a chimera, not believed even at Rome, and yet

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maintained; and the pope, a sacred person, whose feet are to be kissed, but his hands bound † 1.225.

The justice of this idea of the pope and his infalli∣bility appears from all the transactions with the crowns of France, Spain, Sardinia, Naples, the republic of Venice, and even the house of Austria.

It is still more evident, that in church affairs, and even in cases relating to the persons of ecclesiastics and church-lands, the temporal princes and states have dis∣covered and asserted their ancient rights; that in France those obnoxious decrees of the councils of Con∣stance and Basil have not been admitted as articles of fsith; that the papal bulls are no further submitted to, than as they correspond with the prevailing maxims of the state; that, on these accounts, the popes are very cautious of hazarding a decision in doctrinal controver∣sies; that none prove more refractory sons of the Ro∣man father than the Jesuits, when his will and their's happen to clash.

Of late the pope has not been allowed to make any new conquest. Castro, Renciglione, Comacchio, Par∣ma, and Placentia, are clear proofs that it was never imagined the successors of St. Peter were to bring armies into the field; and the forwardness of any to make good their pretensions that way, of which there have been too many instances, is looked upon as a dis∣grace to the character of a pope.

The elections of popes are more and more carried on by intrigue, but, at the same time, more and more corrupt: the principal authority and influence of the pope seem rather to unite or center in the courts

of Madrid and Rome, than at Versailles or any other court.

With respect to doctrine and ceremonies, notwith∣standing the council of Trent adjusted matters of this nature, for the most part, not only by decrees of the council, but in all difficult matters referred to the fu∣ture decision of the pope; yet we find, very early in this century, many disputes were agitated, viz. The con∣troversy concerning grace and free-will, held at Lou∣vain before Clement VIII. and Paul V. the pope published a decree in 1611, by which he ordered, that nothing should be published, relating to these matters, upon any pretence whatsoever. This decree was re∣newed by Urban VIII. 1625, but those prohibitions had no effect; for there appeared a variety of treatises of both sides upon these matters.

Another dispute was revived concerning ecclesiastical and political authority. This was chiefly managed between the lawyers and the divines. It was occasi∣oned by the pope's interdict of the republic of Venice, and was calculated to maintain, on one hand, the au∣thority of the senate, to make such laws as concerned the civil state of that republic; and that the pope had no right to publish an interdict on that account. This dispute terminated in favour of the rights of princes, in opposition to the pretended authority of the pope.

Jansenism prevailed greatly in France about the middle of this century, which occasioned three assem∣blies of the clergy at Paris, in 1653, 1654, and 1655, who drew up a formulary, in order to terminate the dispute, which was confirmed by the king's man∣damus.

Another dispute in this century was concerning the frequency of receiving the communion, which was managed with some warmth, but admitted of no satis∣factory decision.

But a controversy of more importance took place about the year 1680, between the clergy of France

and the court of Rome, about the regale. The regale is a right, by which the king enjoys the revenues of the archbishoprics and bishoprics of the kingdom, and confers benefices during the vacancy of the sees, till such time as the incumbent has taken the oath of allegiance; and this the king claimed as a right that did belong to him universally throughout his domi∣nion, except two or three provinces. Pope Innocent XI. seemed determined to oppose his claim: at length, in 1681, was held a national council, or general coun∣cil of the clergy, to regulate this dispute, who acknow∣ledged his majesty's right of the regale over all churches of the kingdom, and comprised the whole matter in four articles: 1. That kings and princes are not sub∣ject to the ecclesiastical power, as to their temporals. 2. That the decrees of the council of Constance, con∣cerning the authority of general councils, ought to re∣main in full force and virtue. 3. That the use of ec∣clesiastical power ought to be moderated by the canons. 4. That, although the sovereign pontiff has the first place in matters of faith, though his decrees regard all churches, and each church in particular, yet his judg∣ment is not infallible, unless it be followed by the con∣sent of the church. * 1.226

CENTURY THE EIGHTEENTH.

The history of this century we shall attempt in a general way, by enquiring a little further into the nature of the papal power, the prerogatives and influence of this spiritual monarchy, as it was exercised immediately preceding the reformation, and which the present prin∣ciples of that church direct and countenance them in the exercise of.

If we consider, that the popes rise to that dignity from very inferior stations, were heretofore frequently, and are still sometimes, of mean families, without any

support from kindred or relations, deriving a great part of their revenues from the subjects of other princes, and this in virtue of their claiming a greater share in their allegiance, exercising an authority grounded only in opinion, and frequently assuming a superiority over those, to whom they have not been themselves in obe∣dience; when this is duly considered, we cannot help wondering, that this ecclesiastical empire has stood so long, grown up to so great a height, and continues yet to enjoy a green old age, that does not seem to betray any symptoms of a speedy dissolution.

But, upon a nearer and closer inspection, we shall find, that this spiritual monarchy, like some of the leaning towers that have been so famous in history, tho' it seems to carry evident marks of weakness, is, in fact, a structure very strong in itself, contrived with great skill, as well as erected with much art. If in other monarchies princes have pretended to a divine right, the pope goes still further, and claims a kind of divine power, by which he is raised as much above other princes, as those princes are above their people. This claim, together with the title of Holiness, having the recommendation of a long prescription, cannot but excite an high veneration in the minds of such as be∣lieve it, the papal character being given with the greatest ceremony, by those who are presumed to be the best judges of religion; and the religious interest seem, in the opinion of the multitude, to alter the very nature of him who is adorned therewith, and to transform him, from a man of like passions with them∣selves, into a sacred person. It is true, that, in pro∣testant countries, as nothing of this is believed, so it is very hard to be understood; yet the fact is beyond dispute: and, whatever wiser persons in popish king∣doms may conceive, the bulk of the people have the highest reverence for the holy father.

The close connection between the clergy in all popish countries and the court of Rome, joined to the occa∣sional benefits that monarchs themselves may receive by

bulls from the holy see, makes them unwilling to in∣terpose or break off that commerce which their subjects have with Rome, that, upon certain occasions, they may derive favours from thence, which may easily procure what otherwise might with difficulty be ob∣tained by their own authority. The subjection of the clergy to a foreign head, makes them sometimes more tractable to their natural sovereigns than they otherwise would be, since the good-will and friendship of a single person is more easily attained than the direction of many; and besides, in those cases, there can be no appeal to the people; because, in all such dis∣putes, they think an entire submission the duty of the clergy. We may add to this another reason, which is, that the popish princes cherish the spiritual power of the pope, as the means of preserving unity in religious disputes, which very seldom disturb the church without disturbing the state also. Thus it appears that, inde∣pendent of enthusiasm and superstition, political prin∣ciples have no small share in promoting that adherence to the see of Rome, which, at first sight, seems so irre∣concilable to the absolute authority of sovereign princes, and which, notwithstanding, by their dexterous ma∣nagement, is often made to co-operate therewith.

As to the interior strength of the papal government, we need only reflect, that the advantages of birth are well supplied by the great parts, and other qualifications, with which a man must be necessarily endowed, who is promoted to this dignity. His being obliged to celi∣bacy is another point of great consequence, inasmuch as it prevents the changing this elective into an here∣ditary sovereignty, which would be entirely repugnant to the fundamental maxims of this constitution. We may add to this, the precautions taken in electing a person far advanced in years, which leaves no room for attempting to alter the settled principles of the government; and all great politicians allow, that it is the sacrificing these to the interest of a family, or to the private advantage of the reigning prince, that opens a

way to the ruin of the best-digested systems. It has also been an old rule in the conclave, never to elect two popes of the same family or faction, or even of the same disposition, in immediate succession, for the same reason. In short, it would be endless to enume∣rate particulars; but the character of the church of Rome, in respect to policy, has always stood so high, as to be thought the best school for training ministers in all the popish monarchies, from whence also it draws great advantages.

We must not, however, imagine from hence, that because the fundamental maxims of the see of Rome have been always the same, the administration of the government has been exactly uniform, since, consider∣ing the vast variations in mens temper's and habits in different ages, this must appear a thing absolutely impossible: neither ought we to imagine, that any constitution could be so framed, as to extinguish in the minds of princes all natural regard to their families: but on the one hand, such has been the skill and capacity of these spiritual monarchs, that from time to time they have made such prudent alterations in their exte∣rior conduct, as hath perfectly kept up that relation between the church and the court of Rome, upon which their authority depends: they have likewise, on the other, reduced their family tendernesses into a kind of system, by which the nepotism of the Roman pon∣tiffs has been in many reigns subservient to the interest of the state, as well as agreeable to the inclination of the popes, who thought they could never trust their affairs in so safe hands for themselves, as with those who must be conscious, that their wealth, their influence, and their power, must, in a great measure, determine with the life of him from whom they were received, and that, besides, they must, from that moment, lie open to the strictest enquiries possible into their past conduct.

One may, with great truth and impartiality, venture to assert, that the whole scheme of the Romish religion

is admirably well adjusted to maintain, in every respect, the power of the supreme head: he is reputed infallible, that his decisions may have the greater weight: the tra∣ditions of the church, which, with the members of it, pass for a rule of faith, are subject to his controul; all religious doctrines are liable to his censure; the power of absolution, even in the highest cases, is attributed to him; he dispenses the treasures of the church, I mean spiritual treasures, such as pardons and indulgences; he grants dispensations of all kinds; he regulates fasts and feasts at his pleasure: in a word, being reputed the suc∣cessor of St. Peter, and the visible head of the Christian church, he has prerogatives without bounds, and with∣out number; so that it is no surprising thing at all, that so much power, directed by so great policy, should be able to perform such mighty things, and to preserve it∣self for so many ages.

But our estimate of this power would be extremely imperfect, if we did not take notice of the several ranks and orders of men subject, in an especial manner, to the holy see; and which, without any great impropriety in the term, may be styled the spiritual forces of his holi∣ness. In the first class of these stand the cardinals, who are acknowledged princes of the church, and pretend to the next in dignity to crowned heads; they were origi∣nally no more than the parish priests of Rome, and their number sometimes greater, sometimes less; but now it is fixed to seventy-two, in allusion to Christ's disciples: heretofore a cardinal was content to be styled his excellency; but now they assume the title of emi∣nence, which was formerly given to princes, and there∣upon the latter took the title of highness; the cardinals are of all nations, that the influence arising from the hopes of this dignity may be the more extensive: the nomina∣tion to hats by crowned heads is a new stroke of Romish policy, which heightens the dependence upon the holy see, while it seems to lessen the papal authority; the majority, however, are chiefly Italians, to prevent the throne from being filled by a stranger; and it is pro∣vided,

that in all elections the person chosen shall have the voices of two thirds of those who enter the conclave, that there may never be a strong faction against the pope amongst the cardinals, which might be attended with ill consequences. All the subordinate dignities of the church may be considered as the nobility in the pope's spiritual empire.

But as in all others, so in this, the strength of the mo∣narchy consists in the number of its subjects; and if we take into our view the secular and regular clergy in the church of Rome, the former bound by the most sacred ties, and the latter not by vows only, but by their inte∣rests to the obedience of the holy see, we cannot but en∣tertain a high opinion of its power; since long ago it was the calculation of a certain sovereign, that in Europe he had three hundred thousand parishes, and fifty thou∣sand convents, subject to his jurisdiction, who, more or less, upon different occasions, resort to Rome, and carry thither an immense treasure. And it is very easy to discern, that nothing has been neglected which could possibly contribute to render the foundations of this mo∣narchy firm and strong: the most important trust of educating youth is entirely in their hands who are de∣voted to the service of the holy see; the Jesuits are par∣ticularly famous for their application in this respect, and when they have received the first tincture of literature, such as are sent to compleat their studies at the univer∣sities, meet with the same doctrine and discipline; and whatever the science be to which they apply, venera∣tion for the pope is a thing so frequently insisted on, and so strongly impressed, that it is almost impossible they should ever lose it while they remain at those seminaries of learning, and attend the offices of the church. Be∣sides these, the number of inferior clergy, who enjoy ecclesiastical benefices of all sorts, are so numerous, and afford such ample maintenance, and such agreeable prospects to men of all ranks and tempers, in conjunc∣tion with the canon law, which is peculiar to this spi∣ritual monarchy, that the most effectual provision is

made for a constant succession of persons, bound to sup∣port that interest, which is the support of themselves and all their pretensions.

As these are bound by affection, and by finding their own account, to a constant submission, so the proper methods have been taken for subjecting the laics in that church also to such an obedience as they cannot well break through. Amongst these we may reckon auricular confession, masses for the dead, the direction of female consciences, the opportunities they have of working upon persons in their dying moments; and many more circumstances that might be mentioned, favourable to their interest, afford us a reasonable probability that the papal authority will not decline much more than it has already done, especially if succeeding popes imitate the moderation of their immediate predecessors, and en∣deavour to support their influence rather by address than by the force of ecclesiastical censures, which is a sort of artillery that no longer does the execution it did in the darker ages, when the little learning there was remain∣ed entirely among the priests and the monks.

The reader will apprehend this more clearly, if he takes a short view of the European powers, that still profess obedience to the see of Rome. In Poland the clergy are numerous and well provided for, having a great share of power allotted them by the constitution, and are for the most part composed of the younger sons of the nobility.—In Germany it is visible, that the po∣pish religion rather prevails than declines, and the ec∣clesiastical electors and other prelates are so formidable a body in the diet, as not to be apprehensive of any future secularizations. It is, besides, the interest of fe∣veral great houses to support the church, as it is now constituted, on the score of the preferments, which are in a manner entailed on the younger sons of their fa∣mily, so as not only to afford them noble establishments, but also render them capable of supporting the head of their house, instead of being a burthen upon him, as would be the case if those dignities were secularized.

—The hereditary countries of the house of Austria re∣main strictly attached to the see of Rome.—The French, or Gallican church has, indeed, always claimed a kind of freedom, which having been improved by the struggles that have been heretofore made against them, the modern popes have wisely had recourse to another method, which seems to have had a better effect, and whilst the courts of Rome and Versailles agree, both will find their account in the reciprocal support of each other's power.—In Spain and Portugal the papal au∣thority stands upon a much stronger foundation, as ap∣pears from the amazing wealth of the clergy in the for∣mer, and the joy with which the sovereign of the lat∣ter accepted very lately, from the pope, the title of Most Faithful, (conferred by a bull from the pope, Jan. 1749) as well as many instances of a superstitious re∣gard to the doctrines and practices of that church.— In Italy the influence of the pope extends every where, and he is so able to make either his favour or his dis∣pleasure felt, that all the princes and states of his com∣munion, find it their interest to live upon good terms with his holiness, and as none understand their own interest better, are like to continue in the same incli∣nations, received from their ancestors, in that respect.

It has been generally supposed, that one of the maxims of the see of Rome has been, attaching itself to the superior interest, and always courting that power most which is uppermost; and, in proof of this, much has and may be said: but at the same time it is very cer∣tain, that the true interest of the holy see consists in supporting the balance of power, because its influence depends chiefly upon an equality among the princes of that communion; and if any of these should gain an entire ascendency, the see of Rome could not fail of feeling the first effects of it. This is not only evident in speculation, but from experience likewise.—The truth is, that while the court of Rome continues famous for policy, we can never expect her falling from this maxim; for as, in decency, it imports the holy

father to shew an equal affection for all who profess themselves his children, whereby he may best secure their reciprocal affection, duty and confidence * 1.227.

These points may be further illustrated, were we to consider his temporal authority, which the Roman pon∣tiff enjoys in consequence of his dominions in Italy and elsewhere. He is lord of considerable territories, and possessed of gold and silver, which St. Peter, even admitting him to have been bishop of Rome, certain∣ly did not bequeath to the see. What the dominions of the pope are, what his revenues and riches, nor whether these are lawful possessions, is not my province to enquire. It is not only probable, but unquestion∣able, that these are more the support of his supremacy and authority in the church, than any real persuasion of his infalibillity and divine right; though to establish such sentiments hath been made the study and business of the Jesuits.

1713. Pope Clement XI. was prevailed with by the Jesuits at Paris, to issue the bull Unigenitus, which chiefly relates to points of dispute between the Janse∣nists and the Dominicans, and for establishing the pope's authority. This bull, besides being an evidence that the pope may err, both in matters of faith and historical facts, proved the means of greatly endanger∣ing the authority of the pope; it kindled a flame in France which spread over the whole Romish church: broke out more violently after the death of Lewis XIV. The new king of Sicily would not part with his mo∣narchy; and the zeal which the pope manifested, served only to increase the papal pensioners, among whom was now the Pretender, as he could no longer stay in France; for the bull, which begins with the pastoral of∣fice, made no impressions in France; and from the grow∣ing opposition that was made to it, not only in France, but in the Low Countries and Germany, he found it necessary to use his best efforts in its defence; but

finding himself unequal to the task, he consented at length to some overtures.

Benedict XIII. discovered a more pacific disposition, and was much disappointed in the great good he ex∣pected from the Jesuits; for he found them more active in support of the bull Unigenitus than he could have wished. However, notwithstanding cardinal de Noailles, and cardinal Fleury, &c. subscribed it, Bene∣dict always continued a staunch Dominican. He pub∣lished the bull Petiosus, which the Jesuits will hardly admit to be a just exposition of the doctrine of grace. We must not omit this pope's pacific disposition, to reconcile the Roman, Greek, Lutheran, and reformed parties; and is more famous for personal endowments, especially learning, than for the prosperity of his pon∣tificate.

The intrigues and clashings among the several Roman catholic courts, and the ambitious schemes of the cardinals (who now obtained the title of Eminences), the artifice and industry of the Jesuits and other or∣ders of priests, served to weaken the power and in∣fluence of the popes. The occurrences of latter times convince us, that the measures, particularly of the Jesuits, rendered them suspected of being so en∣tirely the emissaries of the pope, as to disturb the peace and tranquillity of kingdoms.

The late extirpations of the order of Jesuits, in Por∣tugal and in France, are undeniable proofs that the pope's authority is no longer absolute, but limited and restrained, where the Jesuits have attempted an undue influence, or their principles, and their numbers, riches, and unconstitutional measures, have been found inconvenient, or prejudicial to the civil state of the kingdom.

In latter times the progress of arts and sciences, and of learning in general, may reasonably be supposed to be a very considerable means of limiting that unbound∣ed power and authority of the pope, so long usurped, and to weaken and destroy such attempts as were made

upon the rights of princes; and at the same time to remove that unreasonable superstition that too generally prevailed in the minds of the common people for whatever had the sanction of papal authority; and this is equally applicable to those errors and corruptions in doctrine, worship, and ceremonies, that have in pro∣cess of time prevailed in that church; many of the grossest of them sprung up in the darkest and most barbarous ages of christianity, when learning degene∣rated into fabulous legends and monkish stories, when to understand Greek, and other languages, was sus∣pected, and to believe the Antipodes was esteemed heresy; then was the time to impose on an undiscerning age, and to obtrude upon their understanding the belief of miracles performed by the relics of departed saints, and many doctrines, such as purgatory, transub∣stantiation, &c. which are not only unscriptural, but repugnant both to reason and common sense.

In the two last centuries the increase of knowledge, hath produced various effects among persons of different ranks: those, whose interest or prepossessions have not rendered them the friends and abettors of papal au∣thority, and impositions on the consciences of men un∣der various pretensions, and have seen the inconsistency of many of their doctrines, practices, and ceremonies, with genuine Christianity, have paid only an external regard to their ceremonies, to avoid ecclesiastical or civil penalties: some have looked with indifference on all the outward forms and modes of religion, whilst many have fallen into direct infidelity; and deism is now too general among the politer part of the inhabitants both in Italy and France.

This may suffice as a preliminary to the present state of religion in the church of Rome, constitution, doctrine, &c.

Notes

• * 1.1

  Natural re∣ligion.
• * 1.2

  Rational Catechism, p. 59.
• * 1.3

  Rational Catechism, p. 59.
• * 1.4

  Gospel doc∣trines.
• § 1.5

  1 Tim. vi. 3. See also Tillotson's Sermons, Loc••••e's Reason∣ableness of Christianity, Lawrences's Christian Morals and Christian Prudence, Dr. Chandler's and Dr. Foster's Defence of the Christian Revelation.
• * 1.6

  P••sitive In∣stitutions.
• ‖ 1.7

  See Foster's Truth of the Christian Revelation, p. 310. Hoad∣ly's Plain Account. Whitby's Paraphrase on Rom. vi. 4.
• † 1.8

  Lawrence's Christian Morals, vol. 1. Dr. Clark's Essay on Baptism.
• ‡ 1.9

  Grotius' Annot. on Matt. xix. 14.
• ‖ 1.10

  Fisher's Christianismus Redivivus.
• * 1.11

  Church mem∣bers.
• * 1.12

  The Rev. Mr. Samuel Bolde's Thoughts on Church Authority, p. 96.
• * 1.13

  Nature and design of the Christian Church.
• * 1.14

  True Nature of faith in Christ.
• * 1.15

  Catholic Church defined.
• ‡ 1.16

  King's Primitive Church. p. 2.
• † 1.17

  Hoadly's Nature of the Kingdom of Christ, p. 7.
• ‖ 1.18

  See King's Primitive Church, p. 158.
• * 1.19

  Christ the Christian's Patern.
• * 1.20

  See Dr. John Gale's Sermons (vol. 1.) on this Text, Mr. Samuel Bolde's Thoughts on Church Power, and Hoadl••'s An∣swer to the Committee.
• * 1.21

  Persecution unchristian.
• * 1.22

  Prescribed prayer.
• * 1.23

  Christ the alone mediator.
• * 1.24

  See Doctor Foster, of the Influences and Fruits of the Spirit, vol. II. p. 110.

  Lawrence's Christian Morals, &c. vol. I. p. 184, 185.

  Bishop of Gloucester's Three Discourses on the Influences of the Spirit.
• * 1.25

  The apostles commissioned.
• * 1.26

  Rev. Mr. Samuel Bolde on Church Power, p. 51.
• § 1.27

  King's Primitive Church.
• * 1.28

  Some judicious writers understand this to relate to their discern∣ment and prudence in the recommendation and appointment of pro∣per persons to the ministry.
• † 1.29

  The assuming power of the Romish church, or the pope, is in no instance more remarkable, than in claiming the power of absolution and indulgences, founded on those words, John xx. 23. Whose sins soever ye remit, they are remitted, and whose sins so ever ye retain, they are retained, addressed to the apostles; but evidently relate to, and must be understood of, such conditions whereon God hath promised pardon. And the form of absolution, made use of in the three first centuries, was this—Almighty God, be merciful unto thee, and forgive thee thy sins . And in the Greek church, this prayer of Damascen is still cited: "O Lord Jesus Christ, our God, who hath power to forgive sins, in thy goodness and loving-kindness pass by all offences of thy servants; for thou art the God of mercies, and able to forgive sins."—In this sense, the office of the priest is to declare and pronounce to his people, being penitent, the abso∣lution and remission of their sins; and, surely, what they are to declare and pronounce, must actually be done before they can really declare and pronounce it to be done.

  Here it is objected, that, if this be the import of the words, and they were spoken to the apostles in that sense, that they cannot, in the same sense, belong to any of their successors, Why do we, in our ordination, retain this form of words? "Receive ye the Holy Ghost; whose soever sins ye remit, thay are remitted, and whose sins soever ye retain, they are retained."—No more is intended by it than this: "Receive ye the Holy Ghost for the office of a bishop, or receive ye the Holy Ghost for the office of a presbyter, declaring the remission of sins upon the terms of the gospel." And this sense, says Whitby, corresponds with the several previous de∣clarations made on the part of the bishop or presbyter . The sense, therefore, of the protestant church, stands evidently opposed to the claims of the Romish church; though it were much to be wished, that the compilers of the offices of ordination had been more ex∣plicit with respect to the true scriptural and rational sense, in which they were therein appointed to be used.
• * 1.30

  (a) Ordo Romanus in the pontifical of the Latin church, p. 567.
• * 1.31

  (b) See Bishop Whit••y's Sermons, X. p, 264, 26••.
• † 1.32

  See Dr. Benson of the Propagation of Christianity.
• * 1.33

  Act iv.13. viii.39. Acts x.44.
• † 1.34

  Millar's Propagation of the Gospel, vol. I. p. 273, and sequel. Doctor Benson's History of the first Planting the Christian Religion, vol. I. from p. 38 to 66. Doctor Middleton's Introductory Dis∣course concerning the Miraculous Powers. Jackson's Remarks, &c.
• * 1.35

  Particular Churches established.
• * 1.36

  Clemens Romanus ad Corinth. p. 54.
• ‖ 1.37

  For the time when these churches were planted, see Dr. Ben∣son's Account of the first Planting of the Christian Churches, vol. 1. Christianismus Primitivus, b. ii. ch. 1. p. 6. Rev. Mr. Whiston's Primitive Christianity, in four books.
• § 1.38

  King's Primitive Church, p. 3.
• † 1.39

  Ibid. p. 8.
• * 1.40

  Church of Rome, A. D. 55.
• ‖ 1.41

  Christianismus Primativus, b. II. ch. 1. p. 12. See Dr. Ben∣son's Account of St. Paul's Visit to Rome, A. D. 58, and fourth of Nero, in his History of the first planting of Christanity, vol. II. p. 184.
• * 1.42

  The Papists indeed say, that St. Peter was the first named an apostle by Christ to begin the gospel church, that he wrought the first miracle after Christ's ascension, and preached the first sermon, and that this apostle received the first commission to begin the Gen∣tile Christian church, &c. but this is by no means a proof of his being bishop of Rome. First, from the silence of St. Luke, who records many things concerning Peter: he write•• of his journey to Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea, Jerusalem, and Antioch; but not one word of his going to Rome to sound the papal chair.

  Secondly, When the apostle Paul, in his epistle to the Romans, salutes the Christians and his fellow-labourers by name, he says not one word of Peter; and when even commending the faith of the Church, he never mentions one word of the supposed founder of it.

  Thirdly, St. Peter himself speaks not one word of what the Papists assert or alledge in this matter. If he had founded the Roman church, why does he no where mention it? why does he, when writing to the dispersed Jews, no where assert his claim and preroga∣tive?

  Fourthly, The assertion of his being bishop of Rome twenty-five years, is inconsistent with the sacred chronology of those times; for from the time of Christ's death, which was in the 18th year of Ti∣berius, to the 13th year of Nero, when Peter was crucified, was only thirty-six years, viz. five in Tiberius's reign, four in Cali∣gula's, fourteen in Claudius's, and thirteen in Nero's. Now Peter did not go out of Judea till twelve years after our Lord's death; then he was cast into prison by Herod, Acts, c. xii. which was the fourth year of the Emperor Claudius, and the last of King Agrippa; six years after that, or the eighteenth year after Christ's crucifixion, we find him present at a synod at Jerusalem, Acts xv. and according to the catholic church, he was seven years at Antioch; so there remains only eleven years in which he could possibly be at Rome, and in∣deed there is no evidence of his ever being there in that capacity.

  Fifthly, Peter being an apostle of the circumcision, Gal. ii. 7, 8. we have reason to believe, that when Paul was carried to Rome, Peter visited the Jews, who were dispersed in Greece, Thracia, the Lesser Asia, Babylon, and the East, and reaped a good harvest amongst them, till he went to visit the church of Rome near the close of his life. When therefore the apostle, 1 Peter, v. 13. says, The church that is at Babylon saluteth you, he plainly writes of Babylon in the east, once the head of the Assyrian empire, where there was so great a concourse of Jews: and if it be granted that Peter had been at Rome, or resided there some time, or suffered martyrdom there, this is no reason for asserting his primacy or episcopacy in that city more than at Joppa, Antioch, or Babylon.
• * 1.43

  Origin of the title of bi∣shops.
• § 1.44

  History of the Popes, translated from the German original of C. W. F. Walch, c. ii. p. 4.
• ‡ 1.45

  King's Primitive Church, p. 66. where he quotes Eusebius.

  Apud lib. v. c. xiv. p. 193.
• * 1.46

  Diocese, its primitive im∣port.
• * 1.47

  Bishop's office distinguished from a presby∣ter.
• § 1.48

  King's Primitive Church, p. 66. who quotes Eusebius apud lib. v. cap. xiv. p. 193.
• ‖ 1.49

  Bolde on Church Power, occasioned by the Bangorian Contro∣ersy, p. 59.
• ‡ 1.50

  Ibid. p. 60.
• † 1.51

  Apud Cyp. Epist. lxviii. s. vi. p. 102. Apud Euseb. lib. vi. cap. xxviii. p. 229.
• * 1.52

  Father Paul of Beneficial Matters, p. 56.
• * 1.53

  The office of Deacons.
• * 1.54

  Of ordina∣tion.
• † 1.55

  Hence the pope and bishops of the catholic church do, as the vicar of Christ, and successors of the apostles, assert, that by their ordination of priests they are thereby consecrated to their respective functions, and also receive grace to discharge them . And in this particular likewise the modesty and good sense of our church is conspicuous: for neither the bishop pretends, nor the person receiving orders is taught to believe, that any sanctity, dignity, or privilege, with respect to the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit, are conveyed by the imposition of the bishop's hands at this or∣dination; and that nothing more is intended by the bishop, in this part of the service, Receive ye the Holy Ghost, than his solemn wish, directed to heaven, that he might receive the Holy Ghost for the office and work of a priest, to which he is set apart by the imposition of his hands .
• * 1.55.1

  (a) Profession of Catholic Faith, p. 5. compared with the Definition of Holy Orders, p. 23.
• * 1.55.2

  (a) Bishop Whithy's Sermons, with which corresponds Doctor Benson's account of this matter before cited.
• * 1.56

  Confirmation.
• * 1.57

  Doctor Cosin of the Canon of Scripture, p. 22.
• * 1.58

  Scripture the rule of faith.
• † 1.59

  Doctor Chandler's Notes of the Church, p. 13, 15.
• ‡ 1.60

  De Animâ, c. iii. p. 530.
• ‖ 1.61

  Apology ii. p. 98.
• * 1.62

  This book is said to be compiled by Clement, bishop of Rome, who was chosen to that office in the year 67, and died in 88: it is entitled Apostolical Constitutions, digested in eight books; consisting of 70 canons relating to the laity, and 85 with respect to the dignity, office, and duty of ecclesiastics: and the late Rev. and learned Mr. Whiston has, with much pains, endeavoured to establish their authen∣ticity; in which he has likewise pointed out the order and method of the several matters therein contained, respecting doctrine, worship, discipline, and manners; in which is likewise inserted the canon of scripture, approved and recommended by the apostles, which were extant before the year 63, together with the Baptismal Creed, and one other formulary or creed, chiefly calculated to promote the doc∣trine of Arius with regard to the subordination of the Son to the Father.

  Then follows an Essay on the Apostolical Constitutions, wherein our author endeavours to shew their consistency with the doctrines taught by Christ and his apostles; quotes a variety of testimonies from the fathers and historians of several succeeding centuries, in proof of some or other of those constitutions, or whose sentiments coincided with them. That they are of great antiquity, will not be denied; but that they have no just claim to the authority contended for, will, I presume, be readily admitted by any one who compares the con∣tents of them with the doctrines contained in the New Testament.

  For besides the entire silence of the New Testament concerning them, which, to me, is no small proof that they are spurious, several of those canons carry with them apparent marks of mere modern in∣vention. The dignity and power of the clergy is here, like the hierarchy of the church of Rome, stretched to such an exorbitant height, as could hardly be consistent with Christian liberty, or with the safety of Christians, especially under heathen governors.—To them was to be committed the care of the ecclesiastical revenue, for which they were accountable to none but God.—Moreover, the titles given the priests, in some places, are impious: they are not only stiled prophets, rulers, kings, and governors, but also mediators between God and his faithful people, and in chap. xxvi. and chap. xxix. stiled gods.— They mention the using holy oil for anointing the candidates be∣fore, and of ointments for sealing them after, baptism—of using water with the wine in the Lord's supper.—They recommend pecu∣niary fines for sin, prayers, or offerings and festivals for the dead— esteem and honour for the reliques of saints, and other ceremonies equally superstitious and unscriptural: for which me must refer the reader to Mr. Whiston's Primitive Christianity Revived, book iii. to which is added his defence.

  But so incongruous did the general tenour of them appear to the New Testament, and so unsatisfactory his defence, that they were censured by the convocation at Canterbury, A. D. 1711. The form of which is as follows:

  Whereas the said William Whiston, the better to support his heretical opinions, speaking of a book commonly called the Apos∣tolical Constitutions, hath these words: "I have, I think, cer∣tainly found, that those Apostolical Constitutions, which the Anti∣christian church hath so long laid aside as spurious and heretical, are no other than the original laws and doctrines of the gospel, the new covenant, or most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in their authority to the four gospels themselves, and superior in authority to the epistles of single apostles; some parts of them being our Saviour's own original laws, delivered to the apostles; and the other parts the public acts of the apostles themselves, met in council at Cesarea and Jerusalem, a little before their death; and that this was the constant opinion and testimony of the earliest ages of the gospel:" We cannot but declare these assertions concerning a book, which was never yet acknowledged as part of the canon of scripture by any general council, nor received as such in any Christian church, to be highly ab∣surd and impious, tending to create in the minds of Christians great uncertainties, as to their rule of faith, and to subvert that faith which was once delivered to the saints, and which is preserved in the books of the New Testament, received in our church.
• * 1.63

  First persecu∣tion.
• * 1.64

  Blair.
• † 1.65

  Ibid.
• * 1.66

  It has been already observed, that it is very unlikely, that Peter was ever bishop of the particular society or congregation of Christians at Rome; because he could not execute such an office without quitting his apostleship, and thereby betraying that trust which Christ had reposed in him: but if this were granted, nothing can justly be inferred from thence in favour of any apostolical power or jurisdiction, which might be supposed to descend from him to his successors the bishops of Rome, or to any other bishop; because the bishop of Rome did not succed St. Peter in his apostolical, but in his episcopal character only .... Most vain it must therefore be, for the late bishops of Rome, or any other bishop, to lay claim to the power of the keys, let that power be what it will, or any other apostolical power or jurisdiction whatever, seeing no such power has, or could be descended, to them. For the apostolical commission ex∣tended no farther than the fourteen apostles, and therefore, when the apostles died, the apostolic office, and consequently all apostolic power, died with them.

  It is likewise observable, how vain the pretence is, that the bishops and clergy of the church of Rome have been continued by a regular uninterrupted succession from the apostles down to the present time; whereas, according to the account of father Paul , the succession of bishops and clergy has been greatly interrupted: thus, not only in the apostles time, but down to the end of this century, those, appointed to any offices in Christian societies, were elected, or set apart, to their respective offices by the body of Christians; that is, by that society they were appointed to serve. And though the using, or applying the outward sign of such election, by laying on of hands, and of praying for God's blessing, was performed by the bishop; yet that did not affect the act of the society or congregation, whose minister he was, or the independency of one church on another; but was a mere appendix to it.
• * 1.67

  (a) See Barrow on the Pope's Supremacy, Chubb's True Gospel.
• * 1.68

  (b) Father Paul's Account of Beneficiary Matters, p. 5, 6.
• * 1.69

  See Irenaeus Advers. Haeres. and Walch's Hist. Eccles. ch. i. sects. ii. v. and viii.
• † 1.70

  Concerning the names of Papa▪ Episcopus, Episcoparum, and Pontifax Maximus, said to have been given by Justin Martyr and Ter••ullian, to the bishop of Rome, see Walch's Hist. Eccles.

  Chillingworth, the protestant champion, besides many other di∣vines, has wrote largely in defence of episcopacy; and all, in ge∣neral, agree in this point, that it was not introduced in the first century, or by the apostles, though they unquestionably prove, that this office, or superior dignity in the church, was instituted, or ge∣nerally in use, as early as the second century.

  Mr. Chillingworth defines episcopacy, to be the choice of one man of eminent sanctity and sufficiency to have the care of all the churches within a certain precinct or diocese, and furnishing him with autho∣rity, not absolute or ••••bitrary; but under the regulation of laws, to the intent, that all churches under him may be provided with good and able pastors. This he apprehends, 1st, is not repugnant to the government settled in, and for the church, by the apostles; 2d, That it is as well calculated for the reformation of any evil in the church, or the introduction of any good which we desire to introduce, as any other form of government; and 3d, That there is no law upon record of our Saviour against it. He quotes Petrus Molinaeus, who, in his Defence of Presbyteri••l Government, acknowledgeth, that presently after the apostles times, it was ordained, that in every city, one of the presbytery should be called a bishop, who should have pre∣eminence over his colleagues, to avoid that confusion which oft∣times ariseth out of equality, &c. He likewise quotes Theodorus Beza, to the same purport .
• * 1.71

  (a) Chilingworth of Episcopacy, annexed to his other works, 〈◊〉〈◊〉 p. 1, to 5, inclusive.
• * 1.72

  (b) Hoadly's Reasonableness of Conformity, p. 3.
• * 1.73

  (c) Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church abridged, from p. 50 to 100.
• * 1.74

  Archbishop Wake, in his Preliminary Discourse to the Genuine Epistles of the Apostolic Fathers, p. 89, Where he has given us a list of a great part of those spurious pieces, with a short account of each—In which he tells us it would be endless, to insist on all the spurious pieces, which were only attributed to St. Paul; but that the superstitious books ascribed to St. Peter his Acts, his Gospel, his Revelation, were in much greater authority, even to the time of Eusebius, (sect. xviii. xix.); he observes also, that the book called the Recognitions of St. Clement, which he takes to be the most learned, as well as the most ancient of any of those pieces, was not set forth till about the middle of the second century, and is rejected by Euse∣bius as one of those many impostures, which were even then published under the name of that saint, sect. xxviii.
• * 1.75

  Apostles creed first intro∣duced.
• § 1.76

  Having mentioned the apostles creed, it may be proper to give a general account thereof. The learned author of the Critical His∣tory of this creed very justly acknowledges, that this creed was not the work of one man, or of a day, (he might have said, nor of one century). The ancient fathers never indeed called it by the name of the apostles creed, but say it was agreeable to what they taught. Most of the articles are indisputably so; some of them are said to be derived from Philip's requiring of the eunuch a profession of his faith in Christ, as the Son of God, as a pre-requisite to his being baptized: and, for a considerable time, the christian bishops con∣tented themselves with some such general form of words, without any particular explication of the nature and action of God, or the state of the Son. The reason of the additional articles seems to be this: not long after the apostles time, several heresies sprung up in the church, subsersive of the fundamentals of Christianity, and even of all religion. Thus the first article, I believe in God the Father, was introduced in opposition to the Manichaeans, who asserted two in∣dependent deities, A. D. 276. The word Almighty was also added to this article, against some Manichaeans, who asserted, that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, were but one person. The second article, and in Jesus Christ our Lord, was introduced about the same time, in opposition to Sabellianism, who made the Son and Holy Spirit to be only virtues or emanations of the deity. The words, he descended into hell, were neither in the Roman nor oriental creeds. The phrase, communion of saints, was not in any creed till above 400 years after Christ, and then not immediately received in all. The clause of life everlasting was omitted in several; and whoever shall compare the Grecian or the French creed, recorded by Iraeneus, those of Carthage cited by Tertullian, that of Aquila, Hippo, Ra∣venna, or Turin, will find them all to vary; which, with other considerations, sufficiently evidence the apostles could not be the authors of the creed that passes in their name . The repetition of the creed at every assembly was appointed in the eastern church by Timothy, archbishop of Constantinople, about the year 500 ; about which time the bishop of Antioch likewise prescribed the reading of it at the public administration of divine service. In the western churches, at a synod of thirty-five bishops, it was appointed to be read and explained to the Catechumens, who were afterwards to be admitted to baptism; but the general and constant reading thereof seems not to have prevailed in the western churches, till five hundred years after Christ: by the decree of the third council of Toledo, it was enjoined to be read throughout all the chorches of Spain and Gallicia .
• * 1.76.3

  (b) Ibid. p. 29.
• * 1.76.4

  (c) Ibid. p. 42, 43.
• * 1.76.5

  (d) Theodor. Lector. Eccles. Hist. l. ii. p. 563.
• * 1.77

  (e) Memoirs of Dr. Clarke, p. 10.
• * 1.78

  (f) Theod. C. H. l. i. c. 5, cited by Dr. Chandler in his Intro∣duction to Limberch's Hist. of the Inquisition, p. 24.
• * 1.79

  (a) Critical History, p. 32, 33.
• * 1.80

  History of Popery, vol. II. p. 100.
• † 1.81

  Ibid.
• ‡ 1.82

  See Dr. Wall's History of Infant Baptism, and Dr. Gale's Answer.
• § 1.83

  Cave's Primitive Christianity, p. 307.
• ‖ 1.84

  Tertullian adv. Marcion, lib. iii. p. 226.
• † 1.85

  Cave's Primitive Christianity, p. 305. Compare Cave, Wall, Toogood, with Grantham, Gale, Gill, &c.
• * 1.86

  * See Lawrence R. of Yelvertoft's Christian Morals, p. 192 to 196.
• § 1.87

  See the Translation of Walch's History, p. 42.
• ‡ 1.88

  See Cornelius's Letter to Fabius, Bishop of Ant••och, in Con∣stant. Epistol. Pontific.
• ‖ 1.89

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 20.
• ‡ 1.90

  Abstract from Dr. Middleton's Introductory Discourse. p. 38, 39.
• § 1.91

  See Archb. Wake on the Fathers, quoted p. 30.
• * 1.92

  Dupin's History of the three first Centuries.
• ‡ 1.93

  Cyptian's Ep. lxix. ad magnum Constit. Apost. lib. vii. c. xli.
• * 1.94

  See Justin Martyr's Apology ii. p. 98. Socrates, lib. v. Tertullian de Oratione, p. 659. Delaun's Plea, p. 35. King's Primitive Church, P. II. p. 6, 9, 10, 12, 18, 26, 31, 37, 40, 54.
• † 1.95

  Plinii lib. x. ep. xevii. p. 1387.
• ‡ 1.96

  Cave's Primitive Christianity, part III. p. 205 to 389.
• § 1.97

  Eusebius ix. 8,
• † 1.98

  Jortin's Remarks, v. III. p. 268.
• * 1.99

  Sale's Preliminary Discourse to the Koran.
• † 1.100

  Dr. Benson's History of the first planting of Christianity, p. 6.
• § 1.101

  Walch's History of the Popes.
• § 1.102

  See Spanhemius and the Theodosian Cedex.
• ‡ 1.103

  See Chrysostom, l. i. Orat. xl. p. 485.
• ‖ 1.104

  Augustine's Epistles, clxii. and clxvi.
• § 1.105

  Lib. i. de Conc. c. xii. See Hist. of Popery, vol. I. p. 25.
• * 1.106

  Vid. Act. Concil. Nic. vol. i.
• † 1.107

  Theodoret, lib. i. 7.
• ‖ 1.108

  This creed was composed at this first general council of Nice, A. D. 325, but it received many additions and alterations at the second general council, at Constantinople, A. D. 381, and there∣fore might be more properly stiled the Constantinopolitan creed: and as the Arian or orthodox party prevailed, this creed was censured or confirmed in some of the succeeding councils for several centuries▪ The third council of Toledo, which was held in the seventh century, held this creed in great veneration, as more largely condemning all heresies than the apostles, and ordered that it should be always re∣cited by the people before the sacrament, to shew that they are free from heresy, and in strict union with the Catholic church. This creed has been usually read at the beginning of all the general council•• since .
• * 1.108.6

  (a) Broughton's Article, Nicen•• creed.
• * 1.109

  Theod. E. H. l. I. c. viii.
• ‡ 1.110

  E. H. l. 1. c. xiv.
• * 1.111

  Doctor Chandler's Hist. of Persecution, p. 36.
• * 1.112

  Jortin's Remark on Eccles. Hist. vol. iii. p. 55.
• * 1.113

  Greg. Naz. Epist. ad Procop.
• * 1.114

  Theod. lib. iv. c. iv.
• † 1.115

  Sozimus, lib. vi. c. vii.
• * 1.116

  Lib. xxvii. c. iii.
• † 1.117

  An abstract from Dr. Chandler's History of Persecution.
• * 1.118

  Jortin's Remarks on Eccles. Hist. p. 245.
• ‖ 1.119

  Gale's Sermons, vol. i. p. 71t
• * 1.120

  In Calvin's Institutes, or in Dr. Gill's Cause of God and Truth, vol. iii. latter end.
• † 1.121

  Chamier, tom. ii. lib. ii. cap. iv.
• ‡ 1.122

  See Wall's Hist. and Peirce's Essay on giving the Eucharist to Children, p. 6. and Aeneas Sylvius's Epistle, cxxx.
• * 1.123

  Blair.
• † 1.124

  Bower's Hist. of the Pope's, vol. i. p. 411.
• ‡ 1.125

  Walch's Hist. of the Popes.
• ‖ 1.126

  Lib. vii. c. ix.
• * 1.127

  Abstract from Dr. Chandler's Hist. of Persecution, p. 44.
• † 1.128

  Socrates, ch. ii. p. 41.
• * 1.129

  An abstract from Dr. Chandler's Hist. of Persecution, p. 51.
• † 1.130

  Vossius and other learned writers have sufficiently proved that it was none of his;—that it was originally a Latin composition, and by a Latin author;—that it cannot be carried higher than the very close of the sixth century. Many writers of credit, especially Pascasius Quesnel, an eminent French divine, ascribe it to Vir∣gilius Tapsensis in this century, who was famous for his forging many books under the names of the fathers. Dupin favours this supposition, and says all the world knows it was not Athanasius's . Bishop Burnet, in his Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, p. 107, says, as it was none of his, so it was never established by any general council till 1123. Dr. Scott says, some part of it is inconsistent with the most genuine writings of Athanasius. Dr. Cudworth says, as this creed asserts the three persons not specifically, but numerically the same, it seems not to be owned by any public authority, save that of the Lateran council in 1123. Dr. Waterland, in his Cri∣tical History of this creed, attributes the composing of it to Hillary, bishop of Arles; and that before A. D. 670, the name of Athanasius was not given to it.—As to the reception of this creed, it was re∣ceived in France in the time of Hinemar, A. D. 850,—at Spain about A. D. 950, and in Germany much about the same time—in England likewise in the tenth century—at Verona, in Italy, 1014; and as to the Greek and Oriental churches, it is not certain that any of them ever received it .

  The history of Czar Peter the Great mentions, it was introduced in∣to some of the churches of Russia the last century, as a novelty picked up in his travels to France.
• * 1.131

  (a) Dupin's Eccles. Hist. tom. II. p. 34.
• * 1.132

  (b) See Athanasian Forgeries.
• * 1.133

  Madg. cent. 5, ch. iv. p. 656, quoted by Delaune.
• † 1.134

  Pierce's, Essay, p. 9.
• § 1.135

  Camden.
• ‖ 1.136

  St. Jerom records a memorable saying of Pretextatus, a pagan, at this time: "Make me a bishop of Rome, and I will immediately become a Christian."
• § 1.137

  Walch's History of the Popes.
• * 1.138

  Evagrius, lib. iv. ch. xxxii. Platina. Dr. Chandler's History of Persecution, p. 52.
• * 1.139

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. II. p. 265.
• † 1.140

  Chandler's History of Persecution, p. 55.
• * 1.141

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. II. p. 401.
• § 1.142

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. II. p. 325.
• ‖ 1.143

  Ibid. 327.
• ‡ 1.144

  Hist. Popery, vol. I. p. 87. See also The Blessed Virgin's Psalter, as it is called, composed by Bonaventure, a cardinal of the Romish church.
• † 1.145

  Dupin.
• ‖ 1.146

  In two vol. 4 to. printed in 1735, vol. I. p. 134.
• * 1.147

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p.
• ¶ 1.148

  Bower's History of the Popes, v. ii. p. 550.
• ‡ 1.149

  Ibid. vol. iii. p. 49.
• * 1.150

  Bowers's History of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 87.
• * 1.151

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 15. Baille, con∣cerning the Right Use of the Fathers, lib. ii. chap. iv.—An Essay on Scripture Prophecy, Prin. 1724 .
• * 1.151.7

  (a) Mead's Apostasy of Later Times.
• † 1.152

  St. Austin prayed for the dead, for the soul of his mother Menica, and held, that prayers for the good were thanksgivings— for those not very bad, propitiations; for those very bad, though of no use to the dead, a comfort to the living.—St. Ambrose prayed for the soul of Theodosius;—St. Gregory for the soul of Trajan;— St. Chrysostom joined to his prayers for the dead, alms and oblations; —St. Austin introduced the veneration of the relics of saints, affirm∣ing miracles had been wrought by them;—St. Jerom defended the adoration of them. To omit many others, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Gregory Nyssen, St. Ambrose, St. Jerom, St. Au∣stin, St. Theodoret, St. Fulgentius, St. Gregory the Great, St. Leo, and more have prayed to the saints . St. Cyprian, and a whole council with him condemned the baptism administered by such as they deemed heretics.—Origen, through too much compassion of the wicked, asserted that the devils themselves, after a severe punish∣ment, should at length be saved.—And none exceeded Tertullian in an undue veneration for the church. "If thou fearest heaven will be shut against thee, says he, remember that Christ gave the keys to Peter and by him to the church .
• * 1.152.8

  (b) See Thorndyke, in Epil. Part iii. p. 358.
• * 1.152.9

  (c) Sir Peter King, p. 114, who cites his Scorphiac, p. 612.
• ‡ 1.153

  See Delaun's Plea for the Nonconformists, and his Authorities, p. 33, and Dr. Mead before quoted.
• ‖ 1.154

  Dupin, Picart, History of Popery, 2 vols. 4to.
• * 1.155

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 153.
• ‖ 1.156

  History of Popery, vol. i.
• † 1.157

  Norman on Church Music, p. 37.
• * 1.158

  * Picart's Ceremonies, vol. i. p. 347.
• * 1.159

  Dupin, seventh Century.
• † 1.160

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 156.
• ‖ 1.161

  Rolt's Introduction to the Lives of the Reformers, p. vii.
• § 1.162

  Bower's History of the Popes, vol. iii. p. 7.
• ‡ 1.163

  History of Popery, vol. I, p. 138.
• ‖ 1.164

  See Lowman's Paraphrase on the Revelations, p. 142.
• * 1.165

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 34.
• ‖ 1.166

  Laval's History of the Reformation in France, Dedication.
• § 1.167

  Walch.
• ‡ 1.168

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 88.
• * 1.169

  Ibid. 106.
• † 1.170

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 62.
• ‡ 1.171

  It is observed by Muratoir, in the History of Italy, that the appellation of pope was not in those days peculiar to the bishops of Rome, but also borne by other considerable bishops.
• ¶ 1.172

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 80.
• * 1.173

  Dupins's History of the Church, vol. iii. p. 80.
• † 1.174

  Preface to Laval's History of the Reformation in France.
• * 1.175

  Walch's History translated, p. 182. See the Histoir. du Droit Public. Eccles. Franc. and Mosheim. Instit. Histoir. Eccles. p. 506.
• * 1.176

  Gregory's Life by Anonymous.
• * 1.177

  Father Paul, p. 92.
• † 1.178

  Here our author adds, by way of comment, that a concession of a thing, just and due in itself, is valid, though made through fear; and on the other side, an act is never justifiable, if against the law of God, by the strongest impressions of fear that can be pleaded: be∣cause the natural divine law is, of itself, good and immutable, and commands things in their nature important; and that therefore the commands of God bind absolutely, and not the commands of the church.
• ‡ 1.179

  Laval's History of the Reformation in France.
• ‖ 1.180

  Dupin's Church History, vol. iii. p. 121.
• ‖ 1.181

  Laval's Dedication to the History of the Reformation in France,
• * 1.182

  Walck's History of the Popes.
• † 1.183

  Dupin, Century XII.
• § 1.184

  Dupin's Preface to the twelfth Century, folio edit.
• * 1.185

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 106.
• † 1.186

  Abstract from Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, ibid.
• ‡ 1.187

  This is farther considered in the State of Religion in England, introductory to the Necessity of a Reformation.
• § 1.188

  Mezeray's Life of Philip Augustus.
• * 1.189

  History of Popery, vol. i. p. iii. p. 417, who cites Hoveden, Vignier, Baronius, Ranulphus in Polychronico, lib. vii. c. xxvi.
• ‡ 1.190

  Dupin, Century XII.
• * 1.191

  Dupin.
• † 1.192

  Blair.
• * 1.193

  Walch's History.
• * 1.194

  Matt. Paris, anno 1245. § i.
• ‡ 1.195

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 147.
• ‖ 1.196

  Vide Nicol. de Clemangis corrupto Ecclesiae Statu, c. xi.
• * 1.197

  See Rolt's History of the Reformers.
• † 1.198

  The particulars of those privileges, &c. included in twenty articles, may be seen in Broughton's Dictionary.
• § 1.199

  Dupin's History of the Church, vol. IV. p. 319.
• ‡ 1.200

  Decretal, lib. iii. chap. 10.
• * 1.201

  Laval's Preface to the History of the Reformation in France.
• ‖ 1.202

  Henault's History of France.
• * 1.203

  Puffendorff's Introduction to the History of Europe.
• † 1.204

  Dupin's Hist. ch. v. 4. p. 265.
• * 1.205

  Father Paul.
• † 1.206

  Preface to Century XIV. Fol. Edit.
• ‡ 1.207

  See Father Paul of Benefices, p. 179.
• § 1.208

  Father Paul, p. 184.
• * 1.209

  Dupin's Hist. Ch. iv. p. 265.
• ‖ 1.210

  Abs. from the Preface of Mons. Dupin, to Century XV.
• * 1.211

  Father Paul of Benesices and Revenue, p. 196.
• † 1.212

  Conserence of Ordinances, lib. I. tit. iiii. p. 283.
• * 1.213

  Father Paul of Beneficiary Matters, p. 206.
• * 1.214

  Dupin's History of the Church, vol. iii. p. 300.
• † 1.215

  Dupin.
• § 1.216

  Laval's History of the Reformation in France.
• ‖ 1.217

  Freeman.
• ‖ 1.218

  Dupin.
• * 1.219

  Allowance must here be made for the religious tenets of this author. I have therefore made some variations.
• * 1.220

  Walch's History of the Popes, p. 272. See Remarks on the twenty-fourth Article of Pope Pius IV's Creed, by Burroughs.
• * 1.221

  Council of Trent, 1545, Paul III. Pope.
• * 1.222

  An abstract from Dr. Jurieu's History of the Council of Trent, and Father Paul's History in folio.
• * 1.223

  Henault, abridged by Nugent, p. i. p. 416.
• * 1.224

  An Abstract from Walch's History of Papacy. See also Brandt's History of the Reformation in the Low Countries, and Laval's History of the Reformation in France.
• † 1.225

  Walch, before cited, p. 298, who adds by way of note—The pretended belief of this article at Rome, may be seen in Blanchi's Treatise Della Potesta e della Politia della Chiesa, written in op∣position to that friend of liberty, Giannoni. There is also a work, lately drawn up by the inquisition, concerning papal power, to de∣pose kings, or discharge their subjects, from their oath of allegiance; which piece would probably have met with a better reception in the twelfth century. See Voltaire's Siecle de Louis XIV.
• * 1.226

  See a larger Account of these Matters. Dupin, Cent. xvii.
• * 1.227

  Abstract from the present State of Europe, p. 423.