Frontmatter

pp. N/A

Page  I Studies In Japanese Culture II Edited by Calvin L. French The University of Michigan Press * Ann Arbor * 1969 Center for Japanese Studies * Occasional Papers No. 11

Page  II Copyright 1969 by The University of Michigan University of Michigan Center for Japanese Studies Director: Roger F. Hackett The Occasional Papers of the Center for Japanese Studies are published by The University of Michigan Press. Sales correspondence should be directed to The University of Michigan Press, 615 East University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Editorial correspondence should be directed to the Center for Japanese Studies, 108 Lane Hall, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104.

Page  III CONTENTS ART AND MUSIC The Other Side of Tohaku............................ Robert D. Moes Japanese Bells.................................. Percival Price Children's Game Songs of Okayama Prefecture................. Estelle Titiev LITERATURE Mono No Aware................................ Francis Mathy, S.J. Page 1 35 67 139 As A Driven Leaf: Love and Psychological The Tale of Genji............. Gail Capitol Kahan Characterization in 155 Mishima Yukio: Three Primary Colors. Translation by Miles K. McElrath Mishima Yukio: The Monster... Translation by David O. Mills Mishima Yukio: The Peacocks...... Translation by David O. Mills 175 195 213 iii

Page  IV

Editor's Preface

pp. v

Page  V EDITOR'S PREFACE The Center for Japanese Studies, established in 1947, is the oldest of the area centers at the Univer sity of Michigan. The staff of twenty-two faculty members conducts courses in twelve disciplines: anthropology, economics, history, history of art, human genetics, language and literature, law, librarianship, linguistics, music and ethnomusicology, political science, and sociology. Some eighty-four courses are offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels devoted to various aspects of Japanese society and culture. This program represents a depth and breadth of resources on Japan matched by few universities in America or abroad. Scholarly research in Japan is strongly encouraged by the Center. Every effort is made to insure that all doctoral candidates have an opportunity to complete both language training and dissertation research in Japan for a period of one year or longer. The Center also sponsors research programs carried out in Japan for the purpose of publication of books and articles. Village Japan, Twelve Doors to Japan, Government and Local Power in Japan, 500 to 1700 A. D., Japanese Culture, and Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey are among the more notable publications that have resulted from this research. Bibliographical Series, a continuing Center publication currently in ten volumes, has proved an invaluable source of information for research on Japan. Each volume, devoted to a respective discipline, lists and describes the major bibliographic, reference, and monographic materials available in the Japanese language. The Occasional Papers series is designed for the publication of research papers, translations, or theses on Japan by staff members and outstanding graduate students. Each volume groups related aspects of Japanese studies; the present edition on Japanese culture contains articles and translations concerning literature, music, and art. Biographical information on the contributors to this edition is given at the conclusion of each article. I wish to express sincere appreciation to Mrs. Roberta Levenbach, Secretary of the Center for Japanese Studies, for the immeasurable assistance she has provided in compiling and organizing Occasional Papers Number 11. Thanks are also due to Mrs. Donna Botero for her precise and conscientious work in typing all manuscripts. C.L. F. v

Page  VI

The Other Side of Tohaku

Robert D. Moespp. 1-34

Page  1 THE OTHER SIDE OF TOHAKU by Robert D. Moes The University of Hawaii

Page  2

Page  3 The late sixteenth century Japanese painter Kano Eitoku (1543-90) has traditionally been given most of the credit for creating the new painting style of the Momoyama Period. In recent years critical opinion has shifted. A large share of the honor for perfecting the style is now given to Hasegawa Tohaku, who lived from about 1539 to 1610. There is little point in arguing the relative originality of the two painters' work, but the greatness of Tohaku's magnificent series of sliding-door paintings of Maple and Blossoming Cherry in the Chishaku-in is indisputable. These panels are definitive examples of the new painting style. Its power and grandeur express the heroic, if somewhat parvenu, spirit of the age. Momoyama painting favored the large format of wall panels, sliding-doors, and foldingscreens. These were in demand for decorating audience chambers and other rooms in the large castles that were the principal landmarks of Momoyama architecture. In these dimly-lit rooms, the gold leaf ground often used on the paintings reflected light. It also served to remind newly aligned or subjugated vassals of a military lord's power and prestige. Momoyama painting was an art of frank display, saved from vulgarity only by the superb design sense of its greater practitioners. Paintings not having a gold ground and bright mineral pigments were usually done in ink monochrome on a near-white ground. Masterpieces of both types are found in Kano Eitoku's work. The eight-fold screen of Cypress Trees in the Tokyo National Museum, and the set of four sliding-door panels of Blossoming Plum in the Juk5-in sub-temple of Daitokuji are attributed to him. These paintings show another primary characteristic of the new style. Elements from the traditional Far-Eastern picture subject category of "birds-and-flowers" are arranged along a single plane parallel with and near to the surface. Suggestions of deep space are suppressed or eliminated. A great achievement of Muromachi painting, the suggestion of vast, mist-filled distance, has been discarded, along with its subject matter, monochrome landscape, and the format in which its greatest statements were made, the small, narrow hanging scroll. Muromachi monochrome landscape painting had sought to recreate landscape styles of the Southern Sung Academy and Ch'an painter-monks of Hang-chou, though often from models that were Yuan or Ming perpetuations of those styles. Momoyama screen painting turned its back on the landscape vistas and atomospheric space of Chinese painting, and concentrated on arranging elements decoratively. It was a more "Japanese" style. Its particularly bold scale was new, although the beginnings of this are to be seen in certain Muromachi bird-and-flower paintings, such as Kano Motonobu's Waterfall in the Daisen-in sub-temple of Daitokuji.3 These in turn reflect "academic" Ming birdand-flower paintings by artists like Lii Chi. The men who produced the acres of screen paintings for Momoyama castles seldom equalled the achievements of Eitoku and T5kahu, but they were remarkably consistent in adhering to the new mode. It remained practically unchallenged as the up-to-date style of the period. Thus it is something of a surprise to find that Hasegawa Tohaku painted the monochrome Landscape screen in the Atami Museum.4 At first glance it looks like a typical "Shubun" work of the middle fifteenth century. How could the man who perhaps best expressed the Momoyama style have painted such a "backward" picture? It may be interesting to look for some of its sources and to speculate on Tohaku's reasons for doing such an "old-fashioned" painting. The work of the Ch'an monk-painter Mu-ch'i has been all but forgotten in China. It was not in accord with the taste of the literati painters who have dominated Chinese painting and monopolized Chinese art criticism since the Yuan Dynasty. However, Mu-ch'i's triptych of Kuan-yin, Monkey, and Crane in Daitokuji is now regarded as one of the best extant Chinese paintings in the world.5 Mu-ch'i's work was much admired by Japanese Zen monks who went to 3

Page  4 4 THE OTHER SIDE OF TOHAKU China to study in the Kamakura and Muromachi Periods. Many pictures by him or in his style were brought to Japan by Zen-monk-supervised Ashikaga trading missions. The Mu-ch'i tradition became a frequent source of inspiration for Japanese ink painters. Its prestige was increased by the Ashikaga Shoguns' acquiring Mu-ch'i paintings for their collections. The Daitokuji triptych bears seals indicating it was in the collection of Yoshimitsu, the third Ashikaga Shogun. The Ryusen-an sub-temple of Myoshinji owns a pair of hanging scrolls of Monkeys by Hasegawa Tohaku that were formerly screen panels belonging to the feudal lord Maeda Toshinaga. The right-hand picture is taken directly from the Monkey portion of Mu-ch'i's triptych. Tohaku has turned back to a model that had served as a source for Japanese painters a hundred or a hundred-and-fifty years earlier. Tohaku's monochrome landscapes also contain borrowings from earlier sources, although the specific model is not as certain in other cases. The Ryusen-an paintings are highly significant. They indicate that Tohaku had access to the masterpieces of Chinese and Japanese painting owned by Daitokuji. Tohaku had a long association with Daitokuji. It played an important role in the development of his attitude toward monochrome landscape painting. What sort of paintings were sources for Tohaku's landscapes? Seven extant pairs of mid-fifteenth century landscape screens in Japan, all traditionally attributed to Shubun, provide a record of the rather standardized series of conventions favored in the folding screens of their day. 7 Oguri Sokei's 1492 Landscape sliding-doors from the Y5toku-in and Sdami's early sixteenth century Landscape door panel in the Daisen-in illustrate some of the tendencies of late Muromachi sliding-door paintings. 8 Both works were in sub-temples of Daitokuji and were available to Tohaku. The small poem-and-picture scrolls popular in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries had conventions quite different from those of folding-screens and sliding-doors. They were not important sources for Tohaku. The fame of Kan6 Eitoku, traditional "founder" of the Momoyama style, was already established during T6haku's development in Ky6to. Eitoku had little interest in landscape painting. As acknowledged leader in the new style, he had no time for "old-fashioned" art. Tohaku's contemporaries Kaiho Yusho and Unkoku Togan definitely were interested in monochrome landscape painting. Among possible reasons for this trend were a reaction to the limitations of the new style, with its bird-and-flower subjects, a resentment of the Kano School monopoly on important patronage, and influence from the aesthetic ideals of Sen-no-Rikyiu, Hideyoshi' s tea-master. Tohaku's signatures sometimes mention artistic descent from Sesshu. On the 1599 painting of the Death of the Buddha at Homboji, Tohaku calls himself "Sesshu of the fifth generation". 9 It is interesting that Tohaku's homage to Sesshu was accompanied by very little direct borrowing from the master's style. Tohaku's distinctively powerful "axe-strokes" may refer to Sesshii, but may just as well reflect various other Chinese or Japanese styles indebted to the Li T'ang-Hsia Kuei tradition. Late Southern Sung, Yuan, and early Ming academic paintings from the Hang-chou area were brought to Japan in considerable quantity by Ashikaga trading missions and served as models for large numbers of Muromachi paintings.

Page  5 ROBERT D. MOES 5 Japanese authorities say that Tohaku's "axe-strokes" derive from those of the Soga School. However, such "axe-strokes" are not found in the only reliable extant Landscape attributed to the Soga, the sliding-doors in the Shinju-an. 10 These are traditionally ascribed to Soga Jasoku, the supposed founder of the Soga School, but Jasoku's very existence is doubted by some scholars. Tohaku is supposed to have stopped a few years in Echizen on his way from Nanao to Kyoto, and to have become a pupil of the Soga School there. Evidence in support of this assertion is lacking. The tradition of Soga School influence on Tohaku may be the outgrowth of a statement in the Shinju-an temple records that Tohaku retouched the Soga panels while working on his own 1601 commission. Tohaku's claim of artistic descent from Sesshuii shows that even after, or perhaps because of, becoming successful in his own right, he felt it necessary to equip himself with an artistic pedigree. Occurances of this practice are frequent in the history of Japanese art. Paine relates the tradition that Tohaku once owned the so-called Sesshu Short Landscape Scroll in the Asano collection, 11 and that he based his claim to artistic descent as well as certain aspects of his style on that scroll, but there is no proof that he owned it. Furthermore, the "Sesshu" seal on the Asano scroll is considered an interpolation, and the attribution to Sesshu is questionable. The tradition that Tohaku owned the scroll may be based on the fact that the lost second half of the scroll was once copied by an uninspired Hasegawa School artist. Although he claimed artistic descent from the Zen painter-monk Sesshu and used Much'i's Ch'an triptych as a source, Tohaku was not a Zen priest. He was a lay member of the Hokke Sect. The first evidence for his presence in Kyoto is a 1572 portrait of the Hokke priest Nichigyo Shonin owned by Homboji, a Hokke Sect temple in Kyoto. 12 The portrait is signed "Nobuharu", but Doi Tsugiyoshi has shown that Nobuharu and Tohaku were the same person. The 1599 Death of the Buddha is also owned by Homboji, and it is signed "Tohaku". 13 Tohaku lived for a time in the Kyog6-in sub-temple of Homboji, near Daitokuji. Senno-Rikyu also lived close to Daitokuji, where he was financing and supervising the rebuilding of some Zen sub-temples. Rikyi's aesthetic relied heavily on Zen ideals, but he was, like Tohaku, a lay member of the Nichiren Sect. He and Tohaku became good friends. Rikyu committed suicide at Hideyoshi's order in February, 1591. Four years later Tohaku painted a fine portrait of his martyred friend. 14 The inscription on it was written by Shunoku Soen, a Zen priest of Daitokuji who was himself a tea-master. Tohaku's association with such men gave him access to the Chinese and Japanese paintings owned by Daitokuji. It also won him commissions from the temple. He painted sliding-doors for the Soken-in sub-temple in 1581, for the Sangen-in sub-temple in 1588, the Dragon and Waves ceiling of the two-storey gate in 1589, and sliding-doors for two rooms in the Shinju-an sub-temple in 1601. There is a geneaological chart in the Tohaku Gasetsu, a collection of Tohaku's remarks on painting that was assembled by a priest of the Kyogo-in, which seems to indicate that both Tohaku and his father studied painting from Sesshii's pupil Toshun. It would have been chronologically impossible for Tohaku to have been a pupil of Toshun. The chart is probably the editor's attempt to provide Tohaku with an artistic geneaology. Making up geneaologies was a common Momoyama practice. But perhaps the chart's assertion does reflect a transmission of artistic influence. T5haku could have studied Toshun's work at Daitokuji. The Ryuigen-in sub-temple formerly had sliding-door panels painted by T6shun in 1505. Too little of T6shun's work is extant to permit convincing comparison with Tohaku' s. Nevertheless, the "hammer-headed" foreground

Page  6 6 THE OTHER SIDE OF TOHAKU rock in Toshun's Li Po Watching a Waterfall in the Nakamura collection15 is similar to one in the lower right of T6haku's Landscape in the Atami Museum, 16 although Toshun's prominent Sesshu-style outline is absent from Tohaku's rock. The "hammer-headed" foreground rock convention may be traced back from Tohaku through Toshun to Sesshui and beyond. Many other landscape elements were also stock motifs, borrowed and borrowed-from in long sequence of derivation. Some of these elements are difficult to trace, but others turn up quite regularly. The "hammer-headed" rock appears in Sesshi's Four Seasons in the Toky5 National Museum. 17 It was a stock item in the Southern Sung Academy Landscape tradition and its derivatives. It occurs, for example, in the mid-fifteenth century Landscape screens owned by Taizanji. 18 It is also prominent in a work by Sun Chun-tse, a Yuan Dynasty follower of the Southern Sung Academy landscape tradition in Hang-chou, the Landscapes with Pavilions in the Seikado. 19 The motif may be traced back to Hsia Kuei. It occurs in his Pure and Remote Views of Streams and Mountains in the Palace Museum. 20 The sequence of derivation suggested here is actually what one would expect to find. The Kundaikan Sayu Choki was a list grouping the Chinese artists whose supposed works were in the Ashikaga Shoguns' collection into categories of relative artistic excellence. It was prepared by Noami, completed in 1476, and re-edited by Soami in 1511. It expressed the official taste of the Shoguns' aesthetic advisors. The names in its highest category were those of Southern Sung Academy landscape painters or Ch'an painters of Hang-chou such as Mu-ch'i and Liang K'ai. Sesshu based his style on the same tradition. He has left us copies of paintings supposed to be by Li T'ang, Hsia Kuei, Liang K'ai, and Yu-chien. Sesshui's choice was influenced both by the fashion in the Shoguns' court and by styles with the same roots in vogue at the Peking court during his visit to China in 1468-69. Tohaku' s screen in the Atami Museum was originally one of a pair depicting the "E ight Views at the Confluence of the Hsiao and Hsiang Rivers," a famous scenic local in the Hunan Province of China. This was a stock painting subject in China. It was almost worked to death by Japanese landscape painters from the late Kamakura Period on. The Atami screen is an extremely conservative work, a product of Tohaku's early experiment with landscape painting following standard mid-fifteenth century landscape-screen formulas. Muromachi landscape screens usually depicted "Landscapes of the Four Seasons," or the "Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang," or both. The Taizanji screens mentioned above have much in common with the Atami screen; comparison should be made with the right screen of the pair. Tohaku borrowed a stock mid-Muromachi compositional device of pairs of screens and groups of sliding-doors; both ends of the format were filled with forms while the central area remained open. Tohaku varied the formula somewhat by placing some land in the near middle distance at the center, although the germ of this variation already appears in the Tokyo National Museum "Shibun" screens. Tohaku's variation reflects the general sixteenth-century tendency to concentrate on powerful forms arranged near the picture plane. In spite of this concession to "modern" Momoyama taste, however, the attention given to regularly receding atmospheric depth in the central portion of the Atami screen is close to "old-fashioned" mid-fifteenth century prototypes like the Taizanji set. Genre elements are a common feature of the seven pairs of "Shubun" screens. The scenes show rustic wine shops where travelers pause for refreshment, or temple complexes in beautiful natural settings. Tohaku borrowed the former type for his screen. His exact model for the genre passage may have been a scene in a group of four of Oguri Sokei's sliding-door panels

Page  7 ROBERT D. MOES 7 21 in the Yotoku-in sub-temple of Daitokuji. The waterfall and bridge at the far right of the Atami screen have counterparts in the same Yotoku-in panels. The ultimate source for this particular genre scene is the Hsia Kuei tradition. An occurence of it in a reliable Hsia Kuei painting is in Clear and Remote Views Over Streams and Mountains in the Palace Museum. 22 More emphasis is given to the genre element in a thirteenth or fourteenth century copy of the same passage in the Asano collection. 23 The Asano fragment may be a Japanese copy rather than a Chinese one, although it is traditionally ascribed to Hsia Kuei himself. The passage occurs again in a pair of screens in the Freer Gallery attributed to Kano Motonobu. The Freer screens contain several other motifs borrowed from the Hsia Kuei scroll in the Palace Museum. The Freer Gallery also owns a Ming copy of the Palace scroll. Such a copy of the famous Hsia Kuei scroll probably came to Japan in the fourteenth century and provided the model for a long series of Japanese adaptations. Note, for example, the tiny figure in the bow of the boat handing a parcel to another figure on the shore. He occurs in the Palace Hsia Kuei, the Freer copy, the Asano copy, the Freer "Motonobu," the Yotoku-in panel, and the Atami T5haku. Rock forms in the Atami screen resemble some in the Palace Hsia Kuei handscroll. Like the genre motifs, they represent elements from Hsia Kuei's shin style, his crisp, formal manner of painting. In one important respect, however, Tohaku's rocks are his own: he rejected the powerful black outline that is virtually a hallmark of the Hsia Kuei shin manner and its derivatives. In 1588, Shunoku Soen, the Daitokuji priest who wrote the eulogy on Tohaku's portrait of Rikyuii, founded a new sub-temple called the Sangen-in; Tohaku painted the sliding-doors. Several are still extant, now in the Entoku-in sub-temple of Kodaiji, where they were moved in 1604 by order of Kita no Mandokoro, one of Hideyoshi's principal widows. They are examples of painting on unkashi, "cloud-flower paper," paper with a decorative pattern printed on it, in this case a repeat pattern of Hideyoshi's crest. In the four-panel snowscape, a foreground group of crisp, stately pines and plum in the Ma-Hsia shin manner contrasts sharply with a misty mountain temple complex in the middle distance. 24 Another Entoku-in panel, Trees in Mist, is no longer the conservative, "old-fashioned" experiment that the Atami screen was. 25 T5haku has filled the foreground with a continuous screen of foliage and trunks in a wonderful variety of wet ink tones, an original innovation, entirely consistent with Momoyama compositional trends. The Entoku-in Pine passage 26 clearly foreshadows T5haku's famous Pine screens in the T5ky5 National Museum. 27 The ultimate source for the Atami screen was the Hsia Kuei shin tradition. The Entoku-in Trees in Mist panel refers to another tradition honored in the Kundaikan Sayuii Choki, the so, or "cursive," style of Hsia Kuei and Mu-ch'i. Hsia Kuei was famous for his shin style as well as for his so. Mu-ch'i was remembered for a so-called "Ch'an" style which was actually a coarser and more expressive variation of the Academy so style. A Landscape in the Kuroda collection attributed to Hsia Kuei represents the so phase of his work. 28 The Nezu and Hatakeyama Museum fragments of a handscroll of Eight Views of Hsiao and Hsiang are in the landscape style associated with Mu-chti. 29 Again a late Muromachi intermediary was available to T5haku at Daitokuji. S6ami's early sixteenth century Landscape sliding-doors in the Daisen-in subtemple refer to the Mu-ch'i-Yii-chien tradition. 30 A pair of figures, painted twice in one Daisenin panel, is taken directly from the well-known Yu-chien fragment in the Yoshikawa collection. 31

Page  8 8 THE OTHER SIDE OF TOHAKU Tohaku's Landscape sliding-door panels in the Rinka-in sub-temple of Myoshinji were painted about 1599. 32 While the Atami screen is cautious and conservative, the Rinka-in series shows confident command of a style which is a successful fusion of certain "old-fashioned" monochrome landscape elements with something of the "modern" Momoyama interest in bold arrangements of large-scale foreground elements. Twenty panels remain, sixteen forming a more-orless continuous series around three sides of a room, and four which are stored separately. The latter originally may have formed part of a series from another room. The Rinka-in paintings are traditionally titled "Landscapes of the Four Seasons," but regular progression of the seasons like that in Muromachi screens is not found here. It is possible that this theme was not intended; it is also possible that the panels as now arranged do not represent the original sequence. The general theme of the Rinka-in paintings is clear: the conscious enjoyment of a beautiful natural setting by elderly Chinese gentlemen. The subject is an old and ever-recurring one in Chinese, and, by extension, Japanese art. It was especially popular with Southern Sung Academy landscape painters, whose approach to nature was conditioned by the beautiful natural surroundings of Hang-chou. Their followers in China and Japan repeated the theme endlessly. It was also important in the literati painting tradition, but this aspect of Chinese art had little effect on Japan until the eighteenth century. The landscapes among Oguri Sokei's 1492 sliding-door paintings in Daitokuji's Yotokuin have already been mentioned as one of the probable sources of inspiration for Tohaku's Atami screen. Eight of the twenty-eight extant Yotoku-in panels depict the "Four Accomplishments".33 This group shows Sokei's Muromachi treatment of the same type of theme as at the Rinka-in. His figures are more enraptured by the beautiful scenery than by music, chess, literature, and art. Sun Chiin-tse's Landscapes with Pavilions mentioned above are good examples of the kind of Chinese paintings of gentlemen enjoying nature that were available to Muromachi artists. The treatment of the pines, rocks, and figures in S6kei's Four Accomplishments is very close to that in Sun Chiin-ts~'s paintings. Similarities exist between Tohaku's Rinka-in Landscapes and Sokei's Four Accomplishments, indicating that T6haku was familiar with the older work. The pine and rocks which begin the Rinka-in series, though rendered differently, function in the same way as those at the beginning of S6kei's group. Both works have a hut from which a scholar gazes toward scenery at the left, and both huts are tucked-in to the left of large clusters of rock from which jagged plum trees grow. The most outstanding difference between the two works is Tohaku's emphasis on huge rock formations in the immediate foreground, which become the real subject of his picture. In treating them this way, T6haku was being true to his own time and to himself. Tohaku's contemporary Kaih5 Yusho was also capable of brilliant work in the "up-todate" style, as in his screen of Peonies at Myoshinji; 34 yet, he too was interested in landscape painting, as his Landscape screen in the T6ky5 National Museum reveals.35 Why did great Momoyama masters like Tohaku and Yusho turn back to "old-fashioned" monochrome landscape painting? Their landscapes were manifestations of a reaction against the ostentatious splendor of the new style. The patronage that their less brilliant contemporary Unkoku Togan gained for his reinterpretations of the Sesshi tradition is another reflection of the reaction.

Page  9 ROBERT D. MOES 9 Ironically, the spiritual leader of this quiet revolt against ostentation was employed by the dictator whose preference for display was in large measure responsible for the success of the "modern" Momoyama style; Sen-no-Rikyu was tea-master to Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Rikyu reformulated the tea-ceremony. His interpretation placed greater emphasis than ever before on the aesthetic ideals of wabi and sabi, quiet restraint, unobtrusiveness, and admiration for the effects of poverty, wear, and age on objects. These qualities were exactly the opposite of those ordinarily favored by Rikyi's patron. The low-born Hideyoshi, with all his unabashed love of grand display, still felt the need to equip himself with some attributes of refinement. A precedent for patronizing the tea-ceremony had been established by the Ashikaga Shoguns. The mystique which Rikyu perfected has dominated the tea-ceremony and related activities ever since. Many Westerners who have read books on Zen or admired Japan Air Lines posters think that this kind of taste is the very basis of Japanese life. Many Japanese think so too. In reality, it is the juxtaposition and interaction of the two aesthetic extremes of bold display and quiet restraint that give Japanese art and Japanese life their special flavor. NOTES lYashiro Yukio (editor), Art Treasures of Japan (Tokyo, 1960), vol. II, plates 391-392, 394. 2Ibid., plates 388-389, 390. 3Ibid., plate 378. 4Kokka, no. 879, plates 5-6. See illustrations 3 and 4. 50svald Siren, Chinese Painting: Leading Masters and Principles (London and New York, 1956 -1958), vol. III, plates 336-338. See illustration 1. 6Yashiro Yukio, op. cit., plate 397. See illustration 2. 7Kokka, no. 751, plates 6-7. See illustrations 5, 6, 7 and 8. Kokka, no. 304, plates 1-2. Bijutsu Kenkyu, August 1938, plates 5-6, 10, 11. Museum, May 1952, pages 20-21. Kodansha (publisher), Nihon Bijutsu Taikei (Toky5, 1961), vol. IV, plates 102-103. 8Bijutsushi, December 1964, plates 1-2, pages 84-87. Yashiro Yukio, op. cit., plate 371. See illustrations 9 and 10. 9Kokka, no. 866, plates 8-9. l0Yashiro Yukio, op. cit., plate 356.

Page  10 10 THE OTHER SIDE OF TOHAKU 1Tokyo National Museum, Sesshu (Tokyo, 1956), plate 12. 12Kokka, no. 893, plate 1. 1Kokka, no. 866, plates 8-9. 14Doi Tsugiyoshi, Hasegawa Tohaku-Nobuharu Donin Setsu (Kyoto, 1964), plate 19. 15Hasumi Shigeyasu, Sesshu Toy6 Ron (Tokyo, 1961) figure 18 (page 137). 16Kokka, no. 879, plates 5-6. See illustrations 3 and 4. 7Tokyo National Museum, op. cit., plate 7. 18Kodansha, op. cit., plates 102-103. See illustrations 5 and 6. 19Shimbi Shoin (publisher), Toyo Bijutsu Taikan (Tokyo, 1910), vol. IX, no plate numbers. 20Osvald Siren, op. cit., plates 305 upper, 306 upper. 21Bijutsushi, December 1964, page 84 lower. See illustration 9. 22Osvald Siren, o. cit., plate 305 lower. 23Tokyo National Museum, Sogen no Kaiga (Tokyo, 1962), plate 102. See illustration 11. 24T6yo Bijutsu, December 1935, page 21. See illustration 12. 25Ibid page 22. See illustration 13. 26Ibid., page 31. See illustration 14. 27Yashiro Yukio, op. cit., plates 395-396. See illustrations 15 and 16. 28Osvald Siren, op. cit., plate 300. 29Ibid., plates 340-341. 30Yashiro Yukio, op. cit., plate 371. See illustration 10. 31Osvald Siren, op. cit., plate 346 lower. 32T6yo Bijutsu, December 1937, pages 59-63. See illustrations 17, 18 and 19.

Page  11 ROBERT D. MOES 11 33Bijutsushi, December 1964, plate 1, page 84 upper. See illustration 9. 34Tokyo National Museum, Pageant of Japanese Art (Tokyo, 1952), vol. II, plate 70. 35National Commission for the Protection of Cultural Properties, Art Treasures from Japan (Tokyo, 1965-1966), number 50.

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Page  33 ROBERT D. MOES 33 Robert D. Moes graduated from the University of Southern California with a B.A. degree in 1958. His graduate work was done at U. S.C., Harvard University, and The University of Michigan (M.A. 1963). From 1963 to 1965 he studied in Tokyo on an InterUniversity Center Fellowship for Japanese Studies. The recipient of several grants, including the N. D. F. L., Michigan Teaching Fellowship, and Freer Fellowship, Mr. Moes completed his doctoral research during a year's study at the Smithsonian Institution's Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D. C. He is currently Assistant Professor of Japanese Art History at The University of Hawaii.

Page  34

Japanese Bells

Percival Pricepp. 35-66

Page  35 JAPANESE BELLS by Percival Price The University of Michigan

Page  36

Page  37 INTRODUCTION The bell is the most universally employed instrument for communicating by sounds with gods or men. There are few known cultures in which it has not been used for one or both of these reasons. It is therefore to be expected that we should find it in the hands of the Japanese, and that with their deep religious background and their aesthetic sensitivity they should make it into an instrument both impressive to hear and beautiful to see. Before we examine Japanese bells we must explain what is meant here by the word 'bell'. A bell is a hollow object designed to be held at a pivotal point and struck to sound. It is usually made of metal, and is shaped into one or two general forms. By far the commonest resembles a cup or beaker; the other is like a hollow sphere. The cup or beaker form, being preponderant, is generally what will be meant by the term bell, although sometimes it will be necessary to identify it as the 'open-mouth' type. The other shape, which is confined mostly to harnesses, and in countries with snow is known as a sleigh bell, we shall refer to by its more technical name, 'crotal'. There is no one Japanese word which includes both these types in all their sizes. Both types, in Japan, have either a lug or a loop-like extension at their pivotal points for attaching them. The large open-mouth bells hang stationary, and have no clapper. Crotals have a slit, or holes, instead of a rim, and a loose pellet inside which makes them vibrate when shaken. The metal of Japanese bells is bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, but in different proportions from that for bells in many other countries. We shall come across the rare bell of iron, and a few crotals of clay. One of the most striking things about the bells we shall examine is their great difference in size. We shall find open-mouth bells from one to seven hundred centimeters in height, and from one-tenth of a kilogram to over sixty thousand kilograms in weight. The notes they produce will range from as high as the twittering of small birds to as low as the roll of thunder. Before further discussing a subject which dares to combine archaeology with acoustics, and metallurgy with anthropology, we wish to express our thanks to those who helped give us an insight into Japanese campanology. Foremost comes Dr. Ichiro Aoki, who over a period of years has done outstanding research on Japanese bells, both acoustical and historical, and on whose information we largely rely. We thank Dr. Motoharu Ozaki, Chief of the Cultural Properties Investigation Section of the Ministry of Education of Japan, for valuable information on the history of Japanese bells and their uses. We thank Mr. David Larson of Kobe College, and the Information Section of the Canadian Embassy in Tokyo, for many helpful contacts and translations. We are grateful for financial assistance from the Center for Japanese Studies of the University of Michigan which made some of the field work possible, and for the excellent interpreting by Fujita Kazuo which gave it value. DOTAKU The oldest bells found in Japan are among the most extraordinary anywhere. They are known as dotaku, and belong to the Yayoi culture. This, although not positively datable, flourish 37

Page  38 38 JAPANESE BELLS ed for about two centuries before and two after the beginning of our era. All dotaku are easily distinguishable by their conic profile, their straight horizontal rim and top, and above all by two great flanges which project from opposite sides and curve over the top to form what would appear to be a handle. Its shape in horizontal section is a pointed oval. -C3-. The flank is very slightly flared, with two notches at the bottom, and about two-thirds of the way up, two holes on either side. (See Illustration I.) The height of the earliest d5taku is about 9 cm. for the bell part, and about 12 cm. for the full height including 'handle';l the corresponding measurements on the latest examples are 90 and 125 cm. respectively. All dotaku retain practically the same shape, the most noticeable evolution during the culture being a progressive increase in size and a development of the reliefs on them. On the earliest examples these consist of flowing water designs and patterns which may still be found on priests' robes and komono bands. Gradually they become replaced by drawings of animals, fish, birds, and insects, and eventually by scenes from rural life, including men and houses. The artistry is good. 2 There are other unique features about the dotaku. They have been purposefully buried, almost always on a hilltop, and sometimes at a crossroads. Usually they were buried alone, although in some places several were buried in a straight row, "head to foot". The region where they have so far been found extends from Shikoku Island, where they are thought to have originated, nearly to the slopes of Mount Fuji; but their area cannot be delimited yet because more are being discovered. They are made of bronze; yet the people who handled them also knew iron for they show signs of having been scraped with an iron knife. Dotaku are an example where bells offer important evidence to the archaeologist, yet present a puzzle. They give a very poor tone, and if it were not that clappers were buried with some of them we should scarcely credit them as being bells. However, we must be very cautious in judging the acoustical value of any bells, for a tone quality which is pleasing to one culture is not pleasing to another, and as for a people about whom we know so little as the Yayoi, how can we tell what kind of tone they preferred? Motoharu Ozaki has suggested that the earlier examples may have been made to sound, and the later ones for visual purposes only. Dotaku are unique to Japan, although one feature of them, the flanges, can be found on earlier Chinese bells.4 The manner of carrying the flanges over the top is unique, and must have been considered important to their appearance. The loop they form can hardly have been meant for the hand to hold, because it is very sharp. More strange than the flanges are the holes. Perhaps we can account for them if we can deduce how the d6taku were made. Their pointed oval profile in horizontal section is like that of many Chinese bells dating from early Shang times (ca. 1700 B.C.) until about 200 A. D. 5 When this shape was chosen, it was likely not for tone, for there are much better shapes for this. Rather, it was more probably because, bells being among the earliest cast hollow objects, they were made in a type of mold which was the next logical development of that which produced flatware -- spearheads, daggers, swords. This consisted of two flat pieces of baked clay, each with a gouge for half the casting, which when placed together left a space for the metal. (Diagram I, A.) The two halves were firmly held together, probably by clamps around the edges. 6 The molds for the bells were made in the same way, except that a third piece was inserted in the middle, with enough space between it and the two outer pieces to allow room for the metal of the bell. (Diagram I, B.) We now see the beginning of what modern bellfounders call the

Page  39 PERCIVAL PRICE 39 HORIZONTAL SECTIONS A. SWORD MOLD B. EARLY BELL MOLD C. NAO TYPE MOLD ELEVATIONS D. NAO TYPE COPE E. DOTAKU COPE __^ - ~- 5401.L-Ow r 7 iL H0 I.L.OW,! -4 --- — -1 I \ 'I. ',,. I I, f I; \ II I' I I I I I IIr II I r no If I I * \ I I I I I I I I..1 I I DIAGRAM I. Showing the relations of mold sections, but not their outside shapes or relative sizes.

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Page  41 PE RCIVAL PRICE 41 core -- the central section which determines the inside of the bell -- and the cope -- the part (here in two pieces) which determines the outside. We also see how the making of the flanges might have been learned from making the blade of the sword. In this same early period, bells up to 50 cm. between farthest horizontal points were cast, in a type called nao. Traces of seams on some of these show that their copes were made in four sections. (Diagram I, C.) On some we even find seam lines which indicate that each half of the cope was made in six sections. (Diagram I,E.) The two central sections, being bound on only one edge, would be more liable than the others to shift outwards when subjected to the pressure of the liquid metal. To counteract this they were probably tied to the core. This would leave the holes. Moreover, the adoption of a flat rim possibly came from the idea of building up the mold on a plate -- the common practice in Japan. The notches in the rim may be related to holding the cope sections firmly on this. We shall likely never know whether the Yayoi people attributed any non-technical purpose to the holes. Two have been given: they represent eyes, and they let the sound out from the inside of the bell. The surface lines do not relate to the holes as eyes; the holes might just as well be nostrils, and the large hole of the loop a single eye. They can hardly make any acoustical improvement. 7 Unfortunately we cannot discuss these things with a man of Yayoi culture. If we could, he might answer that the soul of the sound has to escape. We are just too underdeveloped to know about these things. That the dotaku had souls seems implied from their type of burial. Were they buried because the Yayoi, knowing that the metal of which they were made came from the earth, felt that, like the human body, after a period of ensoulment it had to go back to earth again? Do the knife marks on their flanks mean that they were ceremonially slain before they were interred, perhaps as a substitute for human sacrifice? If the iconography and magico-sacred signs on them were more for gods underground to behold than for men above to see, that should not surprise us. Our very Christian ancestors placed iconography of great beauty and symbols which they believed had highest potency on the bells which they concealed in the tops of church towers. This carefully executed work was not done to be admired by mortals, but to be pleasing in the sight of angels, saints, and the godhead who see everywhere and to make them act. 8 THE APOTROPAIC POWER OF SMALL BELLS In the mind of primitive man metal performed magic, and the sound of metal broke magic. This explains why, in almost every bronze culture, as soon as man developed a successful mold he poured some of his precious metal into bells. They were among his first "non-utilitarian" cast objects. He had many ways of producing a louder and farther carrying sound than his tiny, feeble-toned bells could give. What attracted him to them was the unique resonant quality of their tone, different from any he knew in nature. This caused him to attribute to the bell the ability to repel evil forces directed against him -- in other words, apotropaic power. 9 The reason that the size of the dotaku amazes us is because the known bells of other early metal-culture people are very much smaller. In Japan it is only after the Yayoi period that we find evidence of small bells -- that is, light enough to be carried by a man or beast without burdening him, and small enough to be rung by any slight movement of the body. If we accept the rock carvings in the cave at Omura as representing bells, 10 the earliest evidence is in the fourth

Page  42 42 JAPANESE BELLS century. From the fifth century onwards we have both crotal and open-mouth artifacts, and can trace their employment down to present times. There seems little doubt that their acoustical uses were first apotropaic and religious, and only later for frightening, warning, and signalling in the material sense. These uses, of course, overlapped, and to them should be added, very early, the visual use of impressing both gods and men by their appearance. To this end, some of the earliest bells were gilded. Judging from their shape and the sound of modern replicas of them, there could have been no interest in what we should call their musical value. The "sh-sh-sh" of the crotal was only more or less desirable than the "ting-ting-ting" of the small open-mouth bell according to its purpose. Here we must interject a word which applies to the sounds of all Japanese bells from the largest to the smallest. The Japanese ear does not tend to divide sounds into consonance and dissonance based on the norms of Western classical music, as we do. It is more like that of the avant-guard composer, who hears any sound as beautiful if it occurs in the right place and lasts for the right length of time. The oldest small open-mouth bells found in Japan are either diamond-shaped or oval in horizontal section. The diamond-shaped are 4 to 6 cm. high, pyramidal, and with the rim forming an indented angle. 11 The oval bells are 13 to 15 cm. high, conical, and with a concave 'fishmouth' rim (see rim in Diagram I, D). 12 These show finer workmanship, and are rarer. The oldest crotals are of flattened spherical form, with a greatest diameter of t4 cm. They were made in single pieces, or cast in a spray of three to five. Later they took on a more spherical shape, and closer to modern times they were not cast, but made of two pieces of sheet metal hammered or stamped into a hemisphere, and joined. From the fifth or sixth century both open-mouth and crotal types have been used for horse bells -- bataku. By the mid-seventh century they were a sign of rank. Persons entitled to use public service horses carried a small bell or a cluster which indicated by their number and shape the number of horses they were entitled to. 13 Throughout feudal times bells were attached to the horses and carts of the nobility. They are still used on the few remaining horses, in Hokkaido. From the sixth century or earlier there has been a more personal apotropaic use of small bells. Crotals were cast around the edges of bronze mirrors14 to prevent harm being done to a person by action on his image in the mirror. Crotals were also used in the ritual of driving evil spirits out of sick people. A traveler attached a set of small bells called ayui ho ko-su to his knee when he set out on a journey, so that their jingling sound as he walked would protect him in strange places. Small crotals -- suzu -- were attached to children, to protect them at play. Little girls nowadays wear suzu on their waistbands and sandals. The custom of children wearing them at the temple presentations known as miyamairi is very ancient. From the sixth century, crotals were attached to dogs. While this was partly to protect people from the dogs, the apotropaic intent on the dogs must not be discounted. Such bells were considered equally effective in frightening away boars, bears, and evil spirits. Today, small clay crotals -- migawari -- are blessed and sold at shrines for whatever purpose the purchaser wishes. This brings us to the use of bells in Shinto. One would expect that this religion, which sprang from polytheistic nature worship, and mentions the tinkling of amulets in its story of the Creation, 16 would make use of bells. It is known that from the fifth century, clusters of about a

Page  43 PERCIVAL PRICE 43 dozen small crotals, each bell not more than 3 cm. in diameter, were rung in female dances before the gods. The clusters were called kagura-suzu, or suzuki. 17 They were usually held by the eldest daughter. From shrine dances its use has passed over into folk dances. 18 The open-mouth bell does not seem to have been employed in Shinto rites. This may have been because by the time Shinto was regulated, about the year 625, Buddhism had already made the open-mouth bell, in both small and large sizes, its particular property. The Shinto faith, however, made use of crotals of a much larger size than could be conveniently carried on the person. These, called nurite or sanagi, were approximately spherical in shape and up to 25 cm. in diameter. They were suspended from beams in the oratory (haiden) of large shrines, and in front of the sanctuary (honden) of small ones. At some of the larger shrines an even larger nurite of a different shape was hung alongside these, or used instead. This instrument measured up to 50 cm. in diameter; but its shape was like a sphere so flattened as to almost form a hollow disc, somewhat resembling many small crotals of the sixth century. It was made of a darker bronze than the spherical type, had thicker walls, and was always cast. Like those of spherical shape, it had the characteristic slot, but never any pellet or inside sounding device. While this large crotal may not have come into general use until after the separation of Shinto from Buddhism in 1868, it must have been made for centuries prior to that time. 19 Not all Shinto shrines have these enormous crotals. Where they are found, the worshipper rings them by giving a sideways shake to a broad, silk-brocaded band, like the bell pulls that used to hang in Victorian drawing rooms. On it is attached a ball which strikes the crotal. The devotee rings this bell only after he has washed his hands and rinsed his mouth at the ablution basin (te-mizu-ya), bowed reverently to the sanctuary and, in most cases, made an offering. To the unbeliever the ringing is only metallic thumping. To the believer it is communication with a diety, informing him that he has performed the proper preparatory rites and is ready to make a petition.20 SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZE BUDDHIST BELLS The small bells we have so far been examining have been attached to something. Buddhism introduced the unattached bell with a shaft handle. Judging from its similarity to Hindu bells it could have originated in India. Everything about it was symbolic. Its form was derived from the upper part of the stupa, shrine of a sacred relic. Its handle was a vajra, essence of the diamond and the thunderbolt. Aisen, six-armed personification of the Buddha's love of man, held it in his lower left hand and sounded it to surprise people. 21 It was too dangerous for the laity to touch, but priests and monks might ring it. Chinese Buddhist clerics brought these handle-bells to Japan in the seventh century. Some of their instruments must have been black with age then, yet highly treasured. 22 Temple priests rang them at the altar to evoke the spirit of Buddha and to punctuate the ritual. 23 Itinerant priests sounded them in front of houses before reciting sutras. The Japanese gave them the names rei: kongo-rei or goko-rei according to the type of handle. They differed from earlier small openmouth bells by their cylindrical shape, rounded top, and greater thickness. Their diameter at the rim was about 10 cm., and the same, to which must be added another 12 to 15 cm. for the handle. They were made of gray bronze, had an eight-sided clapper attached inside, and pro

Page  44 44 JAPANESE BELLS duced a vibrant and fairly clear tone. They continue to be made to these specifications today, and to be used for the same purposes, except that itinerant priests are rare. In some sects their use is shared with a bowl-shaped instrument, the dohachi, and in others is taken over by it. 24 A variant of the rei is the ain, a bell of the same shape, but smaller (diameter + 5 cm.), and therefore giving a higher tone. It is rung to mark rhythms in goeika, a melodic sacred music for group singing. Each member of the group holds an ain, and all ring them simultaneously during the singing, alternating with strokes on a small metal disc called a shoko. The preferred tone color of the ain is "not too bright". Its high pitch, along with that of the shoko, gives a scintillating effect above a more or less solemn melody. 25 The present-day ain has a nickel-plated surface to enhance its appearance. Goeika music originated in the Shingon sect of Buddhism in connection with rituals on the Midsummer Day of Prayer for the Dead and at the Midwinter Festival. Its repertory has been preserved, 26 and the music is now performed at any time in front of the image of a beneficent saint, or during a wake. The performers may be lay people of both sexes. The popularity of this combination of singing and bell ringing in Japan is evident from the fact that there is a National Association for Goeika which holds annual conventions. It has two thousand members in Kyoto alone. In spite of the popularity of goeika music, its quasi-esoteric nature is maintained. The making of the bell is secret, and they are never displayed for sale. The ain is, strictly speaking, the only bell the Japanese employ in music. 27 Several two horizontal bars and struck with hammers in both hands. It was derived from the pien-chung, a Chinese court and temple instrument which had up to sixteen bells, tuned in semitones. This is also obsolete in China, but still found in Korea, where its music is kept alive by the Korean National Institute of Classical Music. If the Japanese instrument were like the Korean, each of its bells would have been about 18 cm. in diameter and 25 cm. high; their different pitches being determined by a different thickness of metal in each bell. This size is more properly called medium than small, and it brings us to another type of bell still found in sets in Japan. This is the windbell (furin), so called because it is rung by the force of the wind. It is used in sets of medium, small, and miniature sizes, not tuned to any musical relationship. Its shape is usually longer than the rei, and sometimes more flared; but its unique feature is a metal vane suspended below or made an extension of the clapper. This, when moved by the wind, causes the bell to sound. The original purpose of the windbell was apotropaic; to drive away evil spirits in the air which might harm a sacred object. To this, Buddhism added the proclaiming of the holy Word. 28 The date and country of its origin are unknown. The Chinese hung windbells of medium size (between 15 and 40 cm. in diameter and about the same height) on structures outdoors such as pagodas and temples, and of miniature size (t+ cm. height and diameter) on religious treasures indoors. 30 Even the tiny indoor bells were made to ring, while those outdoors had vanes designed to catch the wind in every direction. Thus a strong breeze would cover a pagoda with bell sounds, at one moment louder here, at another, there, according to the play of gusts of air. The Japanese copied both the indoor and outdoor uses, although outdoors they hung the bells more sparingly and in keeping with their different style of architecture. In the mast-like sorin on top of the pagoda they placed many little bells, imitating the many bells in the Tree of Life on top of the Indian stupa. Lower down, they hung only one bell under the eaves at each corner, where

Page  45 PERCIVAL PRICE 45 its contour would stand out against the sky. 31 (See Illustration II.) These they tended to make much larger, and they seemed indifferent as to whether they sounded or not. By the early seventeenth century some were cast as large as 60 cm. in diameter and 100 cm. high, with a vane so heavy that only a typhoon could move it. It seems that by this time the designing of the bells had been taken out of the hands of bellfounders and given to architects, who relied less on their sound frightening away evil spirits intent on tearing off the roof in a storm, than on their weight holding it down. In order to make the bells visually pleasing they converted them into acoustically impractical shapes; yet they left some apotropaic potency under the eaves by giving the vanes the intricate outline of the sacred 'cloud', 'peacock', and 'butterfly' silhouettes of the kei. 32 Further indifference to tone was shown by the use of iron windbells on some structures. The windbells on most smaller objects also had little acoustical purpose. The Japanese faithfully attached tiny golden bells to their reliquaries (sharito and panoda), so as to give visible evidence, in doll's house size, of the apotropaic equipment of the pagoda. Yet these were more in the nature of decoys, for they often lacked any means of being rung. They also hung windbells among the gilded Shinto ceiling festoons in front of certain altars, but the vanes of these were so pierced with filagree that breezes could pass through without moving them. Because windbells were closely associated with reliquaries, the pagoda was the outdoor structure most endowed with them. This tower-like building, originally the shelter of a relic and later the repository of the ashes of thousands of the faithful, was the most sacred edifice in the temple precinct. Windbells are found on relatively few temples, and then only four or eight. Occasionally they are hung on a shoro, the house which shelters a great bell. Sometimes, in smaller size, they are on large outdoor lanterns. They are almost never placed on secular buildings; or if so, it is only to affect a Japanese style in the architecture. An exception may be the Japanese National Railways' station at Nara. There, they could have a deeper meaning. Hundreds of pilgrims to the Buddhist shrines in the region arrive at this station daily. Its predecessor was destroyed by bombs from the air in World War II. THE EVOLUTION OF THE LARGE BUDDHIST BELL According to legend, Ananda, beloved disciple of the Buddha, used to strike a bell to call priests to service. What that bell was like we do not know. None of those we have been discussing would have been very suitable. To spiritual beings their sounds may have been powerful, but to crude and insensitive human ears they were not strong. A bell that could be heard by mortals at a distance must make a louder sound. To do this it must be larger, thicker, heavier. Such a bell was produced in Korea and China around the sixth century A. D. The model for it could have been the po-chung, a large bell added to the pien-chung series for Confucian temple music, for this larger bell closely resembled the po-chung. 33 That it appeared at the time when large bronze Buddhist statuary was being cast by Chinese and, particularly, Korean artisans in the sixth century could hardly have been a coincidence. To make it required more foundry space than a cell off a temple court. It called for large amounts of copper and tin, and means of heating all this metal to melting point at the same time. Above all, it demanded the knowledge and skill to make a mold which would both shape the fluid metal into a bell of good tone, and withstand its great weight until it solidified.

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Page  47 PERCIVAL PRICE 47 The new product was no ordinary apotropaic instrument, but a new vehicle for communication, designed to serve a sophisticated and aristocratic cult. The Chinese called it t'e-chung, the Koreans, jong. Its principal features were its cylindrical to barrel shape, a height nearly one and one-half times its diameter, and a large loop on top for suspending it. Its size averaged about 60 cm. in diameter, and its weight -- tremendous for any casting of the time -- varied from about 500 kg. to one ton. It was very expensive to produce, so that a temple could not expect to possess more than one, but its cost was justified because its low tenuous sound, radiating simultaneously in all directions, instantly informed a whole community and awakened it to the call of the Buddha. This large bell was introduced into Japan, along with other impressive paraphernalia of Buddhist worship, by Koreans in the latter part of the sixth century. The Japanese called the type sh5 -- hanging bell. A number of sh5 of the Nara and Heian periods are extant, of which a few carry dates. The oldest, of the year 575, is said to be of Chinese provenance. 34 This is our first encounter with a large bell which is circular in horizontal section. This is significant. It shows that bellfounders on the continent had discovered the tonal advantages of a bell of this shape,35 and had learned how to make a cope for it, in sections, without running ties through the bell. They found that sections made to fit tightly together, and laid circularly like bricks around a well, could be bound on the outside, or held together by earth packed around them in a pit, and not spring out from the pressure of the metal. In this way a cope for a bell of very large diameter could be constructed, and it could be made as high as it was possible to stack courses of these rings one on top of the other and tie them down firmly to prevent metal from seeping through the horizontal joints between. The next oldest dated bell, of 698, was cast in Japan, on Kyushu Island. (See Illustration III.) The founder was likely a Korean, as were most of the makers of the earliest large bells. These men started casting on Kyushu, and spread eastward. Within about a generation their work was taken over by Japanese founders, and a bell somewhat different in shape from the Korean evolved in Japan. The bell of 698, known as the Ojikich5 bell, 36 is interesting not only as the oldest dated bell made in Japan. It is, as far as can be ascertained, the oldest bell in the world in regular service today. It now hangs in the Myoshin-ji temple in Kyoto, where it is sounded for a quarter of an hour every evening at sunset, alternating with strokes on a large drum and on a kei (see footnote 32). Furthermore, it has the raised 'nipples' or yu on its upper flank, which are lacking on the bell of 575, but which afterwards appear on all Japanese bells of this type, regardless of size or use, down to the present time. These stud-like projections arouse curiosity among Westerners, and a word about them may be interjected. They are seen in most primitive form on a Chinese bell of the tenth century B. C., 37 where four groups of nine tiny spikes are spread over most of the sides of an ovoidshaped bell. Their use was no doubt symbolic, but of what, we do not know. Soon we find the spikes greatly elongated, and then either elaborated into representations such as coiled serpents with tiger's heads, or simply rounded into plain bosses. We also find that, while they always remain grouped in four matched panels around the bell, these become crowded more towards the top, that is, farther away from the area of greatest vibration. The ancient Chinese considered them -- quite wrongly from our scientific standpoint -- an aid to the tone of the bell. They spoke of the singing of the nipples. 38

Page  48 48 III IN

Page  49 PERCIVAL PRICE 49 Although the Chinese may have used the po-chung as a model for their Buddhist bell, they soon became inclined to drop the nyu. The bell of 575, of Chinese provenance, is without them. The Koreans imitated them in the form of flat rosettes, usually only 36 in number. A possible explanation of their persistent use on the Japanese sho is that the Chinese missionaries of the seventh century who brought the rei to Japan39 also established a conservative Chinese design for the surface of the sho which emphasized the nipples. The form of back-to-back dragons for the suspension loop on top of the bell is also persistently used, and came from China. 40 Inasmuch as these large Japanese bells were in the service of Buddhist worship, the existence of the nipples had to be justified in relation to the faith. The tone of the bell soon came to be considered the Voice of the Buddha, and the nipples were to help spread that Voice. In modern terminology as given to Westerners, it is that, just as Christ used disciples to send forth His message, so these send forth the message of Holy Buddha. The number of nipples has been increased, and though it is not always the same, they are still always grouped in four matching panels around the circular bell, just as they were around the pointed-oval, fish-mouthed Chinese bell of three thousand years ago. 41 Another distinctive feature of the Japanese sho is the division of the surface by raised horizontal and vertical lines. The bell of 575 already referred to has its flank divided horizontally by a double band formed by three parallel lines around the middle. It is also divided vertically into four equal quarters by vertical bands, described by two lines above the middle and three below. The upper part of these quarters is again horizontally divided by a single line. The Ojikicho bell of 698 is similarly marked off, except that the bands are described by three parallel lines, the horizontal band is slightly below the middle, and the upper subdivisions of the panels above it are each filled with 28 nipples. (See Illustration III.) The breaking up of the surface by lines is a very ancient practice on Chinese bells. Among other things, lines helped to hide traces of seams where cope sections joined. But only on the Japanese sh5 has a particular arrangement of bands been retained down to present times. In appearance it gives the effect of a package tied with ribbons horizontally and up the four sides. The tendency has been gradually to move the horizontal band lower, and tb put inscriptions or iconography in the panels between it and the nipples. 42 Iconography on Japanese bells is rather new; where it is seen on old bells it implies that the bellfounder was a Korean. Inscriptions, on the other hand, are found on the earliest Japanese bells on the vertical bands, in the panels, and sometimes on the inside surface. They are in raised characters (which are almost certain to have been cast with the bell) and incised (which could have been added any time after) and both may be on the same bell. The legends consist of Buddhistic names and phrases, and the name and date (by sovereign) of the donor. This last is not placed for the information of posterity, but as the visible sign of the religious merit which the donation gives to the donor, and which is carried in its sound to all parts of the world, and even into purgatory.43 At each of the four points around the bell where the horizontal and vertical bands cross, the lines either form an X, or are covered by a rosette. The rosette (shuza or tsukiza), thought of as a lotus (from the sacred Indian symbol) marks the place where the bell is to be struck. There are usually two shuza on opposite sides of the bell; and on earlier bells they were placed at right angles to the line through the points where the loop (ryiizu) on top joins the bell. (See Illustration III.) When the horizontal band was moved lower, this also brought the striking point closer to the rim; and as a result, when the bell was struck repetitiously it started to sway. To

Page  50 50 JAPANESE BELLS a. b. C. -- - d. e. f. WESTERN EUROPEAN BELL a. Cannons Crossed loops. c. Waist The lines shown at the top and bottom are optional. Inscriptions are usually placed near the lines, iconography in the middle. e. Soundbow Striking point at the thickest part, at angle shown, and usually on the inside. f. Rim or lip It may be variously shaped. It comes to a point. JAPANESE SHO-TYPE BELL a. Ryuzu A single loop. b. Ibonamachi Place of the nyu or nipples. d. Ikenomachi May hold inscriptions or iconography. e. Shuza Striking point at marked places around the bell. f. Komanatsume Called 'hoof' because profile suggests a horse's hoof. It is the thickest part of the bell. DIAGRAM II

Page  51 PERCIVAL PRICE 51 help overcome this, from about the sixteenth century the two shuza have been placed at a position one quarter around the bell, so as to be on the line passing through the two points where the loop joins the bell. On a few bells a choice of position is given by having four shuza; very rarely is there only one. The lowering of the point of striking also affected the tone of the bell, and required making the rim thicker so as to prevent it from cracking. 44 The same problem had to be met in our large Western bells, but as western European bells were developed for a different manner of ringing than the sh5, it was solved differently. The sho is hung stationary, and is struck either by a wooden mallet or a ramrod with a force controlled by the ringer. The Western bell is most commonly swung, and it is struck at two opposite points on the inside by a freely suspended iron clapper moved by the oscillation of the bell, from which it receives its force. Diagram II illustrates how the sh5 is shaped to withstand an outside blow and the Western bell an inside one, and how the Western bell is flared to provide space for the pendular travel of its clapper. The Western bell may be struck on the outside also, as is generally done for sounding the time on stationary bells in clock towers. But it will be seen that while the direction of the strike is parallel to the lip on the sho, it is always at an angle to it on the Western bell. Thus, each shape is adapted to its method of ringing. THE DIVERSIFICATION OF THE SHO We do not wish to seem unkindly cynical when we state that the sho soon became a 'prestige item'. It was called bonsho, literally Brahmin bell. Since, according to Buddhist concept, the sacred word was conjunct with'the sacred corpus; to the mind of the believer its sound was the actual Essence of Buddha. 45 If, in the early times, its tone was purified by the blood of a human sacrifice poured into the molten metal at its casting, so also, as it vocalized, it reflected glory on its patron, its bellfounder, and the temple where it hung. In order to let its note radiate more freely, a separate house for it called a shoro was built on the temple grounds. This was of wood, fashioned after either the one-story stone pavilion of the Koreans, in which the bell's appearance aroused wonder, or the two-story brick 'tower' of the Chinese, in which its concealment betokened mystery. Temples which could afford it ordered larger bonsh5. Around the end of the seventh century the To-in Garan (Eastminster) at Horyui near Nara acquired one 115 cm. in diameter, and the Yakushi-ji in Nara, one of over 130 cm. 6 But if the Voice of the Buddha were to be magnified, where should it be magnified most, and in the deepest richest sound, if not at the greatest temples? The kings of Silla (Korea) were making enormous bells. In 711 the emperor of China installed a bell of over twenty tons at Nanking.47 In 732 the Emperor Shomu of Japan surpassed them all in his great new capital of Nara. There, at the temple of Todai-ji, a bell 277 cm. in diameter, 412 cm. high -- to which should be added 90 cm. for the ryuzu or loop on top -- weighing over 26 metric tons, was cast and hung in a great pavilion-like shor6.48 This was the largest bell to be cast in Japan for some centuries. 49 Most bonsh5 retained more modest dimensions, closer to one meter in diameter. In the meantime smaller sh6 appeared, as different needs for a signal bell arose. Actual differentiation according to use did not crys

Page  52 52 JAPANESE BELLS tallize until around the eleventh century. The K6ryuji-ji in Kyoto retains an iron bell of 1217 (height, 46 cm., diameter, 31 cm.) which is among the oldest of these smaller 'large' bells. They were called kansh6, densho, kane, or ogane, and in proportions and surface finish were like the bonsho, complete even to the nyu or nipples. They were generally hung on a wall bracket in a passageway overlooking a court, and served to announce within a smaller area than the whole temple compound the times of services and other routine happenings in particular buildings. 50 They were struck with a wooden hammer or a deer horn, and with varied strokes for different signals. In some places these were indicated on a board beside the bell, and next to it a nail on which the striker hung. The bonsho, on the other hand, was rung with a ramrod. We see this first depicted on an embroidery made in the year 665, preserved at the Chugd-ji nunnery at H6ryiuji. At this early date the bell was suspended close to the floor, so that the shuza or striking point was at about the height of a standing man's hand. The embroidery shows a man standing close to the bell and holding a rounded log in front of him in the palms of his hands. The apparent action is to swing the log from side to side and hit the bell with the end of it. Later the bell was raised well above the floor, so that the striking point was as high as the ringer's head. The log was made longer to give it the weight of a true ramrod, and suspended by chains or ropes from an overhead beam of the sh5r. 51 A light rope was tied around the middle of the log, and dropped to where the ringer could easily grasp it at about the level of his shoulders. This is the ringing device today. The ringer moves the rope back and forth to set the ramrod in motion, and then, with one very strong pull, swings it to strike the bell, retaining his grip on the rope so as to check the ramrod' s momentum and prevent it from immediately making an undesired second stroke. This manner of ringing produces a very different tone from that made by an iron clapper on a swinging bell. The total sound of a bell is made up of a number of partial notes which cover a wide range of pitch, and the hard iron clapper sets them all vibrating, including many high ones at the beginning of the stroke. These make some dissonance at each stroke, varying with different bells and often not noticeable except near the bell. The isolation in towers of Westen bells of a size comparable to the bonsho prevents the listener from hearing them close at hand. It is otherwise with the bonsh5. The Japanese Buddhist wants to be able to be close to his bell when it is sounded. He regards its tone almost as an element like water, and delights in the sensation of its vibrations against his body. This is the virtue of eliminating bonno -- the use of the sound of the bonsho to cleanse the soul and take away all sorrow, i.e., desires, and trouble. A low-pitched sound of long duration is sought after. Having a relatively soft end, the wooden ramrod is admirably suited for this, because it sets only the lower partial notes vibrating. A slow beat or pulse is also preferred in the tone. In modern bells, "sentimentalists" and "purists" are divided on how much clarity of tone should be sacrificed on this account. 53 The Westerner who wonders at the deep, hollow, somewhat mysterious tone of these Japanese bells does not realize that their sound would be quite different if they were struck in the same way as his own. Even the kansh5 sounds relatively sweet. But the same bell, taken out of the temple court and put up in a fire-watcher's lookout (as was gradually found necessary in every urban ward), and struck rapidly with heavy blows by a very hard hammer, gives an alarmingly jarring sound. In this location it is called ginsho -- warning bell. 54 For a good tone, the ramrod log must be carefully selected. Japanese cypress is the most customary wood, although zelkova and oak are also used for large bonsh5. Small bells respond

Page  53 PERCIVAL PRICE 53 well to palm. The ramrod must not be too light or it will give a poor tone. 55 The distance at which it hangs from the bell when at rest is also important. Nowadays it is swung by only one ringer, or at the most two on the largest bells. Formerly there were as many as eighteen men for a giant such as that at Nara, but probably they worked in relays. In modern practice, more than eight men have been found to make little difference. Each morning and evening 108 strokes used to be sounded on every temple bonsh6. Between each stroke a priest recited a sutra. The number 108 represents the number of worldly desires which Buddhism says come within us. The ceremony, called hyakuhachi, is to remove them all. (It is not effective unless all worldly accounts have been settled before the first stroke.) Nowadays hyakuhachi is performed only on New Year's Eve at midnight. Then, to hear all the temple bells sounding together is an experience comparable to hearing all the church bells on the same occasion in a Christian city. The regular times of ringing at most temples is now limited to once, twice, or three times daily. This is usually morning or evening, morning and evening, or morning, noon, and evening. Generally it occurs with a regularity one could set the watch by; a few temples shift the times according to seasonal sunrise and sunset. 56 As with Christian church ringing in the Middle Ages, the periodic sounds of the bonsh5 were used for regulating secular daily life. At the annual or semi-annual fairs and festivals held at the larger temples there is usually extra ringing. Some of this is connected with prayers for the dead. At the newly-rebuilt Shitenno-ji in Osaka two bonsho in separate shoro are kept constantly ringing on these occasions. People line up to give requests for the bell to be sounded along with the recitation of sutras. 57 Tallies indicating these requests are set in front of a vigorous looking priest who, leaning back, shouts them to the bell in the story above with the vehemence of arguing with the vehemence of arguing with the devil, while at the same time, with swelling muscles exposed below long turned-back sleeves, he pulls on the ramrod rope, straining as though hauling souls out of purgatory. An attendant snatches the tally away so that he can glance at the next one without letting the ramrod lose its momentum, and stamps it so that it can be handed back to the purchaser as a certificate that the requested sutras, vocalized, have been mingled with the sound of the bell. Besides this priestly ringing of private prayers, the lay person is allowed to do his own ringing at some temples. There is customarily a small fee per stroe for this, and the number allowed per person may be limited. Otherwise, the bell is inaccessible, the door of the two-story shoro being kept locked, while at the one-story pavilion the pull-rope is removed or wound up out of reach. There is usually a strict concern t he appointed ringer shall ring. This person is not necessarily a priest, a monk, or a nun. It may be a lay man; rarely it is a lay woman. 59 The strokes on the bonsho are spaced well apart so as to let the tone sing out. Their number varies greatly according to the meaning of the ringing and the custom of the temple.60 Counters are used by some ringers. 61 At a few temples the ringing is alternated with the beating of a large drum. This usually takes place in a two-story shoro, with the drum in the lower story. 62 It is generally desirous to have the sound of the bonsho travel far, although this depends upon the locality in which the temple is situated. In some urban temples the shoro is placed on a knoll at the edge of the grounds so as to raise the bell above nearby sound interferences, yet not too high above persons who wish to be near it when it rings. In rural temples the shoro is often built above other buildings on a hillside. Bonsh5 in this position have been heard up to 15 kilometers (9 miles) away.

Page  54 54 JAPANESE BELLS There are two other uses of the bonsho: one for funerals, the other for alarm. In the latter the strokes are fast. The sound of the bonsho in temples along the coast has a deep meaning for seafarers, because there it is used as a warning of approaching storms. JAPANESE BELLS TODAY The Western visitor to Japan misses the civic bell. There is no Old Cow, as in the Palazzo Vecchio of Florence, which spurred its citizens to combat the Sienesi; no Roland, which aroused the burghers of Ghent to withstand the demands of Charles V; no Big Ben, symbolizing the "mother of parliaments"; and certainly no Liberty Bell, as in Philadelphia and Mexico City. There are no gate bells like those which used to announce the locking in of the city every night and opening it up every morning, not only in Europe, but in China and Korea. There are no gates. Nevertheless, the bell by no means remained a 'sacred vessel'. The kansho especially was taken out of the temple and put to various profane uses. We have already noted it as a ginsho in the fire watcher's lookout. As hontsuri-gane it went into the kabuki theatre, to hang behind a bamboo screen among other instruments for off-stage musical effects. 63 As densh5 it went into better class homes, to call guests into the chaseki or tea room for the tea ceremony. For this purpose, bells in more modest sizes than for temple use were procurable at fairs and shops. Small domestic bells never became so common as in Western homes. The master might have a flat crotal on a long handle which he shook to call his servant; his lady would have a round one on little legs and with a tiny loop on top which she lifted delicately and rang to summon her maid. The visitor at the door neither rang nor knocked; he called out. The electric doorbell, like the telephone bell, is an acquisition of the twentieth century. So are the equally universal bicycle bell, fire-reel bell and ambulance bell. Formerly, the only small bells heard in the streets (apart from the occasional horse bells and priests' bells already referred to) were those of the post courier, the peddler, and the odd-job man (kofu). If the small Western bell made its entry into Japan only recently; the larger one came much earlier. Portuguese Jesuits, headed by Saint Francis Xavier, began preaching Christianity at the western end of Japan in 1549. We have no record of whether they brought a bell, 65 but we cannot imagine them arriving without an altar bell. This, if like those carried to America, resembled a town crier's handbell. We learn of the fathers in 1557 ringing handbells in the streets of Hirado, Kyushu, to attract potential converts. 66 In this they succeeded, although their zeal eventually caused such violent reactions that at the beginning of the next century the work of their labors was suppressed. Before this happened, however, they had erected churches. Since we know next to nothing about the bells these contained, it is easy for us to imagine them swinging in towers, with an amazed populace wondering why they were sounded that way when simply hitting them with a hammer would have been so much easier. Such was likely not the case. Scanty evidence, which underscores the Jesuits' desire not to appear different from the Japanese except in their religious beliefs, pictures a wooden structure with overhanging roof in the style of a Buddhist temple, but entered from the end. 67 If there were a bell, it was inside. In Kyoto, from inside the unprepossessing Shunko-in in a remote part of the precinct of My6shin-ji, a strange companion answers the Call of the Buddha on the oldest bell still rung. Its height and diameter are each 44 cm.; and it has the inverted-pain form with sharply flared lip

Page  55 PERCIVAL PRICE 55 typical of the Hispano-Portuguese bell of the sixteenth century. On its straight conical flank is the date 1577, and in two places the symbol -- There is no indication of its place of casting, but if it were not in Japan (perhaps made from metal of a destroyed bonsho), it was probably in Macao or Goa. How it came to Kyoto can only be supposed. It may have been brought from the western end of the country at the end of the seventeenth century, to give evidence in the capital that the pernicious religion of the Europeans had been eradicated. Perhaps it came later, along with the bell of 698 (cast on Kyushu Island, it will be remembered) as a prize of war. 68 The seventeenth century was a time of seizing bells. He who could carry away the bonsho ruled the monastery. Benkei, who as an historical character may have lived five hundred years earlier, continued to exist as the fabulous giant who single-handed hauled a three-ton bell up Mount Hiei from Lake Biwa. Scratches said to have been caused by his dragging it over rocks are visible on its flanks today. Kyoto, however, did not have to go to Lake Biwa for large bells. It cast bronze giants in its own domain. In 1614 a bell of nearly 30 metric tons was hung in the HokJ-ji. Its sound rolled over the capital like thunder; but a visible aspect of it caused a still greater effect. The bell had been ordered to please Ieyasu, chief of the Tokugawa clan, yet had been paid for largely by gold which the rival Toyotomi clan had been storing for war purposes. At the imposing ceremony of dedication (and doubtless, thanks to the bell hanging close to the ground) Ieyasu discovered the Chinese characters "Ie" and "Yasu" on the inscription, in a position which he took to be an insult to his clan. Immediately he ordered the ceremony halted. 69 One can imagine the consternation among the high dignitaries, the one thousand priests, and most of Kyoto and the surrounding countryside who had assembled for the fete. The result was convocations, which brought out rivalries both religious and political, to culminate in a battle in 1615 in which the Tokugawa defeated the Toyotomi, and brought in a new historical epoch. The bell still sounds over Kyoto, since 1636 joined by another of practically the same size in the Chion-in. 70 The seat of the emperor now moved to Edo (modern Tokyo), and the temples of the new capital began to receive larger bells than heretofore, yet nothing like the collossi of Kyoto and Nara. The largest, of fifteen metric tons, was installed in 1673 in the Zoj6-ji. 71 No bell as large followed this in Japan until the beginning of the present century. 72 Then one was poured which outrivalled in size all previous bonsh6. By this time the Japanese knew the bells of the West, and with a consciousness of their status among nations, they decided to make a bell which would rival Western ones. It was a sign of the rise of a new industrial class that this bell was not to embellish a capital, ancient or modern, but -- what had once been the hideout for the Toyotomif s gold -- the now swelling commercial metropolis of Osaka. In 1903 this bell, of over 60 metric tons, was cast and hung in a new sh6r6 in the Shitenno-ji. There were no disturbances at this dedication, although here too there was a slight flaw in the bell's inscription: the date of casting was given incorrectly as 1902. While not the heaviest bell ever cast, it was claimed to be the largest in volume. In every sense it was a Japanese Buddhist bonsho, complete with dragon loop on top (ryuzu), 144 nipples (nyu), and two 'lotuses' (shuza) for striking with a ramrod. If the people of Kyoto said with some justification that its tone was unrefined, those of Osaka could reply that one did not make human sacrifices at bell castings in the twentieth century. All the other rites were doubtless carried out: o n the foundry ceiling to protect the place, the altar set up and the priest's chanting from the moment the metal left the furnace until it entered the mold, and the tossing of the names of the donors inscribed on sheets of copper into the fiery mixture, to make them one with the bell. For this bell, in keeping with the times, was not born in a pit specially dug for it in a

Page  56 56 JAPANESE BELLS temple precinct, but in a modern industrial foundry.73 (In order to compare it with other bells both in Japan and abroad, we give its statistics at the end.) After the permanent opening up of the country to foreign intercourse in 1868, Christian churches began to appear in Japan and to make themselves known by the sound of their swinging bells. There was no ban on their ringing, no proscriptions on religious ground, as in some Muslim regions, or because of their making too much noise, as in some Christian. This happy state continued until World War II, when all ringing was stopped except for alarm. Another factor then entered which Europe had known since it started using cannon, but which was new to Japan. Bells were sequestrated for their metal for war purposes. The government claimed the right to confiscate all bells, and in 1943 began to remove most of those cast since 1600. Before peace came, about 85% of Japan's bells, including the great one which was the pride of Osaka, were broken up and shipped to the Mitsubishi Company's smelters on Nayo Island. 74 When the metals in the bells were separated, there was not much more than a 10% yield of tin. 75 After World War II, and especially since 1950, the Japanese have had a renaissance of bell making. Bellfounders briefly experimented with a copper-silica alloy, which produced a strong bell of good tone; but a sharp rise in the price of silica made the cost exorbitant. They have returned to their conventional alloy of about 86% copper and 14% tin. 76 For large bells they continue to make their copes in several 'rings', or courses, which they stack; the courses, howincised on the bell, including the inside. The general standard of workmanship is high. (See Illustration IV. ) A bonsh5 is seldom delivered to the temple until its day of dedication. Few events combine so much color and gaiety with the dignity of a religious ceremony. The townspeople meet the bell on its arrival in the town and escort it in procession to the temple. In the vanguard a hundred or so children in bright costumes and with gold crowns on their heads hold onto long red and white ribbons, tokens of happiness, which stretch back behind them to the bell. With these they symbolically draw it. Behind the bell (carried on a truck) walk musicians playing on ancientstyle reeds and flutes, followed by priests wearing colorful robes. They surround their abbot, whose appearance is distinguished chiefly by a hat extending extraordinarily far before and after him, and a pink parasol over his head. The laity bring up the rear. On arrival at the temple gate the great bell is greeted by singing and the bright metallic sounds of many small ain as a chorus welcomes it with goeika music. The children disperse, and the priests retire while the bell is suspended in its shoro and covered with a white sheet. From the top of it, the red and white ribbons with which the children had guided it to the temple are stretched across the court to the great commemorative stone in the burial plot and fastened securely to it. This visibly connects the happy occasion of dedication and first sounding of the new bonsh5 with the earth and souls of the ancestors. We are reminded that two thousand years ago the Japanese buried the dotaku in the earth. When the bell is in place, an altar is set up in front of the shoro. On it are flowers and gifts to the bell. Music sounds from the temple porch, and the musicians lead the priests out in procession to the altar. The abbot ceremonially purifies the air around the shoro and censes its pillars. Prayers are offered, silent except for the exotic instrumental music pouring forth, punctuated by resonant strokes on a dohachi. Then a boy, a son of the donor, comes forward from the

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Page  58 58 JAPANESE BELLS congregation and removes the sheet. The abbot intones an address to the bell. After more prayers, this time spoken, with responses from the priests, one of them invites the abbot to sound the bonsho. He goes up into the shor6, swings the ramrod and gives one stroke. There is absolute stillness while, for the first time, the new Voice of Buddha vibrates the temple air. The donor and his wife are each invited to give it a stroke. After more ceremony the priests retire, and the congregation is free to ring the bell. For special guests the occasion concludes with dinner in the temple refectory. It is outside the scope of this article to discuss whether the Japanese are religious or not. They love their temple bells. While Christians are replacing theirs with electronic substitutes more in keeping with the Computer Age (and because they cannot get ringers), Buddhists sound theirs with fervor in the centuries-old way. Both the throaty note of the Shinto crotal heard close by and the tenuous roll of the bonsho over the hills are part of their life and their land. It is expressed in the words of the poet Basho: Who said there were only eight views of Biwa? The ninth view is the sound of Mii-dera's bell. THE EIGHT LARGEST BELLS MADE IN JAPAN79 Installed in: Nara Period Nara, T5dai-ji Heian Period Uji (near Kyoto), By6d6-in Kamakura Period Kamakura, Engaku-ji Muromachi Period Kyoto, Hoko-ji Ht. Diam. Date(s) Type cm. cm. Wt., kg. (estimated) 732 1022 1301 1614 A 412 277 (26,300) A 156 A 207 124 142 A 425 276 (26,000) Tokugawa Period Kyoto, Chion-in Tokyo, Zboj6-ji 1636 1673 A 411 275 (26,000) A 242 176 (15,000) Meiji and Modern Periods Osaka, Shitenn6-ji Nagoya, Daijo-ji 1903 - 1943 1956 A (700) 485 64,000 A 230 188 16,000

Page  59 PERCIVAL PRICE 59 THE EIGHT LARGEST BELLS MADE IN EIGHT OTHER COUNTRIES80 Ht. Diam. Wt., kg. Made in- Made for - Date(s) Types cm. cm. (estimated) Korea Kyongju, Bong-dong-sa 771 B 311 218 (79,000) China Peking, Ta-chung-ssu early 15th cent. A 457 427 (52,000) Russia Moscow, Kreml 1735 Broken C 590 690 201,330 Burma Mingun, Mingoon Pawa 1790 C 365 495 88,360 Germany Koln, Dom 1874- 1917 D 325 342 27,075 Austria Wien, Stefansdom 1951 D 290 314 20,130 France Rouen, Cathedrale 1914-1945 D 310 (20,000) Great Britain New York, U.S.A. 1931 Riverside Church 1931 E 285 311 18,580 Types: A. Sino-Japanese cylindrical shape; hung stationary. B. Korean barrel shape; hung stationary. C. European flared shape; hung stationary. D. European flared shape; hung to swing. E. European flared shape; hung to swing, but primarily sounded stationary in a carillon, for which it is tuned. NOTES 1The terms 'height' and 'full height' in this article are used with definite meanings. 'Height' ( abbreviated ht. ) means the vertical distance from the bottom to the top of the bell only, and not including any lug, handle, or loop-like extension for holding or attaching it. 'Full height' means the vertical distance from the bottom to the top of the bell including all solidly attached protruberances. We must point out that this last is the figure generally given as height in museum statistics, etc., but it is less useful for our purposes, particularly in comparing the sizes of bells, than the height of the bell proper, which we shall refer to as the height. 2The drawings appear to have been incised on the inside of the outer mold or cope with a stylus, from which they became transferred in low relief, mirrored, onto the bell. The reliefs on many European bells in the Middle Ages were made in this way. Two other methods have been used on both Oriental and Occidental bells: (1) stamping the relief on the inside of the cope; and (2) forming it in wax on the surface of a model of the bell and building the cope over it, then melting out the wax, lifting off the cope and removing the model, replacing it, and finally filling the remaining cavity with metal. This, known as the cire perdue method, w as not used on Japan ese bells of any size until int roduc ed by Ko rean bellfounders about the sixth century A. D. (see p. 47 ). It was not si mi larly used on European bells until the close of the Middle Ages. 3So also do modern reproductions of them, made for close examination.

Page  60 60 JAPANESE BELLS 4The oldest extant bell with flanges may be one about 6 cm. in height in the Museum of Chinese History in Peking. It is dated, "not later than the 14th cent. B. C., and has two plain flanges on opposite sides. Some larger bells of the Shang and Chou dynasties have two or four flanges, very elaborately outlined. 5The relation of the early Chinese bell to the grain scoop may partly account for this shape. See Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in Ancient China, v. IV (Cambridge, 1961), pp. 199-200. See also text, following. 60ne advantage of the sectional mold is the opening out of the cope for the artist to work on its inner face. This is seen in the drawings of molds for Chinese bells offered by Noel Barnard in Bronze Casting in Ancient China (Canberra, 1961), pp. 86, 109. We find no evidence that the Japanese used re-usable molds, and think this extremely unlikely, except for very small, plain bells. The highly ornamented bell, made with great skill out of a costly amount of bronze, becomes an individual treasure in every culture. This is well confirmed for eastern Asiatic bells in written references to them. We should therefore presume that the owner of such a bell would want its mold destroyed as soon as the bell was taken out of it, as is done today. (Barnard ignores the use of stamps, which has long been Japanese practice, and most likely came from the mainland.) 7Holes would be a detriment to a bell with good resonance; but as the dotaku is basically two metal sheets held rigidly on three sides, the holes might have been thought to let the metal vibrate better, as they do on crotals. The Koreans, from Silla times to the present, place a pipe in the top of a large bell, "to let the sound out." This seems to have originated from hanging the bell so close to the ground that very little sound escaped from underneath it. (See note 51.) Dotaku may have rested on the ground. 8See Percival Price, 'European Bell Inscriptions,' in The Dalhousie University Review (Halifax, N.S.), February 1966, pp. 419-430. 9Mircea Eliade, The Forge and the Crucible (New York, 1956), p. 27 ff. trans. Corrin; also Satis N. Coleman, Bells (New York, 1928), p. 9. 10See J. Edward Kidder, Jr., Japan before Buddhism (New York, 1959), p. 166. 11Small bells of this shape were used in Korea around the same time. They have been used in China from West Han times; the Zhuang national minority there now uses them. 12The 'fish-mouth' rim first appeared on bells in China during the Shang dynasty, but disappeared there at the end of the West Han dynasty. It is found on some Korean bells contemporary with those in Japan of which we are speaking. 13F. Brinkley, A History of the Japanese People (New York, 1915), pp. 53 and 162 ftn. The custom of a Japanese man carrying a bell-shaped fob attached to his tobacco pouch (nejime), may have had its origin in this. 14See Kidder, op. cit., pp. 187-188 and Okada Yazuru, 'History of Japanese Ceramics and Metalwork', in Pageant of Japanese Art, vol. IV (Tokyo, 1952), pp. 187-188.

Page  61 PERCIVAL PRICE 61 15Sir James G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 3rd edition, vol. IX (London, 1954), p. 118. 16Karl Florenz, Die historischen Quellen der Shinto-Religion (Gottingen, 1919), p. 421 and ftn. 45 and 46. 17Suzuki means literally, 'crotal tree'. It is also a proper name. According to legend, suzu were originally of iron. See Florenz, op. cit., p. 421. 18See William P. Malm, Japanese Music (Tokyo, 1959), p. 46. 19One such crotal, now in the hall of Hok6ji-ji, Kyoto, is dated 1449. 20This has a parallel in some forms of mainland Buddhism, and in Hindu rites. When a devout Hindu rings an (open-mouth) bell on completion of his preparations for devotion, "the lesser devas must come." 21For the manifold symbolism of this bell see Dietrich Sekel, Buddhistische Kunst Ostasiens (Stuttgart, 1957), p. 173. 22Two in the Treasure House of Koyasan date from the beginning of our era. 23Their use is not the same as that of the Roman Catholic altar bell, which is to inform the congregation of an awesome moment in the rite. In Buddhism, the sound of this bell is an integral part of the rite -- as much so as, for example, the spoken "Amen" in a Christian ritual. 24Space forbids discussion of the dohachi, which is a border line instrument between a bell and a gong. It is also called dohai, kaisu, rin, orin, and kin (Chinese heng). 25This has a parallel in the use of small, high-pitched cymbals in Coptic church singing, a combination said to have been handed down from ancient Egyptian temple rites. In this relationship, see the bell noted by Hans Hickmann in 'Zur Geschichte der Altagyptischen Glocken,' in Musik und Kirche (Kassel), MIrz/April 1951, fig. 8, no. 26. The author (p. 78) describes this bell as unique and "possibly Roman. We know of no bell of this shape found in Roman remains. Rather, its ovoid horizontal profile (see above, p.39) and 'fish-mouth' rim (note 12) imply that it came from eastern Asia. The late James A. Plumer of the University of Michigan brought two such small bells, of the Warring States period, from China. While Hickmann's artifact implies only the travel of a bell, by the same token a knowledge of uses of bells may have been transferred from one culture to another -- see note following. 26The great antiquity of goeika music is shown in the preservation of a repertory of 33 numbers contzining Sanskrit words. The Shingon sect originated in India. It was brought to China in 720 A.D., and came to Japan in 807. 27We do not include the orugoro because the bowl-shaped idiophones of which it is composed are closer to gongs than bells. It is related to the Chinese yung-lo. 28Sekel, op. cit., p. 74. 29The evidence (or lack of it) that windbells were first used in India, Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia is about equal. Existing examples in situ give no clue, because windbells are easily re

Page  62 62 JAPANESE BELLS placeable. Those hung on very old buildings, where examination has been possible, appear to be newer than the buildings. Yet we have them as isolated artifacts over 2000 years old. 30Chinese acquaintance with this use of them probably began in the 2nd century A. D., when Chinese pilgrims to Buddhist religious centers in India brought back relic containers in the form of stupas adorned with miniature windbells. 31In spite of the Nepalese claim that their architecture influenced Japanese vertical construction, we have so far found no evidence that the Japanese ever hung windbells in rows under the eaves, as do the Nepalese. 32The kei is a Buddhist altar instrument consisting of a suspended metal plate. It was evolved from the Chinese stone ch'ing. 33See Hamada Kosaku, Ten Bronze Bells Formerly in the Collection of Ch'en Chieh-ch'i (Kyoto, 1923), p. 2., also Needham, op. cit., fig. 301, and Sherman E. Lee, A History of Far Eastern Art (New York, 1964), fig. 56. 34See Sekai Bijutsu Zenshu, No. 2 (Tokyo, 1960), p. 206. The bell is now in the private collection of Gentar5 Inoue. There may be a similar undated bell in Japan which is as old. 35A more definite pitch, and more resonance, because the vibrations can travel uninterruptedly all the way around the bell. 36Ojikich5 is an ancient Chinese standard of pitch. The bell hums 129 c.p. s., which approximately is the note C below Middle C. 37In the Museum of Chinese History, Peking. 38There is a theory that they symbolized pitch pipes. See Tch'ou To-yi, Bronzes antiques appartentant a C.T. Loo (Paris, 1924), pp. 18-19. 39See p. 43. 40The dragon form of the loop goes back to the Warring States period. See M. Sullivan, Introduction to Chinese Art (London, 1961), pp. 66-67. 41The total number of ny varies from about 96 to 144 on large bells. 42Linear divisions on Chinese bells gradually disappeared, particularly after the fantasy of Ming artists was allowed expression on bells. Linear divisions were never a feature on Korean bells. Instead, iconography flourished, and we find it copied on some Japanese bells, along with stylized vine and honeysuckle borders, as on the large By6od-in bell of 1022 at Uji, near Kyoto. 43Sekel, op. cit., pp. 175-176. 44The thickening of the rim made the pitch higher and the tone harsher. See Aoki, 'Summary of the Acoustical Properties of Hanging Bells,' in Memoirs of the Faculty of Industrial Arts, Kyoto Technical University, No. 6 (Kyoto, 1957).

Page  63 PERCIVAL PRICE 63 45Sekel, op. cit., pp. 76-77. 46The T5-in bell is still in situ. The Yakushi-ji bell is in the Nara Museum. 47It still exists, and appears to be of Korean artisanship. 48The weight of the bell has only been estimated. Some figures go as high as 48 tons, but Aoki's estimate of 26 tons seems to be more likely. 49For specifications of the largest bell of each period, see Table at end. 50In this sense they may be compared with the cloister bell of the Christian monastery. In some temples they were hung in the sanctuary, and might be used in the ritual. 51In Japanese cemeteries one occasionally finds a bonsho hung close to the floor, with the ground exposed below it. This is general in Korea (see note 7), where a short log hung from chains is used as a ramrod. The reason for hanging the bell closer to the earth and exposing the soil below it in cemeteries is because there the essence of the sound is intended primarily to benefit the souls of the ancestors, in the earth. Here one senses a mystic link with the dotaku of seven centuries earlier. 52Dissonance is further eliminated in some Western bells, especially those for musical use as in chimes and carillons, by tuning them. This is done by turning them on a lathe after they are cast. It is a delicate process, and has been practised very little on Japanese bells, although some of the newer ones have been tuned under the direction of Ichiro Aoki, following acoustical research at Kyoto Technical University. Bibliography relative to this is given in notes 53, 54, and 55. 53For research on beats in the bonsho see Aoki, op cit., and articles in Memoirs (Report) of the Faculty of Industrial Arts, Kyoto Technical University, No. 1 (Kyoto, 1952) and No. 3 (Kyoto, 1953); also by Aoki and Yamamoto Noboru, in Collection of Articles for the 45th Anniversary of the Foundation of Kyoto Technical University (Kyoto, 1945). 54Also called hansho. For a tonal analysis see Aoki, 'Experimental Studies on the Sound of a Japanese Fire Bell,' in Memoirs of the College of Science, Kyoto Imperial University, ser. A, vol XIV, no. 5 (Kyoto, 1931). The traditional type of bell, complete with nyu, is gradually being replaced by the remote-control electric siren on a steel pylon. The old-fashioned lookout was a small platform on a mast. 55Aoki, 'Summary of the Acoustical Properties....,' in Mem. Fac. Ind. Arts, Kyoto Tech. Univ., No. 6 (Kyoto, 1957), p. 6. 56This is shown in the following examples at twelve temples: Once Daily Morning Noon Evening Tokyo, Z5jo-ji 5/51/2 hrs. * Kyoto, Higashi Hongan-ji 51/2 hrs. ** Nagoya, Daijo-ji 6 hrs. Tokyo, Kanei-ji 12 hours Kyoto, Myoshin-ji Sunset Koyasan, Dai-To 23 hrs.

Page  64 64 JAPANESE BELLS Twice Daily Kyoto, Kiyomizu-dera Kamakura, Hase-Kannon-dera nr. Nishinomiya, KabutoKannon-ji Kyoto, Chion-in Morning 5 hrs. 6 hrs. 6 hrs. 8 hrs. *** Noon Evening 18 hrs. 18 hrs. 21 hrs. 12 hrs. *** Thrice Daily Kamakura, Komyo-ji 6 hrs. 12 hrs. 17 hrs. Every Two Hours Horyuiji, Saien-do 6, 8, 10 12, 14, 16 18 hrs. *5 hrs., May to September incl.; 5 1/2 hrs., October to April incl. **One stroke every three minutes until 6 hrs. ***Only on the 24th and 25th of the month, except March and September, to the 28th incl., during the semi-annual festival of the temple. when it is on the 21st 57The prices are 200, 300, and 500 yen, according to the number of sutras recited (100 yen is about 30 cents). 58Usually 10, 20, or 50 yen, according to the popularity of the bell. 59The ringer's house at the Kanei-ji in Tokyo is connected with the shor6 by a short, completely covered passage. When the ringer feels indisposed, his wife can easily walk from her kitchen to the bell, and ring the required strokes for him. 60For example, the number of strokes at exactly 12 noon on the Kanei-ji bonsho near the Ueno Park Railway Station in Tokyo is not 12, but 15. 61The counters may be blocks slid along a rod, or ribbons hanging beside the pull-rope which are gathered one at a time in the hand. 62The association of the drum with the bell is of ancient Chinese origin. do not build paired structures for these like the Chinese drum and bell 'towers'. is the originally very early pair at the Sai-in (Westminster) at Hryiiji. The Japanese An exception 63See Malm, op. cit., pp. 220, 225-226. A popular kabuki play, Dojoji, based on the legend Anchin and Kiyohime, uses a representation of a bonsho on stage. The story is one of magic vengeance in which the heroine, on being spurned by her lover, turns into a dragon. Monks hide him from her fury inside a bonsh5, but she heats it to white heat with her coils and reduces him to a cinder inside. 64The transfer of the temple bell is natural here, because the tea ceremony developed out of Zen temple ritual. A gong may be used instead. 65We know that they brought a chiming clock as a present to the ruler where they landed. From this the Japanese developed similar indoor timepieces, which they equipped with small hemispherical bells, either copied from this gift or from later European clocks which they learn

Page  65 PERCIVAL PRICE 65 ed about from China. Before the Industrial Era such clocks were rare in Japan, as elsewhere. 66Brinkley, op. cit., p. 534. 67Alexandro Valignano, II Ceremoniale per i missionare del Giappone (Roma, 1946), pp. 271 ff. and lower ill. facing p. 272. 68More strange than the removal of the Portuguese bell to Kyoto was its continued safekeeping there during a period of proscription of Christian bells which lasted two and one half centuries. It remained because it was popularly believed to be a Korean bell. 69Brinkley, op. cit., pp. 565-566. 70For exact specifications see Table at end. 71Ibid. 72f any were cast, they disappeared in the sequestration of bells in World War II. This is mentioned in the text, following. 73Because of lack of space we must, regretfully, omit the names of all bellfounders. Bellfounding nowadays, in Japan as elsewhere, is a full-time occupation, and requires capital investment. There was a time, in Japan as in Europe, when it was largely seasonal, and required only portable permanent equipment. Then, the Japanese bellfounder cast bells in winter and farmed in summer; his European counterpart was an itinerant bellfounder in summer and a home artisan in winter. 74This compares with approximately 80% of Germany's bells and 50% of Italy's in World War II. See Percival Price, Campanology, Europe, 1945-47 (Ann Arbor, 1948), pp. 74 and 130. 75This compares with about 18% tin in Germany. (See Price, op. cit., p. 97) In previous wars both the copper and tin in bells had been in demand for gunmetal, but by World War II this alloy was replaced largely by steel. However, the many uses of electricity vital to military operations in World War II created a high priority demand for tin for solder. After supplies from Java and the Malay States were cut off, the Japanese had to turn to their bells for tin. 76The preferred European proportion is 78% copper, 22% tin. These proportions are the result of long experience in each region. The Japanese say that the bonsh', due to its shape and usage, does not need a higher proportion of tin for hardening to withstand blows, and that an increase would raise its cost out of proportion to any tonal advantage. They use up to 24% tin in the d6hachi (note 24) in order to increase its resonance. 77Many European bellfounders use a single iron shell, flared like the bell, to hold the cope, and they model the whole flank in one section. But southern Asiatic founders often build a flared flank in several sections. 78Long, pointed n, which are a departure from all previous shapes, are part of a modernistic design for a new bonsh' in Nagoya.

Page  66 66 JAPANESE BELLS 79As far as can be.ascertained from available records. 80This list does not present all the bells larger than the eighth largest in Japan (ca. 15, 000 kg.) -- of which over fifty are known to have been cast. It does include all the countries in which one or more bells of over 15, 000 kg. have been cast for which there are available reliable statistics. There are unconfirmed statements that the largest bell cast in Portugal weighs 20, 000 kg., the largest in Mexico, 19, 000 kg., in Spain, 17,500 kg., and in Italy, 17, 000 kg. Percival Price, carillonneur at The University of Michigan, received a degree in music from the University of Toronto. He came to Michigan in 1939 as Professor of Composition and University Carillonneur after a period of serving with carillons in Toronto, New York and Ottawa. Mr. Price has given carillon recitals in the United States, Canada, Europe and the Near East and received a Pulitzer Prize in composition in 1934. In 1952 one of his carillon compositions was accepted for the Olympics Music Exhibition in Helsinki. He is the author of The Carillon (1933), Campanology Europe 1945-47 (1948) and numerous contributions to professional journals.

Children's Game Songs of Okayma Prefecture

Estelle Titievpp. 67-138

Page  67 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Estelle Titiev

Page  68

Page  69 FOREWORD It was at the request of Professor Robert B. Hall who was then the director of the Center for Japanese Studies that I began this project in 1951 when my husband went to Okayama City as Field Director of the station maintained by the Center. Although my time was limited, children's game songs were not too difficult either to collect or to analyze and the enjoyment I found in obtaining the material made the project a most pleasurable one. My special thanks go to Professor Hall for suggesting that I undertake this study. Despite the children's surprise and amusement to find an adult interested in their games and songs, they were unfailingly patient and took a rather indulgent attitude toward my work. As we became better acquainted and I became familiar with the songs and games myself, the children s interest grew in the whole project and they began to regard the affair as a game in itself. For all these youngsters I have an affection that can never be diminished. I have had a great deal of help from a number of people. Professor Hide Shohara spent many hours of her time in explanation, aided me with a number of the translations, gave me advice and encouragement, and always had suggestions that were extremely valuable. Both Professor and Mrs. J. K. Yamagiwa were kind enough to lend me books, to refer me to source materials, to read the manuscript and make helpful suggestions, and to translate several elusive songs. I am deeply indebted to Mrs. Seiko Miyakawa of Okayama City who accompanied me to the villages and arranged for me to meet groups of children; her help and guidance played a vital part in this project. Mrs. Haruko Takahashi of Kyoto and Mrs. R. Barrett both assisted in translation. Gertrude Kurath gave me the benefit of her wide knowledge and experience and undertook the painstaking work of checking the transcriptions. Her advice has been of enormous help. Suggestions made by Professor Richard K. Beardsley were also very helpful. Professor William Malm kindly offered to read the manuscript critically and I deeply appreciate his interest and constructive comments. I acknowledge most gratefully the generous grant from the Center for Japanese Studies for the completion of this project. I wish to thank Miss Alice Sano and Mrs. Irma DeArman for typing the manuscript. Estelle Titiev 69

Page  70 70 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE The game songs presented in this paper were collected in 1951 during a stay at the Center for Japanese Studies in Okayama City. Groups of children were observed at play in school yards during recess or after school near their homes, and wherever possible the songs were taped. In order to check on differences, if any, in the way city children played the games and sang the songs from the way in which village children performed them, Okayama City, Kurashiki City, and three near-by village communities were selected. The hamlet of Niiike in Kamo village, which had undergone intensive study by the Center, was naturally one of the localities chosen in addition to Imamura and Sanbanson. The material described here concerns the limited area of the two cities and three village communities in which the songs were collected. Some of the songs are, of course, known in other parts of Japan. Out of the total number recorded a selection of fifty tunes seemed sufficient to represent the variety of games played by the children. These fifty also seemed to be the most popular. Okayama Prefecture is located about ninety miles west of Osaka. Stretching to the south lies the Inland Sea, and to the north the Chugoku mountain range forms a boundary with Tottori Prefecture. Okayama City, formerly a castle town, is the economic and cultural center of the Chugoku district. Kurashiki, about ten miles west of Okayama City was in the Edo period (1615-1868), a thriving port for the rice produced in the district. Today it is one of the new industrial cities of Japan producing iron, steel, cotton yarn, rayon fabrics, and woven mats. Somewhat to the west of Okayama City, about eight miles away, is the hamlet of Niiike, much studied, much investigated, and much analyzed by members of the Center for Japanese Studies. Imamura is about five miles east of Okayama City and Sanbanson lies about the same distance to the south. Some of the songs are known throughout Japan; some are sung only locally. A few are fairly old and are known to people in their sixties who declared that their grandparents also knew the songs; a number are of recent origin. How game songs come into being is hard to say, but it is possible to suggest how the many variations that exist come about. A child learns these songs not in class at school or from a book, but from other children, often an older sibling. Sometimes a word is changed because the child hears it that way - as, for instance, the American child who sang "Gladly the cross-eyed bear" for "Gladly the cross I'd bear," or in the case of the nursery rhyme "Diddle-diddle dumpling - Mice and John" for "My son John." When a word or a phrase is forgotten, something that is similar in sound or that merely fills out the required number of syllables is substituted. The replacements do not necessarily have to have the same meaning or, for that matter, any meaning. As one Japanese friend said, "I used to sing that song when I was a child, but I never thought about the meaning. "

Page  71 ESTELLE TITIEV 71 The tune, too, may be altered when certain notes or passages are not remembered accurately. However, most changes are likely to be small and both verse and tune remain recognizable. The child sings the altered version, the group hears and learns it, and a variation of the original song is thus created. Distance, too, plays a role in adding to the collection of variations. Children living eight to ten miles apart seldom sing a song in exactly the same way; some of the words are usually different and the tune may be somewhat altered. At times the same song may be used to accompany a different game. It is not unusual to find that the children take a composed song and use it to accompany a game. "Ame fure" (No. 2),"Yuki ga chira chira (No. 10), and "Minashigo" (No. 11) are used for ball bouncing games. "Mura no kajiya" (No. 26) and "Haru no ogawa wa" (No. 27) are sung for gomu tobi games. Actions The games have the characteristics of games everywhere. They involve more than one participant and almost always contain the elements of a contest and resolution or climax. There is usually a winner and a loser. There are always rules according to which the games are played and these rules are either agreed upon beforehand or are already known to the players and taken for granted before the game starts. Interestingly enough, the games are very much like the games the children of North America play. They include hide-and-seek, guessing and ring games, London Bridge types, hand clapping, ball bouncing, bean bag, rope skipping, tug-of-war, and counting games as well as counting-out games to determine who shall be the "it" or the oni (devil). It has been said that children's games are mimetic of the acts of their elders. They may imitate serious occupations of adults and may even preserve the remains of ceremonials of olden times. "Kagome" (No. 38) and some of the other guessing games may well be imitations of ancient divination rites. In "Toryanse" (No. 33) reference is made to the custom of visiting shrines when a child is seven years old and in "Ichi kake ni kakete" (No. 42) the act of committing seppuku is mentioned. Both boys and girls participate in many of the games. Ball bouncing and bean bag games, however, are considered girls' games and boys rarely, if ever, join in. In former times, before rubber bouncing balls came into vogue, bean bag games were quite popular, and girls and young women were very adept at handling five bean bags with ease. Low-bouncing balls, beautifully embroidered with colored thread were also used - but these too have now given way to the rubber bouncing ball which is the Japanese girls' delight. The ball is bounced in innumerable ways - with the hand on the ball and bounced on the ground, on the instep, with the sole of the foot, touching hands between bounces, touching the leg between bounces, rolling the leg over or under the ball, turning around on the bounce, crouching on the bounce, throwing the ball up on the back of the hand, etc. The long pause that often occurs at the end of the verse is made to give the player, who has just bounced the ball between her legs

Page  72 72 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE and stepped slightly forward, a chance to extricate the ball from behind the folds of her skirt. Both tempo and rhythm are regulated by the action. The last syllable of the line is often accented as in watashita (see No. 13) and the ball given a somewhat harder bounce at that point. The most common way of deciding who shall go first or who shall be the "it" in a game is to play "Jan-ken-pon" - itself a game played with hand and fingers by players facing each other. The open palm signifies kami (paper); the fist, ishi (stone); the forefinger and middle finger extended with the remaining fingers held down by the thumb hasami (scissors). Shaking their fists in time as they chant Jan-ken-po, the children, with an explosive burst on pon extend their hands simultaneously in one of the three positions. Stone wins over scissors, since scissors cannot cut stone; paper wins over stone, since paper can cover or be wrapped around stone; and scissors win over paper, since scissors can cut paper. If the positions turn out to be the same, the children must try again. Song Texts Ball bouncing songs are often counting songs. Here the contents of the song combine with the counting, each line beginning with the same syllable as the number of the line. The short form hi-fu-mi (1-2-3) for hitotsu, futatsu, mittsu is usually employed. The count generally starts with one and goes up to ten, although some go only to five or to nine. One, "Nana ya ko to" (No. 16), starts with 7, 8, 9, 10. Ingenious catalogues of shrines, cities, gods, and foods are worked into this mnemonic plan. The magic that numbers hold for children is abundantly evident. Seemingly chosen arbitrarily without any relation to realistic values, numbers that apparently have significance to the child are liberally sprinkled throughout the songs. Weights, too, appear frequently. Curiously enough, the only colors that are mentioned in the songs given here are red and white. As is the case in folk-songs, there are numerous references to food, both the ordinary, everyday variety and that which is served on special occasions. It is interesting to note that in the songs describing the famous battle of Kawanakajima (No. 21) the second line in the version sung at Kurashiki is changed from Chikuma no kawa wa hami arashi to Chikuma ni kamaboko horenso. The replacements are all food terms. They have no meaning in context and are obviously substituted for forgotten words. Japanese children, like children everywhere, sing of flowers, rivers, and mountains; bears, badgers, birds, and rats; historical events; place-names; national heroes; the moon, rain, and snow; heaven and hell; sickness and death; food and nonsense. But they also sing of feudal lords, shrines, Buddhas, and gods of good fortune. Rhyme is not used in Japanese poetry and does not occur in these songs. The devices of onomatopoeia, as in suppon pon (No. 35) or ten ten (No. 8); assonance, Kokowa doko no hoso michi ja (No. 33) and alliteration, Kore de konya no okazu, (No. 9) appear frequently, and a child's love of sounds is apparent in the nonsense syllables that are used for sound effect and for filling out the rhythm and in the repetitions of certain words such as sha no sha no sha (No. 4) or pai no no no pai (No. 7). Internal repetition sometimes occurs as in Ten, tei, teenmari no te ga sorete (No. 8).

Page  73 ESTELLE TITIEV 73 Children's language appears in some of the songs. For instance, in Yuki ga chira chira (No. 10), the words bebe and jo are used - children's terms for kimono and zori. Both polite and impolite language are found. Arigat5 (thank you) occurs in a number of the songs, while in the song Bosani (No. 36), calling the Buddhist priest kuso-bozu is far from polite. The children keep the songs up-to-date, so to speak. They are not averse to changing Taro and Jiro to Betty and Miki (No. 16) and Western influence can be detected in the reference to kyupii-chan (kewpie-doll) in Nos. 3, 4, and 5. The question and answer pattern is a popular form; into this category fall Kagome (No. 38), Toryanse (No. 33), Bosan (No. 36), and Afitagata doko sa (No. 34). The repetition of the first word of the song is fairly common as in Kagome, Toryalse, Hiraita (No. 35), and Bosan and even in the composed song Ame fure (No. 2). Sometimes the last words of a line will be repeated with the accent occurring on a different syllable as horo horo (No. 45). A few of the lines fall into the alternation of seven and five syllables characteristic of a great deal of Japanese poetry. The final n counts as a syllable and a long vowel counts as two syllables. Many of the songs are irregular in form and most are quite short, another trait common to Japanese poetry. The Japanese text is given as the children sing it, in the local dialect. The titles of the songs are either those designated by the children or by the first line. One often finds that the children do not know the actual titles of songs, but refer to them by the opening lines. The translations are free rather than literal. MUSIC Two factors that contribute to the distinctive quality of these songs are their scale structure and a strong tendency to emphasize certain tonal relationships. Japanese scales have been analyzed by scholars in various ways. Hisao Tanabe, 1 Sir Francis Piggott2 and Noel Peri3 have made valuable contributions to the understanding of this complex subject. To put it most simply, one may say that Japanese scales are pentatonic with variable notes. Or, one may regard the scale as consisting of seven notes, only five of which are considered vital and used in scale construction. Following Philippe Stern's excellent and comprehensive table4 of Japanese modes based on Noel Peri's work, the ryo scale is constructed as follows: f I]S ~I = I 'r Example I.

Page  74 74 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE The ritsu mode without variables, sometimes called the Folk Pentatonic, is derived from the Chinese Yang mode. Its characteristic feature is a major second followed by a minor third and it differs essentially from the ryO mode in the placement of the third tone (Kaku). A- _. 0 ~ Example II In the ritsu mode with variables the second and fifth degrees are variable. In ascending passages the raised fifth is used and resolves to the tonic. The raised second, according to Peri, is used more in theory than in practice. 0 02%if, O o J 1 ~ Example III The popular ritsu or, as Peri calls it, ritsu plagal without variables, is characterized by a major second followed by a minor third. T 3_ _ so 1 ~ 1L5ZP~ Example IV In the ritsu plagal with variables, the second degree may be raised in ascending or descending passages. The fifth degree (corresponding to the third degree of the ritsu) is always raised and is no longer variable.

Page  75 ESTELLE TITIEV 75 -r- -r 71 ir 17 -r' Example V The zokugaku mode with the variable fifth degree is characterized by a minor second followed by a major third. The variable fifth degree is used in ascending passages and resolves to the tonic. r".- I 0 Example VI There are also two variants of this mode: r p J J Or 1 a I n _k Wo FVOft 4.. Example VII Japanese folk songs are generally set in the yo or in modes which are said to have developed out of the ritsu scale. yo I, f n I o %MO, ~ ~ r. %. Example VIII

Page  76 76 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE A song may begin in the yo mode and change to the in. For example, "Senzo ya Manzo" (No. 24) seems to begin in the yo mode on D and then to modulate in the last line to the in mode. In some cases the same song may be sung in one area in the yo mode and in another locale in the in mode. The songs described here run the gamut of ritsu plagal without variables,zokugaku, ryo and yo modes. As for the composed songs, No. 2 could be considered as being either in D major with the fourth and seventh degrees omitted or in the ryo mode; No. 10 in e minor with the fourth and seventh degrees omitted; No. 11 in g minor; No. 15 in C major with the fourth and seventh degrees omitted or in the ryo mode; No. 26 in F major with the omission of the fourth degree, and No. 27 in C major with the fourth degree omitted. Range Three of the songs (Nos. 14, 37 and 50) are built on two notes only, a major second apart; twelve are three-note tunes of which nine encompass a range of a fourth, two a major third and one a minor third; twelve are songs with four notes having most commonly a range of a fifth. These four note tunes, the greater number of which have the same tonal relationships, seem to have the characteristics of the incomplete yo mode. Those songs having a complete scale vary from a seventh to a tenth with most falling within the spread of an octave. Intervals The intervals most frequently used are major seconds, major and minor thirds, and perfect fourths. The appearance of a. chromatic line in "Sairyo-san" (No. 21) in bar 7 is most likely a memory lapse on the part of the singer. Since these songs were all sung by children, sometimes quite young children, the preciseness of the pitch is at times questionable. Tonal Patterns Prominent emphasis is given to the notes just above and just below the tonic and to the fourth below the tonic as well (see songs Nos. 5, 6, 31, 32, 33, 34 and 47). These tonal patterns appear so often they may well be called stereotypes. I A I I i" I I 1. I w v I IN 1, I I- ---.% n 4 - --- I j -., 11.0 %.o I do f) y I A I - IN - %, — I -- I I I IN% j L, 11 I. I I -.0 VI A 0 & - 'eV -j

Page  77 ESTELLE TITIEV 77 A x I I 11 I of - &. - I - w I N n lk I A. v f -j,A! IN IN.I I.0,.007 4 I,.1 4. - 1, t 0 Example IX The progression I V IV descending, or IV V I ascending, or a combination of both is evident in Nos. 1, 8, 29, 30. 0 A & 11 t% N A K -I go j.1 a Y 0 - 4 d -J I y Z TY 73 3T s Example X Meter and Rhythm With the exception of "Teninen no bi" (No. 41) which is said to be of Korean origin, every song given here is either in 2/4 or 4/4 time - a characteristic common to Japanese folk songs. The internal division of the beat is sometimes a triplet figure usually in this form - A~ II / - I I J de. T lj ' * - ' '-V 'do j % v~. $J - L.$. I.. Example XI The dotted eighth followed by a sixteenth note appears frequently. Example XII The majority of the songs begin on the down beat but endings often fall on the weak beat of the bar. "Nana ya ko to" (No. 16), "Yubin-san" (No. 25), "Natsu mo chikazuku" (No. 40), and "O Sara" (No. 20) contain single bar time changes. Syncopation is used sparingly.

Page  78 78 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Xvo, 7 E33 IA -0. IIo0. -- Js-i^ Example XIII Phrase and Form The songs vary in length from two measures as in "Imo mushi" (No. 50)(without repetition) to over fifty as in "Ise" (No. 14). As a rule most are fairly short. Phrases appear in lengths of one, two, three, four, five and seven measures. The most common, however, are two or four bar phrases. Small codas, often appended, tend to be of an emphatic nature and may contain exclamations such as "hoina" as in songs 3 and 4 or spoken words as in "Mari-chan" (No. 7). The coda also serves in Nos. 3 and 4 to create an interesting addition to the eight-bar form, taking away from the boxiness of balanced phrases. Binary (AB) and ternary (ABA) or (ABC) forms occur. Sometimes several themes are stated and then repeated with or without variations. A number of songs consist of a single theme which is simply repeated throughout. Two tunes "Kyupii-chan" (No. 5) and "Ho, ho hottaru koi" (No. 48) are repeated in reverse order: ABBA. General Musical Characteristics While many of these songs begin on the tonic of the scale, eight begin on the note below the basic tone and seven on the fourth below. These tones (2nd below and 4th below the tonic) are often emphasized in Japanese folk music. Special attention is frequently given to the final note of a song. It may be accented, cut short, or given an explosive burst. A J I A/, JI.1 a.l Ad. ~ Ir ' -" WV to aAy. fit - IW....'a A~' Ad A A I / I at, ' m. |/L v....I. ] -, I I e [,t W fI AN I, Is I I (' ~!,,.I., '! ~ - IN r, (I IIr t_,. _J I. ' I I V ' - I I 4. I " -WI J ti3; t w 0. - I rS: - T10 S 0 a V KIt.,-.'. %t Example XIV

Page  79 ESTELLE TITIEV 79 Endings may taper off with repetitions in three's of a final tone or sound. A1. a / m' ^ St,,% *.. I k 1, -% 6.0 C"V. a W, VW VA el - 'To - A W. t to el, 16 - A. # wo+ tto A.M Example XV Cadences that occur most often are: *4 r g tI P1 r c -D. lin t.I ~ I r 1 Example XVI Once heard, these small songs are easily remembered and have a tendency to keep going over and over in one's mind. Performance No instruments are used to accompany the singing but the bounce of the ball or the slap of the rope serves much the same purpose as a drum might. The start of a song is often quite ragged as far as pitch and tempo are concerned, but there are always one or two strong individuals in the group who have enough assurance to pull the others together and, after a bar or two of uncertainty, all join in lustily. Such well known songs as "Kagome," "Hiraita," "Antagata doko sa," "T5ryanse," "Uchi no Kompira-saii," and "Ho, ho hottaru koi" have appeared in print. A good number of these tunes, have, so far as I know, never before been published. The songs are grouped according to game type with the ball bouncing songs leading the others in number. "Ame furi" was written in 1925 and published in the children's magazine "Kodomo no Kuni". The words are by Kitahara, Hakushu. Songs Nos. 26, 27 and 40 can be found in fourth grade music textbooks. No. 40 appears under the title "Chatsumi". A few special signs and symbols have been used. They include: EC = focal note J = uncertain pitch or spoken tones = pulsation A fermata ^ over a tone indicates that it is the final tone of the song and a reversed fermata W indicates the starting tone.

Page  80 80 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Ball Bouncing Songs - Te mari uta 1. Ayame ni suiseii 2. Ame fure 3. Ichi geto ra 4. Ichi riki sha 5. Kyupii-chan 6. Kinjo no omochi 7. Mari-chan 8. Ten, ten, tenmari 9. Tsuki no miyako 10. Yuki ga chira, chira 11. Minashigo Counting Songs - Kazoe uta 12. Hitotsu mikan o tabemashita 13. Ichi monme no Issuke-san 14. Ise 15. Ka-san no otsukai 16. Nana ya ko to 17. Kinkan hitotsu ga ichirin nari Counting Out Game 18. Zui, zui, zukkorobashi Bean Bag - Ote dama 19. Osara 20. Ondori ichi wa ga ichimofme 21. Sairyo-san wa kiri fukashi Tug of War - Hipparikko 22. Hana ichi monme Pushing Games 23. Oshikura manju 24. Senzo ya manzo

Page  81 ESTELLE TITIEV 81 Hopping Game 25. Yubin-san Elastic Rope Game - gomu tobi 26. Mura no kajiya 27. Haru no ogawa wa Rope Skipping - nawa tobi 28. Kuma-san 29. Ojo-sani 30. Onami, konami 31. Yubin-ya 32. Yubin-san London Bridge Type 33. Toryaise Circle Games and Guessing Games 34. Antagata doko sa 35. Hiraita 36. Bo-sai 37. Goja goja 38. Kagome 39. Tanpopo Clapping Songs - Te uchi uta 40. Natsu mo chikazuku 41. Tennen no bi Songs with Gestures - yugi no uta 42. Ichi kake ni kakete 43. Ocharaka 44. Osara ni ohashi 45. Uchi no Kompira-safi

Page  82 82 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Miscellaneous 46. Agarime, sagarime (Finger Game) 47. Geta kakushi 48. Ho, ho, hottaru koi 49. Sarabata (Pebble Game) 50. Imo mushi (Crouching Race)

Page  83 ESTELLE TITIEV BALL BOUNCING SONGS - TE MARI UTA 1. AYAME NI SUISEN 83 nAV Icodoa I Lu ^ X NI 1 ^p I I Al I 1p J A I J 3^ JI J JJ IJ J I JJ I I I IJ 1 rvw J -,-3, E 3 J a3 -/ '3 *3> 4 + i ' A4 L.,3i A3- — o K-. f UL1 J9 A - ya-mc ni su - i-sen Ka - - ki +su-bc-+cL Om-ma no+-ts hoi! Ayame ni suisen Kaki tsubata Omma notte hoi! Iris and daffodils Flags Ride on a horse! (Niiike) Game: The children form a line and the one at the head begins to bounce. At the last hoi! the ball is bounced under the legs to the person directly behind who then continues to bounce in turn. The first person goes to the end of the line. 2. A ME FURI J 108 I Irf y<2 j. ^p J: 31 JW J8) l J r J l In~~~~~~~~~~~~ A - me a - me Fu - re u - re ko - - so.- n. I irr I r4L id I I $*!. n.2 1 G 61lJ $2 MJ'l TOL - no- me d o - mru-kao. - e a- re shi -; nc. v w I Am F~~~~~ Pi - chi, pi - chi, chap- pu, chap- pu, ran, ran, ran. _ A Oa~ f^J -I a m -JI 3 ryo mode 1I2 I -I cadence

Page  84 84 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Ame ame fure fure kasan ga Janome de omukae ureshii na, Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Ara ara ano ko wa zubunure da Yanagi no nekata de naite iru, Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Kasan boku no o kashimasho ka Kimi kimi kono kasa sashitamae. Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Boku nara iinda kasan no Okina janome ni haitte yuku, Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Rain, rain, fall, fall. I am glad that Mother will come to fetch me with an umbrella. Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Look! That boy over there is wet all over. He is crying at the foot of the willow tree. Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. "Mother, shall I lend him my umbrella? "Here, you can take this umbrella. Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. Don't worry about me, I'll go under My mother's big umbrella." Pichi, pichi, chappu, chappu, ran, ran, ran. (Okayama City, Niiike) An example of a composed song used to accompany ball bouncing. Pichi, pichi chappu chappu, ra ra ran - an onomatopoetic description of rain falling. 3. ICHI GETORA A- I,\ -r? 0 b [ I G y I?0 6 v 1 ~i o ge - +o shi t Lfod 11 I f IHII ryo mode or folk pentat+onic Ichi getora a ra to geto shi Shira hokkekyo no kyupii sa hoi na

Page  85 ESTELLE TITIEV (Niiike) Here there is a play on sound: in reversing the syllables of getora it becomes ratoge. The last syllable shi of the first line becomes the first syllable of the first word in the second line. For a more complete form of this pattern see Embree, (1943) p. 72, Song 91. 4. ICHIRIKI 5HA 85 0 A r ' I J IL I I I )' 1 I I- chi - r; - ki JhoA. no sh., no sho. no sho.. 0, m,,,,,-_I rman lcodo. I I D I I I, " 11 5hi - ra hoK-ke.- kyo no Kyu - pi - - chan, ho - - -na. O $ I $~~~~~~~~~~~~~Z JI J m.I= z ryo mode or Ichiriki sha, no sha, no sha, no sha Shira hokkekyo no Kyiipii-chan, hoina. -olk peniatonic One ricksha, no sha, no sha, no sha An unpretending kewpii-chan, hoina! (Okayama City, Sanbanson, Niiike) Game: In Niiike, the child at the head of the line begins bouncing until hoina, at which point the ball is bounced under the skirt and passed on to the person next in line who carries on with the second verse ni riki sha, etc. The song goes on only to five - go riki sha. In Okayama City, the only difference is that the children do not form a line. I am indebted to Professor J. K. Yamagiwa for the translation of this song. 5. KYUPI-CHAN n I A I 1i - -A I....1 I LaJ I A - - -I '1 II I AL J J%.1' | | I Fh - I I,AI I ''l I ' r' I, ' ll I I I,,~;[ — \ I 7 - v - -;3,. ^ I V Q 'T ",- I, -J _/ -[t, I ", i# r. - kyU-pii"- chLon) ko.-wai-i wo ne DIon-gu-ri o - me-me de ka-wa-'i wo. nc Ky-u-pi-chan.

Page  86 86 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Kyupii-chan, kawaii wa ne Donguri omeme-de kawaii wa ne Kyupii- chan. Kewpii-chan, you're cute aren't you? Your acorn (round) eyes are cute aren' t they? Kewpii-chan. (Niiike, Okayama City) Omeme is a child's term for eyes. 6. KINJB NO OMOCHI /h l.-.^ y J ^ ^^ ^ ^ PI. Ji Jim..... Uo1 A- ' ' ' S I- I I - T I - T * I 7 I I I I4 f *r I Ki- n - j no o-mo-chi Ya-ra- kx-i o-mo-chi A-shi do. cho - - +o pe-shan- ko. Kinjo no omochi My neighbor' s mochie Yarakai* omochi Is soft mochi. Ashi da** choito peshanko. Flatten it a little with your foot. * e In standard Japanese, yawarakai. Rice cake. In standard Japanese, ashi de. 70 (Okayama City) Game: At ashi da the child steps on the ball with her foot. At peshanko she catches the ball at the back of her skirt. 7. MARI-CHAN.- A -- -I f.i b G IF AV r G 1 I Ma- ri - chal? +a.- ra. - c cho Pai no poi no pai accel. slower (coda. I L l g & t b g I 6 6 6 I J ~ 6 I I l r r T J Y ryo mode

Page  87 ESTELLE TITIEV 8 87 Mari-chaii tara gitchofi choii Pai no pai no pai Paii pani goto paii paii nashi Yo iwafi uchi y6 iwan-. Wan tsu surn If you talk of Mari-chan, gitchon chon Pai no pai no pai If it' s talk about pan pan There is no pan pan I can't say, I can't say it well. One- Two- Three. (Okayama City) I was told that this is really an adult song taken over by the children. Songs of this order were sung by strolling singers who often slipped in lines containing satiric comments on political or social events. The words parody the Osaka dialect. There is a nice play on sound in the use of wan (for one) in the last line and the iwani that precedes it. Professor Yamagiwa was kind enough to translate this song. S. TEN) TEN) TEN MARI A Ak k Te- _ +en 4+e n- m Mo.r r +e. 90.nsa. roI ) )~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 Iea- ki - e- a ko - ma - ri e. ya. g- ne ko - e - A' J U, ya mode yo mode. i 3 I1 cadence~

Page  88 88 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE I Ten, ten, ten mari ten temari Ten, ten, temari no te ga sorete Doko kara doko made tondetta Kakine o koete yane koete Omote no tori e tondetta, tofidetta. Bounce, bounce, bounce ball bounce. The hand misses the ball Over the fence, over the roof it bounces Over the wide road it bounces. II Omote no gyoretsu nanjaina Kishu no tono-sama okuni iri Kinmon saki bako tomozoroi Okago no soba ni wa higeyakko Keyari o furi furi yakkorasa no yakkorasa. What is that parade in the wide road? It is the feudal lord of Kishu coming back home. Following the line of the parade in a sedan chair Near by a bearded footman waving a spear, turning from side to side. III Ten, ten, ten mari wa ten korori Hazunde okago no yane no ue Moshi, moshi Kishu no otono-sama Anata no okuni no mikan yama Watashi ni misasete kudasaina, kudasaina. The ball falls and jumps. The sedan chair is on the roof. Hello, hello, otono-sama of Kishu. Please let me see the mountain of oranges from your country. (Okayama City, Sanbanson) Teni, ten is the onomatopoetic description of the bouncing of the ball. The last word of each verse is repeated with the accent falling on a different syllable - toidetta, toidetta.

Page  89 ESTELLE TITIEV 89 qA. TSUKI NO MIYAKO (oi..-y.m,,. City.,nd NtHi}X) f A A Ai I,! I. I. t. kI.....1!IR -L l' II I 3 I' IS /.!! II I IT6u- ki no mi-y -k o - ymo. N. - k-. - ho -s - i ka a - eJ _, 3J I - ---- -- I ~ /,.3 J J3I- r! 3 -sho - khL ka. Ho.- +e - na - +e- na h - +e ho - +e) ka - +e - n< Ko-re -d l ko-n- ya no o- lk-xu 30- s5 - - - n- do.. 9B. (Sfshbov*oh ) I'i J 1,I J J '- Js -a3 1. M., fi i~f I II I.L' I M ' |J! * _}J I" j,>Jb g I 1 J"':J I.,J -_JI J'-,j,..., ($*.._, o ) I -— w7 - V Tsuki no miyako no osama wa Nani ga hoshii ka atete gorani Aburage ka Akai gohani no daiy6shoku ka Guess what the king of the capital city of the moon wants. Is it fried bean cake or boiled red bean rice for substitute food?

Page  90 90 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Hatena, hatena, hate, hate, hatena Korede konya no okazu ga suida. I wonder, I wonder, wonder, wonder, I wonder. Now we've found out what this evening' s okazu* is. okazu is that part of the meal exclusive of rice and tea. It is sometimes translated as side dish. (Okayama City, Niiike, Saibaiison.) 10. YUKI GA CHIRA CHIRA i!N Tdl. E 'ri ill Ka- ra - ka s. ka - +Ca - +e n i ya - yc da.- - +e p e O......! 0 J 'Ill i I ~ I I Yuki ga chira chira muko kara Karakasa katate ni yaya daite Boya nakuna to nadametemo Shinda kasan kaerya senu. Gakko e ittara sensei ga Oya no nai mono te o ageyo Rokuyuiyomei no sono naka de Boya ga hitori te o ageta. Oya ga nai to te baka ni suna Oya wa orimasu gokuraku e Shiroi bebe kite jojo haite Koishi o makura ni nete imasu. The snow is falling There comes a woman holding an umbrella and carrying a baby in her arms. Even though we comfort the baby so that it shouldn't cry His dead mother will never return. When he went to school the teacher said, "Those who have no parent, raise your hand. " And out of sixty-four he was the only One who raised his hand. Don't laugh at him for not having a parent. His mother is in Paradise wearing a white dress and zori. She is lying there on a pillow of small stones. (Okayama City) Chira chira, onomatopoeia for falling snow. Alliteration: muko kara karakasa katate ni Yaya, bebe, jojo - child's terms for baby, kimono and zori.

Page  91 ESTELLE TITIEV 11. MINASHIGO 91 An f A- - i ak - no Se- nSC,- 9 0.. I A A A F % 1N 1 -- 0- -yo. +on. e a ~ - ge — ro,5a-m - yo. - ~- yo mi-n'r no so - no no. - ko. de. Mri+ -cha. n h - +o - r i a. te o o-sge 4-o.. Aru lii gakk6 no seiisei ga Oya no nai mono te o agero Sambyaku-yo-nin no sono naka de Mitchan hitori ga te o ageta Oya no nai mono baka ni suna Oya wa orimasu Gokuraku e Shiroi bebe kite jojo haite Ishi no makura de nete imasu (Kurashiki) The text of this song is very similar to that of the preceeding one. Here the first verse is omitted. With the exception of the substitution of Sambyaku-yo-nin (304) for Rokuyyome (64) the words are virtually the same and follow a 7-5 syllable arrangement. The tune, however, is quite different.

Page  92 92 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE COUNTING SONGS - KAZOE UTA 12. HITOTSU MIKAN 0 TABEMASHITA J = 116 Repea+ for A ^ 1, I, - A IF!n. A~___,___k. ~. lines. /~,L J. 1 1 I/'! / ' /. ' ~ ~ / * Hi+o - tsu mi - ka - n o +a - be - ma - shi-+oIA J- J'IJi J 11 I I,1.. To de +o - - + _ ho - +o - ke - sa- rn. 9 --- — Hitotsu mikan o tabemashita Futatsu mikan o tabemashita Mittsu mikan o tabemashita Yottsu yonaka no haraita ni Itsutsu itsumo no oisha-sama Muttsu mukai no kangofu-san Nanatsu naitemo naoranai Yattsu yakiba e tsurete iki Kokonotsu kono ko o yakimashita To de toto hotoke-sama. (A child) ate one orange. ate two oranges. ate three oranges. On four he got a stomach ache at night. On five he called the doctor. On six he called the nurse across the way. On seven he will not be cured even if he cries. On eight he was taken to the crematory. On nine that child was burnt. On ten he became a Buddha at last. (Sanbanson) This song follows a 7-5 syllable pattern. Regular ball bouncing continues until the end of the phrase when the leg goes over the ball.

Page  93 ESTELLE TITIEV 13. ICHI MONME NO ISSUKE-SAN 93 J =108 n 2 ~ ~ _ _ ______. _I. ~.,.. '!~^ n; _ '1 A I - - chi moR-me no Is - -suke-son i no ji g ki - ra- i de cI- chi -man is- see ip - pyak- ko - ku i - 4o, i+- +o i- +o o. - ne 0- ku- ro. ni o - 5a - me - +e ni mon -me ni wQ - +a- 5hi - +o. A_ _-A _ A Ji in z: m II 7Z ri+au plagal wi+hou+ variables I I cadence, 1. Ichi monme no Issuke-san i no ji ga kirai de Ichiman issen ippyakkoku itto, itto, itto mame Okura ni osamete ni moime ni watashita. 2. Ni monrme no Nisuke-san ni no ji ga kirai de Niman nisen nihyakkoku nito, nito, nito mame Okura ni osamete san monme ni watashita. 3. San monme no Safisuke-san san no ji ga kirai de Sanman sanzen saibyakkoku saito, santo, santo mame Okura ni osamete yon monrme ni watashita. Mr. Issuke weighing one monpael dislikes the character 1 He stored 10, 000, 1,000, 100 koku2, one to3, ona to, one to of beans in his storehouse and handed over two monme to — Mr. Nisuke weighing two monme dislikes the character 2 He stored 20,000, 2,000, 200 koku, 2 to, 2 to, 2 to of beans in his storehouse and handed over three monme to -- Mr. Sansuke... 1Monme = 2 Koku = 3To 0. 1325 oz. 4.96 bushels 3.97 gallons

Page  94 94 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 4. Yon moiime no Yonsuke-san yon no ji ga kirai de Yonman yonsen yonhyakkoku yonto, yonto, yofto mame Okura ni osamete go monme ni watashita. 5. Go moinme no Gonsuke-sani go no ji ga kirai de Goman gosen gohyaku koku goto, goto, goto mame Okura ni osamete roku monme ni watashita. 6. Roku monme no Rokusuke-san ro no ji ga kirai de Rokuman rokusen roppyakkoku rokuto, rokuto, rokuto mame Okura ni osamete nana monme ni watashita. 7. Nana monme no Nanasuke-san na no ji kirai de Nanamaii nanasen nanakyakkoku nanato, nanato, nanato mame Okura ni osamete hachi monime ni watashita. 8. Hachi monme no Hachisuke-san hachi no ji ga kirai de Hachi man hassen happyakkoku, hatto, hatto, hatto mame Okura ni osamete kyfi monme ni watashita. 9. Kyu monme no Kyusuke-san kyu no ji ga kirai de Kyuman kyusen kyuhyakkoku, kyuto, kyuto, kyuito mame Okura ni osamete jyu monme ni watashita. 10. Jyii monme no Jyusuke-san jyui no ji ga kirai de Jyuman jyussen jyuhyaku koku jutto, jutto, jutto marme Okura ni osamete ichi monme ni watashita. Mr. Yonsuke... Mr. Gonsuke... Mr. Rokusuke... Mr. Nanasuke... Mr. Hachisuke.. Mr. Kyusuke... Mr. Jyusuke...

Page  95 ESTELLE TITIEV 95 Game: The manner of bouncing the ball is changed with each verse. 1st verse: the leg goes over the ball until itto when the leg is kept off the ground, still going over the ball which is caught at the back of the skirt at the end of the verse. 2nd verse: the leg goes back and forth over the ball. 3rd verse: the legs alternate over the ball. 4th verse: the legs go over the ball the other way. 5th verse: bounce the ball under the skirt and turn. 6th verse: bounce with right foot on the ball. 7th verse: bounce with left foot on the ball. 8th verse: bounce alternating feet on the ball. 9th verse: leap over the ball. 10th verse: leap back and forth over the ball. In Kurashiki on the last verse the leg is turned over the ball and the child turns completely around before catching the ball. In Sanbanson they use words whose first syllable corresponds with the number of the line: ichi - imo ni - ninjin san - sakana etc. Ichimonme no Ichisuke-sani imo kai ni hashitta Mr. Ichisuke weighing 1 monme ran to buy sweet potatoes. ninjii kai ni hashitta... carrot sakana kai ni hashitta... fish yokani kai ni hashitta... bean cake jelly gofibo kai ni hashitta... burdock rosoku kai ni hashitta... candle hichirin kai ni hashitta.. brazier hamonika kai ni hashitta... harmonica kusuri kai ni hashitta... medi cine tofiu kai ni hashitta... bean cake See Warabe Uta, page 53 for another version of this song.

Page  96 96 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 14. ISE J =o104 A I - 5) I - se I - s.. A A - W, - r i f v NT-gqa-ta NT- go -+ot I-se) NT-g - +o. SJ'^ J I 'J,, 5a-ka-i S5a-ka -i A I-se) NT-ga-t+o) 5a- k- i. A A " WI "I _ " -_ P ~ __ _' -W 5 Shko-u, 5hi-ko-ku, I- se) NT-ga-toaSo- ka-.i, Shi-ko- Wu. A A I - F - F P - - I W G& - sh ) G& -,sh-iG I-se) NT-ga-t5) Soa-k-i)5h;ko-ku G' - shu. A A -r ", P t " if f S f - j w w P Mu.sa-shi) Mu-sa-shi,) I-se) NT-ga-a) 5a-kQ-i)-5nko-iuG6-hu) Mu-5a - shi. - v - v p O F v pp v' vw a - Na-go-yIa Na- go-ya, I -.e) N T- + a) Sa-kal- i ShiI-kL, -ohLMu5-s-hi) Na-go - ya. Na-jo-ya I Na-go-ya, I — se) NT-ga-+oS 5d- 5hiko-ktA, ~W -Sh-uWMu-__-sh'. Na — -ya. - - w - - - - V P w a F F - p a p p W j L 3 -.j Yo-ha.-a Yc-ha.-h I- se, NT-gof-fd) 5a- Ka-ihilo-ku) r-shuM1u-Sa-Sh() Nda-9o-y, Ya-ha - to+. A A A Kyu-shu) Kyi- -shU, I- se) NT-a -+o, S.a-ka-i)Shiko-ku, G;-shUiMu-sQ-shi, No-go-ya,Ya-ho-ta, Kyiu-s hT. _T- ky) ~ T - o; I-e NT-a-+e 5.-. '. J-35hiko-k)Go~-.hLM-SQ.ki..M~-go.-y 3- -haTo- ky- To ^ kyo6 I-se, NT-a-+af> 5a-Ka-;1Shiko-kuC,Gc-5-,Mu-sa-,shilNa-go-ya, Yc-Ka-+a, KyuGshT) To -kyo r

Page  97 ESTELLE TITIEV 97 Ise, Ise, Ise. Nigata, Nigata, Ise, Nigata. Sakai, Sakai, Ise, Nigata, Sakai. Shikoku, Shikoku, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku. Goshu, Goshu, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, G6shu. Musashi, Musashi, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, Goshu, Musashi. Nagoya, Nagoya, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, Goshu, Musashi, Nagoya. Yahata*, Yahata, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, Goshu, Musashi, Nagoya, Yahata. Kyushu, Kyushu, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, Goshu, Musashi, Nagoya, Yahata, Kyushu. Tokyo, Tokyo, Ise, Nigata, Sakai, Shikoku, G6shu, Musashi, Nagoya, Yahata, Kyushu, Tokyo. In Okayama City, the word Ise is sung twice, in Imamura it is sung three times. The tune is slightly changed in Imamura, by rising and falling in different places, but at no time is a new note introduced. This song is simply a geographical listing arranged so that the first syllable of the place name corresponds to the beginning syllable of the number of the line: Ise = ichi Nigata = ni Sakai = san It ends appropriately with Tokyo = to. * For Yawata. 15. KASAN NO OTSUKAI n A f A f I n ^ S I x ^I, l~ I 1 I 1 1 ^ -L I I I 1J '! I' n i- I KS - - san no o - +su-Ka -; - re-shi i - na v II R PK ' I! 17 [z I- - t+- +o-me de i - ku no wa i - mo-yQ - - san. 1 I I s I b. _ I I A- r- +o - +o so. - yon-o. - roa u+ - a.o-Ko - r so.. -I I - i J v W ryo mode

Page  98 98 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Kasan no otsukai ureshiina Itto-me de iku no wa imoya-san. Imo o ikkanme kudasaina Arigato sayonara suttakorasa. I am glad to go on an errand for Mother. First I am going to the sweet potato shop. Please give me one kan of sweet potato. Thank you, good-bye, I'm hurrying back. (repeat first and last line of first verse in all stanzas) Ni-to-me de iku no wa nikuya-sani. Niku o nihyakume kudasaina. Santo-me de iku no wa sakanaya-san. Sakana sanbiki kudasaina. Shito-me de iku no wa yoshokuya. Yoshoku yonmai kudasaina. Goto-me de iku no wa gofukuya-san. Gofuku gomai kudasaina Rokuto-me de iku no wa rosokuya. Rosoku roppon kudasaina. Hichito-me de iku no wa himoya-san. Himo o hichihon kudasaina. Hatto-me de iku no wa hanaya-san. Hana o hachihon kudasaina. Kyuto-me de iku no wa kuriya-sai. Kuri o kokonotsu kudasaina. Second, I am going to the butcher shop. Please give me 200 momme of meat. Third I am going to the fish market. Please give me three fish. Fourth I am going to the restaurant. Please give me four plates of Western style food. Fifth I am going to the dry goods shop. Please give me five pieces of cloth. Sixth I am going to the candle shop. Please give me six candles. Seventh I am going to the string shop. Please give me seven pieces of string. Eighth I am going to the flower shop. Please give me 6ight flowers. Ninth I am going to the chestnut shop. Please give me nine chestnuts. (Kurashiki, Niiike) At Niiike only the first verse was sung while at Kurashiki the song went on through nine.

Page  99 ESTELLE TITIEV 16. NANA YA KO TO 99 J 108 )O ft~h. A A A:T i, ^ pI I I I I i I Na-n ya ko to Na - na ya Ko ni Noa-na. ya ko san dai sho. O* *.Z ^ _ A A It I Il7 I I I~ I1 1 ~ 11 l W I, I I1 171 P! i1 *, L N ', & lk 1 IN I I II 1 I t I T i I I, - - '1 I 1 IP -- I; ir,,,;,l JF|J II ' ' U- -me ni u- -- su +o Mat- +a-k e su- i-se-n n A-sa-hl wh. A ---—.r 1- AT__ ka - ga - ya. ku san dai so. 0-; - -.ne +o O -; - b ne ni tz^P 1 1 1~ I/{ ^ I I n ^ JI ^I~ ' II 1 - ^I I 1T1% I T / pL ~ [ AL z / A:, 1),: J' I i!..!~^ I _, I ~ -I -ba- ne San da- I 6ho. 0 no o a - ri Hi -f mr n su +So s&c 1+-cho ke-ri ni - cho ke- ri san dc- i sho5. Be+-4c +o Mi - ki +o OA / -,~.i-] ~,'', _ r. -,, _,-,~ ya0i ka- rob ko - ron-de s+ea n do-; +e.0 - nu- n e Hi Tv M m +sU TO ^ ^ W- I L A -.. d - I II m IZ ri+su plagal wi4hou+ vcriables I - 7 I c I I I cad ence. Nana ya ko to Nana ya ko ni Nana ya ko san dai sho. Ume ni uguisu to Mattakel suisen ni Asahi wa kagayaku san dai sho. Oibane to Oibane ni Oibane san dai sho. Seven, eight, nine, ten. Seven, eight, nine, two Seven, eight, nine, three, dai sho. Plum tree and nightingale. Mushrooms and daffodils The sun is shining as we play at battledore and shuttlecock. Oi bane to Oi bane ni Oi bane san dai sho.

Page  100 100 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Ono o sari Hi fu mi tsu to se Itcho keri nicho keri san dai sho. 2 Bette to Miki to yama kara koronde Ote ba utte Osune utte Hi fu mi tsu to se. Ono o sari One, two, three, tsu to se Kicking once, kicking twice san dai sho Betty and Miki tumbled down the hill and hurt their shins, One, two, three, tsu to se. 1Mattake - probably for matsutake. 2In former times Taro to Jiro was sung. (Okayama City, Sanbanson, Imamura). Game: Jan ken pofn is played to determine the order in which the girls take their turns. To set the tempo, san shi (3, 4) is said before starting. When the bouncer misses, the next child takes her turn and when the turn comes back to the first player, she continues from the point at which she left off. The ball is bounced with the palm of the hand, the back of the hand, with the sole of the foot, holding the skirt out and bouncing the ball through, crouching and turning around. At san dai sho the ball is bounced under the skirt and caught at the back. 17. KINKAN HITOTSU J = 120 click hi =. Pj^u.,, O Kin - kan hi+o - +SL q. i -chi- r -n na - ri Kinkan hitotsu ga ichirin nari Kinkan futatsu ga nirifi nari Kinkan mittsu ga sanrini nari Kinkan yottsu ga yonrin nari Kinkan itsutsu ga gorin nari Kinkan muttsu ga rokurin nari Kinkan nanatsu ga nanarin nari Kinkan yattsu ga hachirin nari Kinkan kokonotsu ga kyurifi nari Kinkan to ga jurin nari One kumquat costs one rin. Two kumquats cost two rin. etc. (Sanbansoi)

Page  101 ESTELLE TITIEV 101 Game: The children stand in a circle using two bean bags. At the end of the first line they click their tongues once, at the end of the second line, twice, etc. COUNTING OUT GAME 18. ZUI, ZUI) ZUKKOROBASHI,J =JOQ 0 J1 / / r -_ 7 _ _ ^ _" _ ' ' " ' " ' Zu - ik u - i zk-ko -ro - b -shi Go - m- mi- SD o i. Cho+su - bo ni, ' J, I ^ I / / ' I I / J. I.!.'. I o wa- re - +e Top - - pin shan. Nu - I(e - -+o - ra do- a do - ko 4 X t I,r; i b I b J > Pl b > NA II A sho. To - wo- rao no ne. - - mi m. Ko - me ku- +e. chu! O -J ^ -. chJ a O -n yo 0 - k&-ojon g9 yo - n - de - mo L- - kk - ko na -ski yo j -ar - -- ~4" Zui, zui, zukkorobashi Goma miso zui. Chatsubo ni owarete Toppin shan. Nuketara don doko sho. Tawara no nezumi ga Kome kutte chu! chu! chu! chu! Otosan ga yoidemo, Okasan ga yondemo, Ikikko nashi yo. Zui, zui, zukkorobashi Sesame paste, zui! Chased by a tea pot! Toppinshan! If it escapes, dondokosho! The rat in the rice bag ate the rice Chu! chu! chu! chu! Even though your father calls, Even though your mother calls, Promise not to leave. (Translated by Mrs. J. K. Yamagiwa).

Page  102 102 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Okayama City, Kurashiki) Game: Children sit holding their fists turned up, leaving a small hole at the top. As the song progresses, one child taps each hole with his second finger. At the end of the song the last one tapped must put that hand behind his back. The game continues until only one person is left holding up his fist. BEAN BAG - OTE DAMA 19. OSARA I4, 1 )- >| | nl, I I 1 I 1 f P 1 & j I S 1. ' ' I J: r. J' r,,t 'I j I 0 - s - o. - hi - - o - +su o - sa - ra. - mi- n - no. o -go-mne-na-sa- -1 o-ko. o - 5S - rao. 0 - su - U - ko o -ro-shi+e o - so ra. - r. - h-so-rnmi o - ro - shie. o - so - ro. 0 hi - dco - ri 5s - 5 - o-wa- ka - re ao - sa - ro.a I~s~~''a... u-''. 1 $; r j 22~S b fi G; ' J"P-I, IY I 0o - -hi m.- chon-+ r - o - a pu. 0 - ch- -ki - i o r - - -san ' I" I I" I T- * iI! /! I I/ ^ r^ ri^ r r ^1^^ ^1^^ ^ fFir rJ on - b - san chon-Ki -ri 0 - sa r. - sa - ro shi;-ro cho- - o - - o sa ra. O I"' w_,__..Il___'.., I III Jm V rit-su ploqal without+ variables U: III catd e nce

Page  103 ESTELLE TITIEV 103 The words, in so far as they are translatable, bags: Osara ohitotsu osara. Ominna ogomefinasai toka osara. Otenose oroshite osara. Ohakobi oroshite osara. Osuzuko oroshite osara. Ohasami oroshite osara Ohidari sasawakare osara. Ottepushi mame chonkiri osara Onbasaf, onbasan chonkiri osara. Osuiro shiro chonkiri osara. involve directions for playing with the bean Put it in the palm of the other hand. Put it on the back of the other hand. Use the left hand. Place the bag between the fingers. Put the bag on the back of the hand, Toss the bag into the air and catch it with the palm of the hand held down. (Kurashiki, Okayama City) Game: The players are seated as they use two to five bean bags filled with an, in a manner similar to jacks. The chief bag is called the oya dama. The bags are thrown in various ways, - under the hand, over the back of the hand, picked up in a scissor-like motion between the fingers, with two fingers outstretched or sometimes even jiggled in the air and caught with a clutching motion. Often the fourth and fifth fingers are crooked together so as not to get in the way. A bridge is sometimes formed by the left hand by putting the thumb and second finger down, thereby forming an arch through which the bean bag can be thrust. 20. ONDORI ICHI WA n Jr A V t - m - I -PA-I-I k I I I - I -. I.- -- I J I I1 j' jI 'lI M I I P N I On- -do - r' i- -chi w 0. i - ch mon - me, o - ko -+e+n 0ily,, j',,,',, ',,, I jIJ JI -| J |7 On - do - ri ni _ wo __g n' mon-me) +o - ko - -e, +o - ko - -e etc. w -i I --- —I r LwJ P. J _ m

Page  104 104 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Ondori ichi wa ga ichi monme, tokoten One cock weighs one monme, tokoten. Ondori ni wa ga ni monme, tokoten, tokoten Two cocks weigh two monme, tokoten, Ondori san ba ga san monme, tokoten, tokoten. tokoten, tokoten Etc. Ondori yon wa ga yon monme, (4 times tokoten) Ondori go wa ga go monme, (5 times tokoten) Ondori roppa ga roku monme, (6 times tokoten) Ondori hichi* wa ga hichi monme, (7 times tokoten) Ondori hachi wa ga hachi monme, (8 times tokoten) Ondori kyu wa ga kyu monme, (9 times tokotein) Ondori jippa ga ju monme, (10 times tokoten) For shichi (Okayama City, Sanbanson) Game: One bean bag is used in this game. It is thrown up into the air against the back of the hand. At tokoten the bag is struck with the palm of the hand. Very few players go through to the end of this game without missing. At Sanbanson the children sing tokoton instead of tokoten. 21. SAIRYO-5AN - J IJ J IJ I I > > IIJ'J'J I 5ai - ryo - -a.s5 wo. k i - rki u - ka - shi. Ch; - ku ma no ka - w wa. i d-M/ / l i!I I i I/dl na -mi a - ro - shi. Ha -ru -ko. ni ki -ko - yu- ru o- no -no - +o wo. na -+a kn ~^ I K 1u, it - ro- - )ku, ki-rcL, kie-ro, ki-r. it, I J JI I IL r. fJ1 =1 ko. -+O. no fe ni KI - me - i 1u) r-me-ku) ki-ro- j-r: ki-rc. Om J ritsu plIo a withou+ variablts

Page  105 ESTELLE TITIEV 105 Sairyo-san wa kiri fukashi. Chikuma no kawa wa nami arashi. Haruka ni kikoyuru monooto wa. Sakamaku mizu ka tsuwamono ka. Noboru asahi no hata no te ni Kirameku,kirameku, kira,kira,kira. Mount Sairyo is covered with mist. The waves in the Chikuma River are rough. From far off is it the sound of rough water or a sound made by warriors? The flags glitter in the rays of the rising sun. (Okayama City, Kurashiki) This song refers to the famous battle of Kawanakajima which took place in medieval times. The lines fall in a pattern of 7 - 5 syllables. As sung in Kurashiki: Saijosan wa kiri fukashi. Chikuwa ni kamaboko horenso Haruka ni kikoeru monooto wa. Sakamaku nami ka tsuwamono ka. Noboru asahi no hata no te ni Kirameku hoshi ka hi - chon. The word substitutions in the second line of the version sung in Kurashiki are all food terms: Chikuma no kawa wa nami arashi becomes Chikuwa ni kamaboko horenso Fish sausage, fish sausage, spinach. At Kurashiki this is a ball bouncing game while at Okayama City, it is a bean bag game.

Page  106 106 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE TUG OF WAR - HIPPARIKKO 22. HANA ICHI MONME h61~~~~ &j J ^ jr lJ'*11f^A.J T if 16 'V Koa -- - e u - r..shi - i ha - no. i - ch i m - n - me Katte ureshii hana ichi monme Makete kuyashii hana ichi monme Kimura-san to matomete hana ichi monme Yamada-san to matomete hana ichi monme We are happy to have won, We regret having lost. We have decided on Kimura-san. We have decided on Yamada-san. In Kurashiki lines 3 and 4 are sung: Furusato tazuneta hana ichi moiime then A-san ga toritai B-san ga toritai Visiting my native land We would like to take in A-san. We would like to take in B-san. (Okayama City, Niiike, Kurashiki, Sanbanson) Game: Before starting the song the children decide on two contestants, then they form two lines facing each other. The first line, holding hands, moves toward the other - step, hop and back to the first position, all singing, Katte ureshii hana ichi monme. The second line does the same on Makete kuyashii hana ichi monme. The first line then calls out the name of one of the contestants, e.g., Kimura-sani to matomete. The second line calls out the name of the other one. When the song is finished, the two contestants leave the lines and engage in a tug-of-war, placing their feet against each other and pulling. The loser goes to the winner's side. At Sanbanson instead of having a tug-of-war, the children play Jan-ken-pon.

Page  107 ESTELLE TITIEV PUSHING GAMES 23. OSHIKURA MANJU 107 a0 - A,. AA & lk,I codao. LJ I P' 1 ' 11 i r I I I -- 1 I I I I' la S i,. l J j I J I I J' fJ' _ k! / I I 1J T6 de i I _ Id I IF J _, i r V I A_ 0 - shi - ku - ra. man -j 0 - so - re - +e na - ku-no. GXY A s9y"9y".. Oshikura manju Osarete nakuna. Gyu, gyu, gyu. (Kurashiki) Game: The children sit in a row places at the end of the row. Push hard cake. Don't cry if you are pressed. and push as they sing. Those pushed out of the line take their 24. 5ENZO YA MANZO } - I,. I I ~. II I I i 1 I -I I s,,, J J J! J I IJ J J ' IJ J,. J, 5ein - z ya ma- n - x, O- fu- ne wo. git-ch; - ro - ko Gi -chi),i - chi ko -ge - ba) Dai - ko - k.L E - bi -su ko 1 J - I' - - Irj j | - - y Ko - cho. fiu - Ku no ka - -mi yo AI A ye vaee Senzo ya maiizo Ofune wa gitchirako Gichi, gichi kogeba Daikoku ka Ebisu ka Kocha fuku no kami yo. (Niiike) One thousand ships or ten thousand The ships go gitchirako. If we bow gichi, gichi, Whether it is Daikoku or Ebisu This is the god of fortune.

Page  108 108 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Game: An old game song remembered by older people in Niiike. It used to be played by two people sitting on tatami, pulling each other back and forth until one pushed the other over. A version of this song is given by L. Hearn in A Japanese Miscellany, p. 173. HOPPING GAME 25. YU BIN-SAN J =111 'itSA r - I I t I -J J i - r! '- '! - rM Yu - bi - s - Ofi Ha - yo h - sh - re M___ ka re #2 312 Sprig, 9StII oc^v~j j.~~D,- jnr kyu!.1 ^. 1 ko - re ju - - ni- ji da Do - nkyu Yubin-san Hayo hashire Mo kare kore juiniji da Don kyu! Postman Run quickly. It is already almost 12 o'clock. Don kyui! (Okayama City) Game: A large circle is drawn on the floor or ground with chalk and within it five smaller circles are made along the rim in addition to one in the center. The children hop from circle to circle as they sing. The child in the center circle tries to hop into one of the outer circles by the end of the song. If she succeeds, the ousted child goes into the center circle. Don ky is the sound made by a big gong or cannon at 12 o'clock.

Page  109 ESTELLE TITIEV ELASTIC ROPE GAME - GOMU TOBI 26. MURA NO KAJIYA 109 ) =76 Shi-bo - sh m suchs hi mo a - bi ki I r r T 1 J L S 1 } dh J i ' J i To - b - chi - ru hi - ba - na yo ha- -shi - ru yu- da - moa Fa - i - go no ka -z sa - e i -ki o mo +su- g - g z. Shi -go - +o ni se - da-su mnu - ra no ka - ji - ya. r —. --- —-----— ~ &. J Shibashi mo yasumazu tsuchi utsu hibiki Tobichiru hibana yo hashiru yudama Fuigo no kaze sae iki o mo tsugazu Shigoto ni sei dasu mura no kajiya. The sound of the hammer goes on without stopping. The sparking fire, the spurting hot water. The wind in the bellows does not rest. The village blacksmith works very hard. (Okayama City, Niiike) Game: Elastic ropes (gomu tobi) are used for this game. Two girls hold two lines of rope which are not raised but merely moved in waves over the ground. The player must step over the first line, then over the second and cross back without stepping on the rope. Here is an example of a composed song being used to accompany a game.

Page  110 110 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 27. HAR1J NO OGAWA A I I leI IT H- Ao. - o y t - o -W.sh sko. - -r+s - -rs hk -A y o S o. ~ ~. - n o S u. - m i r a + s. - -ay on - kn n o. Mo -L r.. + I~~~~~ t~~~~ iA Haru no ogawa wa sara sara ikuyo Kishi no sumire ya reiige no hana ni Sugata yasashiku iro utsukushiku Sakeyo sakeyo to sasayaki nagara. In spring the brook murmurs as it goes.Violets on the bank and lotus blossoms Their shapes are graceful, their colors beautif ul. "Bloom, bloom,"1 whispers the brook. (Sanbanison) Game: A composed song used to accompany a gm tobi game. The song is made up of eight groups of seven syllables each.

Page  111 ESTELLE TITIEV ROPE SKIPPING - NAWA TOBI i11 2.8. KUMA-SAN ) =1zo A KuA Ma SCLJ1 KuL r~ m - sa;r~ ma. C - - re mi A KU ~mc. sa;) Ku nao safl) +e ko LA, ' ni A A A IN ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I kL4-m S1fI I urr-sIt+, 0 - - Kuma-san, Kuma- sa-n, Kuma-san, Kuma- san, Kuma-san, Kuma- san, Kuma- san, Kuma- san, Kuma- san, Kuma- san, miaware migi.te o tsuite. te o koshi ni. te o atama. te o agete. Bear, Bear, Bear, Bear, Bear, bear, bear, bear, bear, bear, turn around! touch the ground! hands on hips! hands on head! hands up! (Okayama City) Game: The text is very similar to that of the American "Teddy-bear, teddy-bear, turn around". This is a simple rope skipping game with two children turning the rope as a third child jumps and follows the directions of the words.

Page  112 112 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 29A. OJOSAN J = 10 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ - jo - - so.a 0 - ha- i -ri. A - ri - ga - +t Ja -r. I e- n pon. - ' I JI 2 J I o -JO - sR 0 - ho- - ri. A - - T- - r o. - tP. A- I I.:I I!.]I I _'' A' o old J =132 (lestvRt!;rJ; D v,,,v i.. L Ma i- + C- r sas -o. +o - de- de- na - r; - n - a r _ eI [oJ6 A I I I If I II I: 0 - j3- -+sa, 0 - ho.-i -o-. - 'a5'. ~ v '. ',[ v — v., ~ Ojosan Ohairi Arigato Jan ken poi Maketara sassato odenasai. Sayonara. Come in, Miss. Thank you Jan-ken-pon. If you lose go out right away. Sayonara. (Kurashiki, Okayama City) Game: Two girls sing as they turn the rope. A jumper runs in and starts to jump. At ohairi another jumper runs in. The two jump together until Jan-ken —pon is sung at which time they play the game, still jumping, and the loser goes out. The winner continues to jump and the song and game go on without interruption with another jumper coming in at ohairi.

Page  113 ESTELLE TITIEV13 113 30. ONAM1I KONAMI sk hk IL k 0-na-rmi~ ko-no.ml Th-k a I ya mo. k<0 e - 4e. HiI fa4~ _ )1 I Onami, konami Takai yama koete. Hii, fii, mi, yo, mui* Sayonara. Large waves, small waves Cross over the high mountains. one, two, three,' four, five, Six, seven, eight, nine, ten. Sayonara. *In standard Japanese, itsu. (Kurashiki) Game: The player jumps over a rice straw rope as it is moved on the floor in large and small sweeps. At the words takai the children turn the rope.

Page  114 114 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 31. YUBIN-YA J 120 i 7 7 r v m T 7 f 7 i — > r I \ o w l YG; ~ bin - ya. ha; - to - $5U. -, '_ ^ LJ ' IJ J JN J |i [^ G [l> ' i I jZ mao- i o - chi-moa-shi --.. Hi- ro+-+e a- ge-ma -sho 'I' I j j I IJ i \,nfr I f I I- chi rnmai ni mli) s - n mrna yo - n mrno Go moa) ro - ku mai) +2 J J 1 ^ JU I.J IJ 'JI J2fJ?11 hi -chi ma;i Ha-ch; mai kyZu ma~) jI mai. So.- yo-n - a - ra. I m ri plaqal wihou arales I cadenc I ]E mI iZ' ri4-ls5 plccjcl wi+hou+ vcar-'ables -T.V ] I cadence Yubii-ya haitatsu-ya Postman, delivery man Hagaki ga ju mai ochimashita. Ten postcards have fallen down. Hirotte agemash5 Let's pick them up. Ichi mai, ni mai, san mai, yon mai, One card, two cards, three, four, Go mai, roku mai, hichi mai, * Five, six, seven, Hachi mai, kyu mai, ju mai. Eight, nine, ten, Sayonara. Sayonara. * In standard Japanese, shichi mai. (Kurashiki) Game: The player jumps until the counting begins, then the jumper bends down and touches the ground at each number, continuing to jump.

Page  115 ESTELLE TITIEV 32. YUBIN-SAN 115 Y - bin - soan o - ha - i - r; Mo ko- re - ko - re j - ni - ji i j I T - I _ I=' i m. I r I -san o -ch - ma-shi - +a0. Hi - rot - e ku -dC-so - i I chi mai) I ILA ni mai, 5a- n mai) yo - 7n mai) Gro moai ro - ku maoi, h -chi tmaoi Ha-chi mai) kyi mai, ju mai Hik-+ - ku - ri - k-ehi-p - a.!. Oi Ov J Iz m ]I IV ri+tu plaoal wi+hou+ vaoriables Yubinsai ohairi M6 karekore juniji da. Essaka mossaka dokkoisho. Yubinsan ochimashita. Hirotte kudasai Ichi mai, ni mai, san mai, yon mai, Go mai, roku mai, hichi mai, Hachi mai, kyu mai, ji mai Hikkurikaeshite appappa. (Imamura, Sanbanson )

Page  116 116 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Game: Two children turn the rope. At ohairi, the skipper comes in, skips, and when the counting begins, touches the ground as he continues to skip. In the village of Sanbanison at appappa the player jumps with crossed legs over the rope. LONDON BRIDGE TYPE 33A. TORYANSE J =-o n &.. [ d \I ^ / J Ij 'i T~ [ I I r I v To- -ryan c-. o - r - r - -- se. Ko - ko wa do - o no ho-so - mi-chi J ~ \^ il'[ v ' r r v r r 1 jo? Ten - ji - - rnra. no o - so - i - chi j. Cho+ - - +o - sh' -+e J;, J n IJ P' r Ir g 1 ~> Ii(1 I ku - d - sha- n - se Go - y no na - i mo - no +o- - ho.- sen - u., ^' Pt l ^,.,' '1 1,/I, l, 1 I t^ ma -ri - mat.i-A. u-Wki Wa yo- i yO - " '- i i " ) 1o - W- i I I Wr r PI v- v, r - i v 1A a v Ko- no ko no na-na-+su no o i - w ni - fu- do. o o sa me ni m- i - ri -n -a. Yu-ki wO yo i yo- ko- c - r wo. ko- wa-i Ko - wo i na -g - ra mo o - ry a-n - se, 4t - ryo.- -se. n. -, r O ~~~~~1 J.zoku- gak-LL plagal I a IC colcence.

Page  117 ESTELLE TITIEV 117 J PART II 116 1 1 i ^ ii A 1 ' I I ' T' I I 1' A 1 A R Il I Go- k' - -Iu, ji - go - u c'ni - +s - - sa m no o - ko - e. Ha - u no ha - no. ni 6u - va re. Go - (u - ra ku) ji - go - ku 1 J n V 'e-' " - - s- o - ma no ba-chi jo. Ha - r no ya - ma e +oR -de i - ko.. 33 B. (to kYLx.,. C.;r ) J I v r r O i IL 1 I J i _ r V r 0 V f j v v VYY v V ~ y Y V v r 0 J r 0 J r n t ^i J -T - I3 cadence

Page  118 118 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE To ryaise, toryanse. Koko wa doko no hosomichi ja? Tenjin-sama no hosomichi ja. Chotto t6shite kudashanse. Goyo no nai mono toshasenu. Kono ko no nanatsu no oiwai ni Ofuda o osame ni mairimasu. Yuki wa yoi yoi kaeri wa kowai Kowai nagara mo toryanse, toryanse. Gokuraku, jigoku, tentosama no okage Hasu no hana ni suware. Gokuraku, jigoku, tentosama no bachi ja Hari no yama e tonde ika. (ike) Pass through, pass through. Where does this path lead? This path leads to Tenjin-sama. Please let me go through. We can't allow you to pass through unless you have special business. I am going to offer an ofuda to celebrate this child's seventh birthday. Something dreadful may happen on your way back, But it's all right to go. Pass through, pass through. Paradise, Hell, under the protection of Tento-sama Sit on the lotus flower. Paradise, Hell, the punishment of Tentosama is that You go flying to the mountain of needles. (Sung in all five areas) Game: This is similar to London Bridge as played by American children. Two players form an arch, the others go under the arch in a line. At the end of the song, one child is caught as the tempo quickens and he changes places with one of the arch makers. In Kurashiki, the members of the line try to get through without being spanked. Those that are spanked are shaken back and forth as lines 3 and 4 of Part II are sung. Those that go through unscathed are swung gently by two children holding their hands to form a seat. Lines 1 and 2 are sung here. At Sanbafson one member of the arch decides to be peach, the other pear. When a player is caught, he is asked which one he prefers and then takes his place behind that one.

Page  119 ESTELLE TITIEV CIRCLE GAMES AND GUESSING GAMES 119 34A. ANTAGATA DOKO 5A Aw +o —oI a +a do -wo so.,? Hi 90 $oso. Hi go do -ko SC K-uMO,-M -tfo so. ma - mo -+o dlo k-ko so.? 5ern -bo. Sa. 5e rn- ba. yoa rn ohii w. -a nu -ki 3o i- - so.. So-rt a ryo-shi go. +e.p-po de 1-....J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2LO J LA+ -4-e so. ) fi+ - +e -so., ku+ +e SO.. 0 cho. no ko ~oai) Sol. Aiitagata, doko sa? Higo sa. Higo doko sa? Kumamoto sa. Kumamoto doko sa? Semba sa. Semba yama ni wa, tanuki ga, ite sa. Sore o ryoshi ga, teppo de utte sa, Nitte sa, kutte sa. 0 cha no ko sai, sai. Where are you from? Higo. Where in Higo? Kumamoto. Where in Kumamoto? Semba. In the Semba mountains there was a badger. That badger was shot with a gun by a hunter. He boiled it, ate it. It's simple. la child of tea, literally]. (Played in all five areas) Game: At Niiike the game is played in a circle, all holding hands. The children use a hop and slide motion first in one direction as the question is asked and then shift to the opposite direction for the answer.

Page  120 120 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 34B. (S& t,,, ^ O V, 4 O V In II 'J JIJ J J J An - k-c - -+0 do - ko 6.? Y - na-gi no shi - +O sa5. Sho- bai J, ^, A, n ^, I fi k, ^ I '~ J I = J l J /' J=! J '! / I' J ' J'7?,... --, ~3 3. O na - ni 5a? B; - - - me a - b - ra. Ne - d - wa i- ku-ro? 1 J I I I ' I / I /|, 1 s1 N f ^ /I '?l ' JZ 1^/' vLJ U, _,,, J 0,' ~,.-,,I 1, N., Jus - sen O rin, Ma - ke +o - ke su - ke +o - k o mo no ha-na. A At Sanbanson it is sung: Antagata doko sa? Where did you come from? Yanagi no shita sa. Under the willow tree. Shobai nani sa? What are you selling? Bifizume abura. Oil in bottles. Nedan wa ikura? How much are they? Jussen go rin. Ten sen five rin. Make toke suke toke momo no hana. Make it cheaper, put peach blossoms with it. 34C. J1-116 (X, ^.,;X^ IWAL I TVJ IJe I I 1 J 3 A — - Io -o - do - ko so.? i J J JJJ j j I IJ I J'L J -I It; ' \ ' I jr I1 j 11 ~-,-.~~~~~~~1 -i.f..a -.. m,., 1 - *-0 r 0 - 7 — Y f O L o-, L-3_

Page  121 ESTELLE TITIEV At Kurashiki the first line is sung Anta-toko doko sa? The children bounce a ball to this song. 34D. (O y^06 C rY) 121 Tl I 1 'l I I 1. _ I I' I I I l, I, 1,.z-. 3 ' rk _ '. ', *3 s n^, t,, - 3, k, I I 14 2 I - 1. I A. i I I I ^ JJJ^ I^JJ.J.TI^JJIJJJIJ ^J Ar i Il I I I i I i i I i I' I I4 I I II 6- +C - ) mi+ * +e sa ) yai - +e s,) na - no h. de chon! chon I At Okayama City instead of kutte-sa, ocha no ko sai sai, they sing... yaite-sa, nano ha de chon.... roasted it, with Chinese cabbage. This song appears in Warabe Uta, p. 45, in a slightly different version.

Page  122 122 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 35. HIRAITA Af I',,' r. I J If.!. i f Glf. ~!, IHi - rai -+a hi - rai -+a. Na-n no ho-n Qo. hi -roi - +? Ren-ge no ha - na ga hi ri -+a. Hi - ri - +o o - rnmot-+ - rL-+ I - tsu - no - ma - nt ko +,su - bon - da. jll ~, ~ ' I -), L r Mr I. 31 m IY S Z ri+su plIagCal I 2T I cadence Hiraita, hiraita. Nan no hana ga hiraita? Renge no hana ga hiraita. Hiraita to omottara Itsunomanika tsubonda. Tsubonda tsubonda. Nan no hana ga tsubonda? Renge no hana ga tsubonda. Tsubonda to omottara. Itsunomanika hiraita. It has opened! It has opened! What flower has opened? The lotus blossom has opened. It opened suddenly and before we knew it, It closed. It has closed! It has closed! What flower has closed? The lotus blossom has closed. It closed suddenly and before we knew it, It opened. (Okayama City, Kurashiki) Game: A circle is formed and all go around holding hands and singing. At tsubonda the circle closes in and the hands go up in the air. Then the circle remains small with the hands still held up during the second verse until hiraita when the circle opens out again and the hands go down. The children in Kurashiki sing Yatto ko satto tsubonda. At last it finally closed. in place of itsunomanika tsubonda.

Page  123 ESTELLE TITIEV 123 36. B0 - SAN 0 BoF - san) b6 - 5an do - ko e i - ku fin F I I I A -I I L r I 1 1 1' 1J —W I W Wa - 4, o - sha + - m - bco no - ne - ko - ri nu. W- + - shi mo is - sho - ni +su- re - sha - n - -se 0maO - mae g if - - ro ja - mo ni na- - ru. Ko no kin - Kn b - u ku- so 6 - zu A> I I I 1 I I m n A- +o no sho - men do - - - re? Pfii~o A 0 ~ af ' n I z fI m: r+su Bo-sain, b-san doko e iku? Watasha tambo no inekari ni. Watashi mo isshoni tsureshanse. Omae ga ittara jama ni naru. Kono kinkan bozu kuso bozu. Ato no shomen dare? plogal wi4hou+ variables I -V I cadence Bo-san, bo-san, where are you going? I am going to cut the rice in the field. Take me with you to the field. If you come along you'll be in my way. This kumquat priest, a dirty priest! Who is right behind you? (Kurashiki) Game: A circle is formed with one child crouching in the center, eyes closed. The children walk around as they sing. At kono kinkan all converge on the child in the center and some beat on his head. At dare they all go down on their haunches and the child in the center must guess who is behind him. He has three guesses.

Page  124 124 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 37. GOJ A J = t G o - j o. ~ ~ o - ~ oA nA Da - re - sortm no +0 - n o. - i nf I d - re 0.I - ru? Goja goja no goja goja! Dare-san no tonari ni dare ga iru? (Ku rashiki) Game: Goja goja all mixed up. Who is standing next to whom? One child, eyes closed, leans on a chair in the center of a circle, while the or walk around. Then one player touches the back of the head of the child in the must guess who it is. others stand center who Oni: neko no nakigoe Child who touched him: Oni tries to guess the person by the C rying of a cat nyow, nyow.sound of his voice. CIRCLE GAMES AND GUESSING GAMES 38A. KAGOME I L I -[~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~L M Ka. - 0 me) k O. - O - me Ko. g o no noa. ka. n o +0 - ri wa. -a I AL I t~ - 1 I F" GE

Page  125 ESTELLE TITIEV PART IT 125 Hi -+o - sa - ra yo - s- ra. o - a r me no o - ni 9.. t J J f If-c f f I — f. C |k ~ J\ J= I t G t 11 -ft f ^ \ r i r ir r i r r r r ^ ^i~~~~~~~~z~~ri ^ r _ Ya - i - +o o su - e - +e A - +s -yo. ka - na- shi - ya ka- n& bo -+o- ke. Kagome, kagome Kago no naka no tori wa. Itsu, itsu deyaru? Ashita no ban ni. Hane ga haete bata bata. Ushiro no shomen dare? Cage, cage, Bird in the cage, When, when will you come out? Tomorrow evening With a flutter of my wings. Who is right behind you now? Hitosara, yosara Yosara me no oni ga Yaito o suete Atsuya, kanashiya, Kanabotoke. (Sanbanson) Lirie 4 is sung Hatsuka no ban ni On the evening of the 20th. Last line: Ashi ga haete choko choko. Legs come out, choko choko. Kagome is perhaps the best and most widely known of all children's game songs in Japan. It seems to contain many of the characteristics common to a number of game songs. It begins with a repeated word as do Hiraita, Bo-san, and Toryanse; it is in question and answer form; it is a circle guessing game with an oni; the repeated bata bata is accented on different syllables; the ending is the question "Who is behind you?" (Played in all five areas. The tune varies just slightly in each village. )

Page  126 126 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Game: The children form a circle with the oni squatting in the center, eyes closed. As the song is sung, the circle moves to the left. When the song is ended the oni calls out inu (dog) or neko (cat) or some other animal. A child from the circle answers appropriately with wanwan, or nyow-nyow. The oni must guess who the child is and if the guess is correct they trade places. If the guess is incorrect, the oni remains in the center of the ring and the song continues. The children sometimes add Part II. At the start of the second verse, the oni goes around the circle patting one head after another. The child tapped at the last word must become the next oni. Some interesting comments on this game may be found in Japanese Manners and Customs in the Meiji Era, p. 105; compiled and edited by Yanagida, Kunio; translated by Charles S. Terry; Tokyo, Japan: Obunsha. (Ima-mura) At bata bata all children in the circle jump. They kneel down at the end of the song. 38B. (L n b 4 f i l I r; -; V I = g i - r i Ko - 90 - me,) - go - me Ka- go no n - ko ro to - ri wa. I- +Ls) i - +tu de - ya - ru. A - shi - *o no bon ni. f h h b.,,,,, l,, l i A I I 0 I' i [ ro I I I I I I I C Ha-ne 9a ha- e -+e ba - +o- ba-+ a. Em - mo-son no ko - shi - -ke. 4 Y f f, I.,I I I i I!,T | t!.!i I I 1 r r r W a-+.-h; o is - sho ni s - wa- ri - ma - sh o. r r r r r U-shi-ro no she-men da- - re

Page  127 ESTELLE TITIEV 127 (Kurashiki) At the end of the song the oni creeps to those in the circle and by touching one of them tries to guess who it is. Two additional lines are inserted before the last line: Emma-sail no koshi kake Watashi mo issho ni suwarimasho. The chair of the King of Hell I, too, will sit with you. 39. TANPOPO fL k do AL Tb 1. I row 1 1 S r I To 1. I I X S I S u Ia I I j IIjT I '' r v l r Tcn - po - pe +Su-mo yo,) ren-ge o +su-mo - ya. Ko-+o-shi no re-n-ge o. yW- sa -+a. Ml -mi ni ma-ku4-+e sup-p*o;-po;. M~ hI+o-+su ra-cku+-4a sup-po.-por-. IA It> I I Tm o 0 7 OFT Tafipopo tsumoya, renge o tsumoya. Kotoshi no renge wa yo saita. Mimi ni makutte suppon pon Mo hitotsu makutte suppon pon. (Okayama City) Game: Let's pick dandelions, let's pick lotus blossoms. This year the lotus blossoms have grown beautifully. Let's wind them around our ears, suppon, pon. Let's wind them around once more, suppon, pon. The players sit in a circle. First of all they decide who shall be "it" and then after sending him away, they determine how many times they shall answer "No" to the question he will ask. The "it" is then called back and the song begins. Each child pretends to be picking flowers and putting them in the palm of his left hand. At mimi the fingers go around the ears clockwise and at m5 hitotsu they go around the other way. When suppon pon is sung the children clap their hands. At the end of the song the "it" steps out of the circle. One of the children says, "There is a snake behind someone". The "it" asks, "Is it I?" The answer is "No" until the previously agreed upon number of times has been reached. When the answer is finally "Yes" everyone jumps up and runs off. The "it" tries to catch one of them.

Page  128 128 128 ~~CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE CLAPPING SONGS - TE UCHI UTA 40. NAT5U MO CHIKAZUKU = 1.32. - 6e o r l j ma! N yO u m rhtk. - - &t h h M -T~~) a. n ma W.- - F X K~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 0 -Shi - - rtA or +orn. A - re ni mi e -rtu w c- Cho,- 4su -vyi jo oldI W~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~ x )( - a ka +on, 1-on. A -ka n ne -a su -ki ni su -4 MO ko $% +on) +on.l I. _LL..U. J-Li.i ryo mode Se se se parariko se! Natsu mo chikazuku hachi-jii-hachi ya, ton, ton. No ni mo yama ni mo wakaba ga shigeru, ton, ton. Are ni mieru wa chatsumi ja naika, ton, ton. Akane dasuki ni suge no kasa, ton, ton. Hiyori tsuzuki no kyo konogoro wa, ton, ton. Kokoro nodoka ni tsumitsutsu utau, ton, ton. Tsume yo tsume tsume tsumaneba naranu, ton, ton. Tsumanya nihon no cha ni naranu, ton, ton. It is the 88th day, summer is drawing near. The young leaves are getting thick on the mountains and in the fields as well. Aren't those women we see picking the leaves over there? They are wearing red dasuki * and sedge hats. We have had continuously fine days lately. They are singing as they tranquilly pick the leave s. Pick them, pick them, you must pick them. If you don't pick them, there will be no Japanese tea. *Cords to hold back the sleeves while working. (Okayama City, Saiibaiisoni) Game: Many clapping songs start with the chant se, se, se, parariko se to set the rhythm. The players face each other, clap their own hands three times on se, se, se, then holding

Page  129 ESTELLE TITIEV 129 each other's hands, they shake them in time as they chant parariko se. When the actual song begins, they first clap their own hands; then with their right hand the other girl's left; then with their left the other's right; again their own and then they reverse the order of left and right. At times they clap with the palm up and other times, palm down. Sometimes they merely brush against each other's hands. At ton, ton each claps both hands against her partner' s. This song is well known in many parts of Japan. It follows a 7-7-7-7-7-7-7-5 pattern. 41. TENNEN NO BI ^ *j j"JJ jJ r I J ' rt r ri - 5o - r. ni +s0 - e ru +0 - - ri no ko - e) M-n -n e yo - -r; o - +s - ru QA- - hi no o - +o. 0 i. - I pI f | I o | ' |l ^ l f | J I R ~ lr.. r. I — I J! 0- n0.- - m ko - no - d B +0 Hi - b; -ki a - e - e - nu. n- -.m; no o - + Sora ni saezuru tori no koe. The sound of birds chirping in the sky, Mine yori otsuru taki no oto. The sound of the waterfall falling from the peak, Onami konami do do to. Big waves and small, roaring sounds Hibiki taesenu nami no oto. Resounding ceaselessly. (Imamura) A composed song said to be a Korean national song. It follows a 7-5 syllable arrangement. At Imamura it accompanies a clapping game.

Page  130 130 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE SONGS WITH GESTURES - YUGI NO UTA 1-2. ICHI KAKE) NI KAKETE A A ftI, h AL L *A I r T 1 Id II I II IV LII Ichi ko.-ke) ni KacLke-+C) So O- nk-o.-ke 4e,5h - k k~e, go kocx ke - 4-e. h o, shi no I&e.. dO. ski no ran- ko. - 4e. o koL - ke e -. t - k- tami- wa. - to. - se- bo LYvq J4 -i flI 1 ryo mode Ich i kake, ni kakete, sani kakete.Shi kakel' go kakete hashi no ue. Hashi no raiikaii te o kakete Haruka muk6 o miwataseba. Jii-hichi hachi no n~sani ga. Hana, to seniko6 o te ni motte. "Moshi moshi, ne-saii, doko ikuno?" "Watashi wa Kyiishii, Kagoshima no Saig6 Takamori -no musume desu Meiji jii7-neni saiigatsu ni Kappuku nasareta. chichi ue no Ohaka maini ni mairimasu."1 Ohaka no mae de te o awase Namu amida butsu to ogandara Ohaka -no mae o hi no tama2 ga Fuwari, fuwari to - jan- keji pofi. Put one, put two, put three, Put four, put five over the bridge. Lay a hand on the rail of the bridge. Should one look way over there, A young girl of seventeen or eighteen Holding flowers and incense. "Hello, young lady, where are you going?" "I am from Kyiishii, the daughter of Saigo6 Takamori of Kagoshima. In March of the tenth year of Meiji He committed kappuku I suicide]1. I am going to his grave."1 In front of the grave when she puts her hands together saying, Namu Amida Butsu. In front of the grave his spirit floats gently up and down, jan ken pon. 'For kakete. 2 Fire ball. Compare with version given by Embree, p. 70, Japanese Peasant Sog, American Folklore Society, 1943.

Page  131 ESTELLE TITIEV 131 (Okayama City, Imamura) Game: Hand clapping with gestures. First line: Second line: Third line: Fourth line: Fifth line: Sixth line: Seventh line: Eighth line: Ninth line: Tenth line: Eleventh line: Twelfth line: Thirteenth line: Fourteenth line: Fifteenth line: clap against partner's hands with fingers crossed. clap with one hand in front of other. hands on hips. hand shading the eyes. put fingers down on both hands as if counting. pretend to carry something in hand, clench left hand and then right, then shake both. hands on each other's shoulders. point to self (usually nose) then out (as if to Kyushu) and back to self. just clapping, no gesture. same as fifth line. go across chest diagonally with finger of one hand first one way and then the other. At chi-chi, make a circle with both hands. clap, no gesture. put hands together. rub hands. clap hands. Sixteenth line: wave hand. At Imamura: Substitute seppuku for kappuku in line 11. Last two lines read: O-haka no shita no tamashi ga Yura, yura, yura, yura, Jan ken pon. This song refers to a historical event, the death of Saigo Takamori, famous hero of Kyushu, who led a rebellion against the Emperor. The song begins as a counting song and then goes on to tell a story. Embree gives a somewhat longer version - No. 89, page 70. It is interesting to note the addition of the month in the version given here. 43. OCHARAKA Preso % I WI or O I V ' r ii a *Tf 49 0 41 0 - ch -r - c ho. ra - cho.-ro - ko- o - cho. ra - ha. koi! *!.X,_ _

Page  132 132 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Ocharaka, ocharaka, ocharaka hoi! Ocharaka, maketayo, ocharaka hoi! Ocharaka, kattayo, ocharaka hoi! Ocharaka, o-aide, ocharaka hoi! Easy, easy, loose and easy hoi! Ocharaka, I will make it a bargain hoi! Ocharaka, I'll buy it hoi! Ocharaka, we're even hoi! (Sanbanson, Kurashiki) Game: The children sit in a circle and clap. At hoi! they play Jani ken pon. At maketayo they nod their heads; at kattayo they salute, at o-aide they put their hands on their waists. Those who lose at Jan ken pon, bow. 44. OSARA NI OHA5HI Presto O - s5a-ra hi o - ho-shi ni bo - cb +- mo - chi hoi! J - g- a-i - mo rne da - shi h. o do - shi hoi ItLD f\_ I on V Osara ni ohashi ni botamochi hoi! Jagaimo me o dashi ha o dashi hoi! Dish and chopsticks and botamochi! The sprout comes out, then the leaves come out of the potato! (Okayama City) Game: This is a boy's game sung very fast. At osara the palm of the hand is open and out. At ohashi the second and third fingers are out with the thumb holding down the fourth finger. At botamochi the fist is clenched. At hoi the hand is open. At jagaimo the fist is clenched. At me two fingers again are held out. At ha the hand is open. At the last hoi the fist is clenched. Two players face each other. When a mistake is made by one, the other breathes on two fingers, says ha, reaches out and slaps the hand of the loser. If the game goes on without a mistake made by either player, the last hoi is eliminated and Jaii ken pon is substituted.

Page  133 ESTELLE TITIEV13 133 45. UCHI NO KOMPIRA-S5AN ft LU ch i no R(ornpi-ra.-sci Wa. na - ni -dca ja1 po-ro p - ro) po -ro po -ro. Po ro, po -ro fla mi -do- a - k; - mSh.-.) -fu -kit Ma - sh __ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Repeo.+ line +* end J v Uchi no Kompira-saii wa namida ga horo horo, horo horo. Horo, horo namida o tamoto de fukimash6, fuki masho6. Fuita tamoto o araimash6, araimasho6. Aratta tamoto o shiborimash6, shiborimash5. Shibotta tamoto o hoshimasho6, hoshimash5. Hoshita tamoto o tatamimash6, tatamimasho. Tatanda tamoto o shimaimash5, shimaimash6. Shim~atta tamoto o nezumi ga gari gari, gari gari. Gari, gari nezumi o koroshimash6 koroshimash6. Koroshita nezumi o kirimash6, kirimasho-. Kitta nezumi o takimash6, takimash6. Taita nezumi o tabemash5, tabemash6. Tabeta hito wa dare de sho6? Jaii keii poii. The kompira god in my house is shedding tears that drop. Let's wipe the tears that drop with the sleeve of the kimono. Let's wash the sleeve with which we wiped. Let's wring the sleeve which we washed. Let's dry the sleeve which we wrung out. Let's fold the sleeve which we dried. Let's put away the sleeve which we folded. The rat gnawed the sleeve which we put away. Let's kill the rat which gnawed. Let's cut the rat which we killed. Let's boil the rat which we cut. Let's eat the rat which we boiled. Who has eaten it? Kurashiki: L ine 1 L ine 2 L ine 5 Line 10 poro, pr for horo, horo. tamoto de is omitted. omitted. sutemash6- for kirimash6 Okayama City, Imamura: Bar 3 of the song is inserted after bar 7 to accomodate the words tamoto de. Game: The.player claps her own hands, then the palm of the person sitting next to her. Line 1: At horo, horo, draw finger down check. Line 2: At fukimasho, wipe tears with dress.

Page  134 134 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE Line 3: Line 4: Line 5: Line 6: Line 8: Line 10: At araimasho, rubbing motion. At shiborimasho, wringing motion. At hoshimasho, hanging motion. At tatamimasho, folding motion. At gari gari, clench fist. At nezumi, chopping motion. MISC ELLANEOUS 46. AGARIME 6 & 11% 1%?& I I r% I I I % f I i - I I I PI I I I F I I Al la I % 1 j I J I I %V -1 WI a, WI a, I I WI ol PI -- - i Agarime, sagarime Guru to mawatte nyanko* no me. Up go the eyes, down go the eyes. Round and round like cat's eyes. *Child's term for neko. (Kurashiki) Game: The fingers are used to pull the eyes up, then down. Then they go round and round the eyes. Children may do this themselves or sometimes a mother will do it on her own face to amuse a little one.

Page  135 ESTELLE TITIEV 47. GETA KAKUSHI 135 Q " J ' T J J 7 - I ~ Ge - +I' - k - k -sh ch - nen - bo) H - shi - ri no shi+o no _y #,,,,, e; j I;, J' ' I J ' J'J. ne - u- mi g0o. 2 - ri o ku -wQ- e - +e chu chu- lu chA. % > - ' - I'1- ' I I ' I (Ch J J - -r ka-+a? a re no -n- wm- h i - P -+ Chuchu-ku maoijiu wa da-re ga.-+a? Da.re+ mo ku-wa-no-i waoshi ga ku-+to. aa i Getakakushi chuinenbo, Hashiri no shita no nezumi ga Zori o kuwaete chu chuku chu. Chu chuku maiiju wa dare ga kuta? Dare mo kuwanai washi ga kuta. Geta hiding, squeaking rat. Under the sink, a rat is squeaking with zori in his mouth. Who ate a squeaking cake? No one but I ate it. (Kurashiki) Game: Only one geta of every pair is placed in a row. The oni wears one geta and stands on that foot, tapping each geta in the row with his other foot as all sing. The geta tapped when the song ends is hidden. Its owner becomes the oni and he must try to find his geta. 48. HO, HO, HOTTARU KOI Ho) ho, hot - + - ru ko-i. A - chi no mi - z wa ni- ga -i zo. - chi no me - ZL~ wo. a. - ra,,i' ''. H.) ha, h,h,,, +,-, k e, Ko -ch i no m i - zu wo. O no, i 10 HO) ho) 04- +0 — r- A ko-i.

Page  136 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE 136 Ho, ho, hottaru koi. Achi no mizu wa nigai zo. Kochi no mizu wa amai zo. Ho, ho hottaru koi. Ho, ho, fireflies come! Over there the water is bitter. Over here the water is sweet. Ho, ho, fireflies come! (Okayama City, Kurashiki)' Game: This song is well known throughout Japan. It appears in Warabe Uta on page 162. Lafcadio Hearn also gives it on page 156 in A Japanese Miscellany. 49. SARA BATA {t J r J- 2l^;^ y2 lr f 9p^ J i; 1 1 ii Irii-t~jtti~- 5a - ra b - +o s -ra o- ku-shi Mi-so- ro- ni wa-+C-su. Ko-ga- ne no —... I. I.! I Il1 1' I _ 'l]Y 1 l! _ 1 I._, 11 d Y Y w J jlr [ A r T r! mu -chi no 0- ni no shi-ra-nu u -chi ni Mo+-+o- ru, mot-+o-ru nmot - 'o -ru..A ' O O - O o TI II _I ri+6u plaqil Z e T I cadence. Sara bata sara kakushi Misora ni watasu Kogane no muchi no Oni no shiranu uchi ni Mottoru, mottoru, mottoru. The side of the dish, the dish was hidden. Let's pass the dish to heaven before the devil With the golden whip finds out. I have it, I have it, I have it. (Okayama City, Kurashiki) Game: The "it" must guess who has the stone or pebble which is being passed from hand to hand as the players kneel in a circle, singing and clapping. Sometimes a child keeps the pebble until the end of the song while the other players pretend to pass it along. At Kurashiki the words are: Takara, takara-kakushi Doko ni mo kakusazu kogane no tama o Oni no shiranu uchi ni, ton, ton. We didn't hide the golden ball anywhere While the devil is unaware.

Page  137 ESTELLE TITIEV 137 In another version, line 3 is sung Kogane no yubi wa. After line 4, e --- —-wa..... gold ring Now is the time. 50. IMO MUSHI I d I F 1 J Id 7 I I - mo mu - shi ko - ro ko - ro. Imo mushi koro koro. Caterpillar, koro, koro. (Sanbanson) Game: This is a race in which the children go down on their haunches and advance toward a goal previously decided upon. NOTES 1Tanabe Hisao. Japanese Music. Tokyo, 1936. 2Piggott, Sir Francis. The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. London, 1909. 3Peri, Noel. Essai sur les gammes japonaises. Paris, 1934. 4This table forms the preface to Noel Peri's Essai sur les gammes japonaises.

Page  138 138 CHILDREN'S GAME SONGS OF OKAYAMA PREFECTURE BOOKS CONSULTED Culin, Stewart Games of the Orient. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1958. Embree, John F. "Japanese Peasant Songs". Philadelphia: Memoirs of American Folklore Society, Vol. 38, 1943. Hearn, Lafcadio. A Japanese Miscellany. Boston: Little Brown and Co., 1901. Machida, Kasho, and Asano, Kenji (Editors). Warabe Uta. Tokyo: Iwanami Publishers, 1962. Maim, William P. Japanese Music. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1959. May, Elizabeth. The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1963. Peri, Noel. Essai sur les gammes Japonaises. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste: Paul Geuthner, 1934. Spence, Lewis. Myth and Rituals in Dance, Games, and Rhyme. London: Watts and Co., 1947. Takada, Sakuzo. Japanese Children's Game Songs. Tokyo: Hakubi-sha, 1950. Tanabe, Hisao. Japanese Music. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shink6-kai, 1936. Estelle Titiev (Mrs. Mischa) received musical training at the Cleveland Institute of Music where she studied with Beryl Rubenstein and Arthur Loesser. She was awarded the Bachelor of Music Degree and served as a professional pianist and accompanist on the Institute staff. She has spent a number of years teaching music to children and has translated several Russian children's books into English.

Mono No Aware

Francis Mathy, S.J.pp. 139-154

Page  139 MONO NO AWARE by Francis Mathy, S.J. Rokko Gakuin Kobe, Japan

Page  140

Page  141 In his book, The Thought of Japan (Nihon no shiso), Maruyama Masao, professor of political science at Tokyo University, states that it is impossible to write an intellectual history of Japan as scholars of Europe and America have written histories of Western thought. There are of course plentiful histories of particular movements of thought, e. g. Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Confucianism, the thought of the common people. But there are no composite works tracing the development of a unified tradition in which each particular movement finds its place, whether as a development of or a reaction to what has gone before. The reason for this, according to Maruyama, is that Japan has in fact no intellectual tradition in the strict sense of that term. Each age has had its great thinkers and its schools of philosophy, but these have been selfenclosed with little communication among themselves and still less with those that preceded or came after. "In short," concludes Maruyama, "there was never developed in our country and intellectual tradition powerful enough to constitute a gravitational center, an axis of co-ordinates that would bring into mutual relationship the fragmented speculations and philosophies of each particular age and supply them with an historical frame of reference." 1 But if there is not an intellectual tradition in the usual sense of the term, there is a kind of tradition of sensibility that forms the deepest and most enduring stratum in the Japanese psyche. Certain forms of feeling are so much a part of the Japanese character that they persist almost unchanged despite the most contradictory changes of intellectual viewpoint both in the individual and in the age. Among these forms of sensibility Maruyama lists mono no aware, the subject of this paper. Though the word aware is found much earlier in Japanese literature, the sensibility of mono no aware (the aware of things) is first associated with the Heian court. Under the Fujiwara regency of the eleventh century there was focused about the imperial court of Heian in Kyoto a colorful center of gracious living, a shimmering circle of light, as of millions of fireflies, a phenomenon quite unlike any other in history. Circumstances and temperament conspired to produce a unique relationship between life and dream, reality and vision, nature and art, feeling and expression. Art was continuous with life, the art object the product of the beautiful life. Social and political mores, as well as religious and moral thought, were willing and faithful servants of beauty. If all was not light and if on the edges of this shimmering circle darkness crouched, ever ready to engulf the light and regain its domain, this very threat of engulfment supplied the condition that made for deepest vision and most piercing intuition. The proportions were soon to change, more darkness and less light, but by that time the Japanese would have had a long, deep look into the heart of things (mono no kokoro) and the vision would remain and grow still more intense. The experience of the Heian vision of beauty, the mono no aware sensibility, would go on to form the tastes and channel the creative energy of succeeding generations even to our time. This early literature - or rather, aesthetic culture, since literature was but a part of it - bears the relationship to the literature of later years (the Noh plays of Zeami, the haiku of Basho and Buson, the plays of Chikamatsu, even the novels of Kawabata) that the classic Greek and Latin writers and thinkers bear to all of Western literature. To grasp the informing intuition, the vision of beauty of this early period helps greatly to understand and appreciate all of Japanese literature and art. * ^^ 141

Page  142 142 MONO NO AWARE Mono no aware, since it is a sensibility and not a concept, does not lend itself easily to analysis. We look in vain for a Heian Poetics or an essay On the Sublime that might enlighten us. The age was not without its critics, but what they write is, like the literature, highly intuitive, not given to explanation or abstraction. We have no other recourse but to rely upon the commentary and analysis of later critics. This approach is not entirely satisfactory. In the first place, Japanese scholars, despite the importance they attach to mono no aware, have not given it the thorough study it deserves. Most of their references to it are vague or merely parrot the findings of the few scholars who have given it deep thought. Secondly, there is the danger that later critics will project their own philosophies and points of view into the past, a danger which is particularly real in the case of twentieth-century writers who write with a thorough background knowledge of Western literature and aesthetics and may be too eager to assimilate the one to the other. Keeping these reservations in mind, let us see how mono no aware has been treated in Japanese criticism. The thirteenth-century Mumyo-zoshi, a collection of critical essays by an unknown writer, was the first to point out that aware is the heart of Heian literature, and it singles out four books of The Tale of Genji as being particularly full of aware, "Kiritsubo," "Yugao," "Suma," and "Ukifune. 2 But it is not until we come to Motoori Norinaga* in the eighteenth century that we find an orderly exposition of the meaning of mono no aware. The Tale of Genji in the time of Norinaga was usually given a didactic interpretation, in accordance with either Buddhist religion or Confucian morality. According to the first, it was damned as a tissue of lies or praised as an elegant expression of the Lotus Sutra. According to the second, it was seen as a parable illustrating the inexorable principle of kanzen choaku ** (good is rewarded, evil punished), making the thematic center of the novel Prince Genji's illfated love affair with Fujitsubo, his stepmother, and the subsequent retribution that overtakes him when he in turn is cuckolded by his wife Nyosan and gives his name to a son not his own. 3 Norinaga was exploring a new path when he declared that Buddhist theology and Confucian moral precept were irrelevant to the novel, and that the thematic center was really mono no aware, which, indeed, was the center of all literature. The most complete exposition of his theory of mono no aware is to be found in the second book of Tama no okushi. 4 He begins by showing the meaning of aware, first from its etymology. The word is in the first place an interjection expressing deep emotion at what one sees, hears, or touches. Deeply moved, one exclaims "Aa!" or "Hare!": "Aa, what a beautiful moon!"; "Hare! what a beautiful flower!" Aware is a combination of these two words. In the ancient poems are to be found such expressions as: "one lonely pine - aware!", "Aware - that bird!", "Aware - one's home of many years!" Grammatically, aware is used in the following constructions: "to look (at something) with aware" (aware to miru), "to think something aware" (aware to omou), "to be aware" (aware to nari). Again one may say "to know aware" (aware o shiru) and "to discover aware" (aware o misu), meaning that upon confrontation with an object one feels aware, that in the presence of certain objects one understands that they should affect him with aware and they in fact do so affect him. Another expression is the verbal form "to aware a thing" (mono o awaremu), meaning to feel aware in its presence, as in the poem of the Kokinshu which speaks of aware-ing the mist (kasumi o awaremu). ~*x%^,^

Page  143 FRANCIS MATHY, S. J. 143 Later aware came to be written with the character for sadness, sorrow, pity (;) and the experience of aware came to be understood as predominantly a melancholy one. Originally, however, the word was used not only of the sad and melancholic, but also of the joyful, the interesting, the pleasing, and the comic. It was used, that is, of whatever caused one to exclaim "Ah!" That aware came to be understood primarily as a melancholy experience can be explained, says Norinaga, by the fact that of all human emotions, it is the negative ones of melancholy, grief, sadness, and longing that are felt most deeply. Norinaga briefly disposes of the "mono no" (of things) as being of no particular importance in the phrase mono no aware. The "of things" is indefinite and can be defined only in some such phrase as "the aware of things that cause aware." Then he goes on to the expression "to know mono no aware." This simply means that in whatever situation one may be, one knows the kokoro he should have and feels accordingly. One whose kokoro is not moved to feel the emotions implicit in a situation does not know mono no aware and is called a man without a kokoro (kokoro naki hito). Moreover, if a person has the kokoro to discern things, he cannot help having the right feelings at all times. Emotional reaction, Norinaga seems to be saying, follows spontaneously upon intellectual intuition. To know mono no kokoro and to know mono no aware are but reverse sides of the same coin. One intuits the kokoro of things, and, infallibly upon this intuition, one feels aware, an aware exactly fitted to the kokoro that is intuited. A person who has advanced in the knowledge of the kokoro of things cannot be satisfied with a merely internal experience of aware. He has a driving urge to externalize it by means of poetry or painting or such. The poet of the Kokinshu, Ki no Tsurayuki, explains it in this way: "We do not gain anything by the expression of our aware. But when we are deeply moved we cannot help bursting into song." A person who knows mono no aware will give expression in many ways to the things that move him, thereby showing his aware. According to Ki no Tsurayuki, he will sing of self, of others, of what is interesting, or what is auspicious, of what is solemn; he will sing of birds, flowers, birds, moon, snow; of spring, fall,winter, summer; of all things, in short, that move the kokoro and make it feel aware. From the Tale of Genji Norinaga draws a number of examples of scenes abounding in aware, among them the formation of clouds in the sky, the color of grass and trees, the sounds of insects harmonizing with the autumn wind, the mists of dawn, the cry of birds flying across the sky, the line of a lady's face. He climaxes his catalogue with the scene from the book "Suma" that describes autumn in the land of Genji's exile: At Suma autumn had set in with a vengeance. The little house stood some way from the sea; but when in sudden gusts the wind came "blowing through the gap" (the very wind of Yukihira's poem) it seemed as if the waves were at Genji's door. Night after night he lay listening to the melancholy sound and wondering whether in all the world there could be any place where the aware of autumn was more overwhelming. The few attendants who shared the house with him had all gone to rest. Only Genji lay awake, propped high on his pillow, listening to the storm winds which burst upon the house from every side. Louder and louder came the noise of the waves, till it seemed to him

Page  144 144 MONO NO AWARE they must have mounted the fore-shore and be surging round the very bed on which he lay. Then he would take up his zithern and strike a few notes. But his tune echoed so forlornly through the house that he had not the heart to continue and, putting zithern aside, he sang to himself the song: The wind that waked you, Came it from where my lady lies, Waves of the shore, whose sighs Echo my sobbing? At this his followers awoke with a start and listened to his singing with wonder and delight. But the words filled them with an unendurable sadness and there were some whose lips trembled when they rose and dressed. 6 Norinaga's comment upon this passage is that it is no wonder that the attendants break into tears; there are all the elements in this scene to move one to a deep experience of aware. For Norinaga, The Tale of Genji is the work of all works that explores the farthest boundaries of what one "ought to feel" (kanzubeki koto) and most fully displays aware. The attitude of one reading the novel should be that he wishes to apply what he finds there to himself, and to model his own sensibilities upon those of the characters and their author. At this point he sets forth what might be called a Japanese theory of catharsis. Through their reading they will come themselves to know mono no aware and thereby their kokoro will become clear and purged of its sadness. The verb "to become clear" (hareru) is the one that is used of skies: skies become clear or cloudless. (The character is made up of the radicals for "sun" and "blue".) The verb which we have translated as "purge" is in the Japanese,to console," and is transitive, as in this direct translation: "to console sadness" (uki o nagusamuru). This is still not exactly correct, however, since uki is not really "sadness" but "sad things, " so that a more accurate translation would be: "to give one consolation or relief in one's experience of sad things." Norinaga, like Aristotle, who chose his metaphor from medical terminology, does not work out the implications or give further explanation. It is evident, however, that the consolation he describes as present in the aware of one's experience of sadness and melancholy is not to his mind simply the pleasure of subjective emotion; it seems to have some kind of objectivity, an objectivity that controls the measure and the occasion of its expression. Norinaga adds that the special merit of the tales written in the Heian period lies in the superiority of the kokoro of the man of that day; he was more filled with aware, his kokoro was more refined, more highly sensitive. For that reason there is impressed upon the kokoro of the reader a higher and more purified mono no aware than will be found in his daily life. There are some people who do not know mono no aware. First are those whose violent reaction to stimuli effectively blocks the more refined experience of aware. Among such people he mentions Lady Kokiden, the empress of The Tale of Genji, who, while her husband was deep in grief at the death of Genji's mother, amused herself nearby watching the moon and listening to music. This interesting example offers insight into the nature of aware, since the watching of the moon and the playing of music on such a night would ordinarily be full of aware. But aware in personal relations seems to have precedence over that experienced in nature, so that the lady,

Page  145 FRANCIS MATHY, S.J. 145 even in looking at the moon with emotion, is said to have no knowledge of mono no aware by reason of the circumstances of her moon-viewing. Again, a monk who has separated himself from the world and is making progress in detachment from it cannot know mono no aware, since he denies himself the human experiences which produce it. Some people are said to have too much knowledge of mono no aware, not because their aware is too deep, but because they show more of a reaction than a given situation demands. Such people are often guilty of approaching with great frivolity situations calling for great feeling. One who enters too lightly into love affairs and moves from lady to lady with great fickleness would be of this category. Prince Genji, then, we may suppose, is acting according to aware when he continues to provide for his ladies long after they have ceased to interest him. Norinaga, finally, asserts that mono no aware is the essential element of The Tale of Genji and of literature in general. He did not fill in the details; he left many questions unanswered, many not even proposed. Later Japanese critics have tried to close the gaps and extend the lines of his theory. Among the most authoritative are Onishi Yoshinoria, Hisamatsu Sen'ichib, Watsuji Tetsuro, and Okazaki Yoshie d. Onishi's treatment is the most fully developed, so we will continue our elaboration of mono no aware as it appears to that critic, using the others as supplement. 7 Onishi, in his book Yugen to aware, begins by defining the exact range of emotional reaction comprehended by aware. He finds that the more direct emotions, such as love which involves deep attachment, hatred, merely sensual pleasure, sorrow, are excluded. All of these emotions must be detached from self, made indirect, before they can enter into the category of aware. Most closely associated with aware are such reactions as sympathy, compassion, respect, admiration, 8 joy for another, impersonal sadness, so that the predominant posture of aware is contemplative. Onishi insists that the experience is not subjective only, but has an objectivity corresponding to an object which he later tries to define; that it is not merely psychological, a matter only of strong emotion, but is aesthetic, different in kind from mere emotional reaction. Norinaga had stated that one feels more deeply in the presence of what is sad than of what is joyful. Okazaki, commenting on this, had insisted that the contrary was also true - that whenever we feel admiration deeply, we strike a vein of melancholy. Okazaki would explain this melancholy by the, depth of the emotion. Depth of emotion, however, Onishi states, is capable of two interpretations: the first has reference to the degree to which the subject is moved; and the second to the degree to which the subject is able to lose himself in the emotion and its motive and to contemplate it silently and reflectively. The first considers the strength and depth of the emotion itself, while the second.looks to the absolute deepening of the posture of self. The second effect goes beyond that of mere emotion to include a depth of intellective intuition. The two - emotion and intuition - are so fused in the experience as to be inseparable, distinguishable only in principle. When Norinaga says that aware is the exclamation following upon a strong emotion, he seems to mean "deep" in the first sense. But when he says that we do not feel joy as deeply as we feel sadness, his meaning of "deep" has shifted to the second. The negative emotions, such a 7a_ / b.ti6 jc ^jdL, gfd ^ (c

Page  146 146 MONO NO AWARE as melancholy and sadness, all of which are included in the Japanese word aikan, 9cause the kokoro to enter deeply into and rest in the object that has moved it. The "depth" of the aware of Heian literature, writes Onishi, is an emotional experience accompanied by a profound intuition and causing the expansion of self. In both classical and modern Japanese the experience is described in the metaphor mi ni shimiru - to penetrate to the bone. Onishi rejects Okazaki's explanation of aware as consisting basically in a pure, solemn feeling, a kind of sympathetic rapport that does not go beyond the merely psychological. Onishi next considers the problem of the relationship between the general psychological meaning of aware - sad, melancholy, yearning, aikan in general - and its aesthetic meaning. The aesthetic experience of aware results from the meeting of two "depths" - the objective, contemplative depth of intuition, and the subjective, emotional depth of feeling. The reason why a jealous woman such as Lady Kokiden cannot experience mono no aware is that she lacks depth of intuition. The monk, on the other hand, separated as he is from the cares of the world and normal emotions, is lacking in depth of feeling. Both are outside the range of aware. For Norinaga the problem of the meaning of mono no aware was basically a psychological one: he approached it wholly from the point of view of subject. Onishi wishes to treat it now from the point of view of object. What exactly is the content of the intuition involved? Onishi distinguishes five levels in the meaning of the word aware. The experience of sadness, melancholy, and the other "dark" states of feeling (aikan) represents the first level of aware. These states of feeling enabled the Heian nobles to feel all things more deeply, to be more sensitive to the world about them - the second level of aware. This general sensitivity, at first only psychological and subjective, now becomes objective, as intuition comes to be joined to feeling, as insight is obtained into the kokoro of things - the third level of aware: intuition joined to feeling. The experience is at this stage not yet properly aesthetic, but the conditions are already present that will bring on the next. At the fourth level, the experience becomes once more "dark", as the intuition goes beyond mere phenomena and becomes noumenal. It penetrates to the heart of being, to "the All" (mono ippan), to the metaphysical base of all being, and so intensifies itself into a world-view, a penetrating view into the essence of life itself. The experience is metaphysical and quasi-mystical. It is at this point that the aesthetic level of aware first disengages itself from the other levels. It was, as we shall see later, the peculiar conditions of Heian times and the Japanese love for and proximity to nature that made it possible to reach this fourth stage, to grow in intuition until it was possible to draw in from the center of Being an unbroken stream of aikan. Buddhist philosophy may have contributed to this event, but the manner of life and the spirit of the age, thinks Onishi, were in themselves sufficient causes for the transformation. In most cases of this fourth kind of aware it is not the individual objects of experience that are intuited aesthetically, but rather the tone of season or landscape. At the fifth level of aware the intuition returns to the particular object. The aesthetic attention, which in the fourth stage had soared to the empyrean, returns in the fifth stage to the earth. This level is much like a combination of three and four and difficult to distinguish from them, especially from three. Why is it, Onishi asks, that the states of sadness, melancholy, compassion, etc., are so intimately connected with beauty? Why are the "dark emotions" much more closely related to

Page  147 FRANCIS MATHY, S. J. 147 beauty than the bright? Shelley, Keats, Poe, and Baudelaire also recognized this, he points out. What is the source of this plaisir de la douleur? Onishi proposes an answer to this question that betrays his own philosophical background of German philosophy, especially Schopenhauer. At the heart of man and of nature there lies a great metaphysical pit which is the source of all being, a heart of darkness. Man's sorrows, as well as his pleasures, are but bubbles on the stream of life, eventually to be sucked back into the pit. The dark emotions, though in themselves unpleasant, do when joined to metaphysical intuition afford a look into this heart of being and thus give man a measure of spiritual satisfaction and pleasure. Watsuji Tetsuro's explanation of the kokoro at the center of being and its relationship to the dark emotions or aikan is indebted rather to Plato. 10 Watsuji begins by taking Norinaga to task for dismissing so casually the mono no of mono no aware. He states that mono's meaning here ranges from anything to everything. Mono no aware is the aware which mono have, but mono understood finally as the All, as the Source of all other mono. Mono no aware is a movement that unceasingly attempts to return to that mono which is by its very nature unlimited. It is the experience of this All, this Source-Existent, present in all things and drawing all things to itself. Man feels its pull, though he does not have knowledge of it. Mono no aware is therefore the instinctive attraction of man toward the eternal source of all beings. Whether we realize it or not, that which forms the basis of every feeling of aware and outburst of "admiration" elicited by it is this aspiration, this attraction. All pleasures look to this eternal All, as do all loves. Every feeling of pleasure is a remembrance of eternity, and every love is an aspiration after it. It is for this reason that the experience of love so often involves the dark emotions. The present lack of possession makes the experience of all things that are worth possessing a source of melancholy. Poor, changing man intuits something that unlike him does not change, and he experiences an unlimited aspiration for this eternal, unchanging reality. The feeling of aikan must be interpreted as an expression of this aspiration, an expression following upon intuition, not upon philosophical investigation. The lover discovers in his beloved the country of his soul; in this actual person, according to Watsuji, he loves the eternal Idea. The lover cannot but feel the eternity of his love. This feeling can never achieve its object in this life, it is always pressing forward on a road which ends only in eternity. All the love, all the joy, all the efforts of men have here their deepest foundation. It is for this reason that mono no aware broadens out to include all of life. For this reason, Watsuji concludes, mono no aware must be understood as a pure emotion or as purified feeling. It is a feeling for infinity, which has in itself a tendency toward the purification and elevation of all things. It is the action of the Eternal Source working within man and drawing him back to Itself. More significant than either Onishi's or Watsuji's theory of the ultimate source of mono no aware is the fact that both critics believe that it can be assimilated to Western philosophical experience. It would seem that at this point mono no aware breaks out from its narrow Japanese base and achieves a kind of universality in human experience. Onishi has stated that the dark emotions are able to catapult a man of great sensitivity into the heart of beauty. Is the reverse also true: is there something of aikan - of darkness, melancholy, sadness - in all beauty? Not directly and essentially, Onishi thinks. The emotion that is first evoked upon confrontation with beauty and that is essentially connected with it is that of satisfied pleasure. But as sensitivity to beauty increases and the aesthetic experience becomes richer, a kind of phenomenological reflection upon the fragility of beauty and its mutability spon

Page  148 148 MONO NO AWARE taneously takes place, fusing with the essential intuition of beauty it self. A special aesthetic feeling of sadness or melancholy will come to form a kind of nimbus to all beauty. This will happen in particular in a culture whose sense of beauty has become very acute. The experience of aikan, therefore, does not come from the mere observation of beauty as subject to change. The sensitive observer is pained at the sight of the fragility and mutability of the beautiful, and this pain gives rise to the special aesthetic experience of the aware of the fourth level. Beauty which is characterized by the strain of aikan is more often found in the experience of the beauty of nature than it is in that of the beauty of art. The reason for this is that natural beauty is continually in change, while art is frozen into a kind of permanence. This explains why the Japanese, who from earliest times became so intimate with nature, and, in particular, the Heian Court, which cultivated so successfully the aesthetic life, were able to penetrate deep enough into beauty to reach that aikan which accompanies all deep penetration and reflection, the aikan of Onishi's fourth level. We must now consider with Onishi the conditions of history that made it possible for the phenomenological experience of aware to become an aesthetic one. Aware, insists Onishi, as a special kind of beauty, will be found in any culture in which the conditions fostering its growth are to be found. Such conditions were eminently present in Japan, especially in the Heian period. It was an age of peace. The upper classes, with the splendor of the Fujiwaras at its center, had freed themselves from economic hardship, and were the rulers of the land. They produced a mature, aristocratic culture, rich in form and ritual. Everything had its proper ceremony, with the four basic ceremonies of marriage, funeral rites, coming of age, and ancestor worship central. Shinto and Buddhist rites were closely connected with all the events of life and were very solemn and serious. For all the solemnity of the religious rites, however, the writing of the time, especially the novels and diaries, gives the impression that religion was little more than a diversion in the empty, monotonous life of the court, simply an extension of the extravagances of aristocratic life. In their brighter moods the Heian nobles looked upon the next world as an extension of the pleasure of this, while in their darker moods the lack of pleasure and happiness in this world was taken as a token of the darkness in the next. The religious sense of the age tended to be light and shallow. Still, toward the end of the age religion came to assume greater importance and to contribute to the disenchantment and pessimism that accompanied the disintegration of the Heian world. Hints of this encroaching darkness and the part religion was to play in it are already to be found in the pages of Lady Murasaki's diary and even in the later portion of her novel. At the height of Heian, however, the influence of Buddhism was still principally external, so that the slender stream of melancholy flowing always beneath the surface of the gaiety, color, and tranquillity of the time cannot well be ascribed to it. It would be more accurate to say that there was something in the very feeling towards life of the people of that day that made possible the rather ready acceptance of the gloomy Buddhist creed. Onishi believes that the most basic cause for the seepage of inky gloom into the deepest center of the age's attitude towards life was the disproportion, the lack of balance, between an extremely highly developed aesthetic culture and a monstrously undeveloped intellectual culture. The Heian culture not only fostered art; it made life itself into an art. It developed not so much the arts, as the beautiful life centered upon the arts. It sought, in short, to develop an

Page  149 FRANCIS MATHY, S. J. 149 art which, in a manner of speaking, precedes all art, in a world apart from art objects, an art which exercised itself directly upon nature and upon human relationships. And in this art that precedes all art it made extraordinary progress. Heian nobles showed extremely fine taste in whatever they did or made, e. g. in the laying-out of gardens, in the pattern and color arrangement of clothing, in the mixing of perfumes. Even the games which men and women played to relieve the tedium of their lives were well designed for such an age of grace and elegance. Such products of the age as Lady Murasaki's Tale of Genji and Sei Shonagon's Pillow Book give aesthetic idealization to the beautiful life and record the progress in the discovery of beauty. But looking at these from another point of view, Onishi continues, we fail to find in them either magnanimity of soul or great wisdom or even the deep feeling an art of wider scope would comprehend. Of course The Tale of Genji surpasses the other works in this regard, but from the point of view of deep or comprehensive spiritual insight there is much that fails to satisfy. An adulterous, near-incestuous affair such as that of Genji's relationship with his father's wife, Fujitsubo, for instance, ought to be accompanied by a greater sense of serious sin and greater interior agony. There was much room here for penetration into Prince Genji's consciousness. But a literature which in its very constitution makes mono no aware its basic center of organization has no tendency to extend in such a direction. In short, this kind of aesthetic culture, excelling as it does in one particular phase of human activity, has a tendency to become pure aestheticism, so that the aesthetic invades and occupies other areas of human activity, such as the philosophical, the theological, and the ethical. Another point Onishi emphasizes strongly is that there does not appear to be any conflict between this tendency toward aestheticism and the sense of conventional morality and social sanctions. Norinaga had already pointed out that although there is much in Genji' s relationship to Fujitsubo that is to be censured, Lady Murasaki portrays the two with whole-hearted sympathy as good and extraordinary people. It is impossible to use the principle of kanzen choaku in their interpretation. The fact is that the age was extremely lax in its morality while extremely advanced in its aesthetic culture. The modern romantic or aestheticist often finds himself estranged from the social mores of his culture and suffers anguish because of it. This was not the case in the Heian age. The education of the nobility was confined to training in the arts and skills that would equip them for life at court in the society of the time. Genji and Yugiri are depicted as well accomplished in these. But they learned no more than a smattering of the Japanese and Chinese classics, a bit of history, and little else. The study of Buddhism was at that time flourishing, of course, and a group of Japanese scholars were studying the Chinese school; but the fact is that these scholars were themselves Buddhists and their studies were too far removed from the problems of the real world. There was no intellectual attempt to forge a philosophical frame of reference for the basic problems of the world and of man. The greater number of Buddhists who entered a monastery either spent their lives in their devotions, or else, even after entering the Way, were unable to cut themselves off from the immediate worldly problems that had previously occupied them. Onishi finds very little philosophical tendency in the life of Heian. Serious too was the ignorance of natural science. This ignorance was common perhaps to all of the Eastern culture of that day. Still, given the tremendous development of its aesthetic culture, the level of scientific inquiry was very low. The splendor of the court contrasts violently with the darkness occasioned by the rampages of nature - epidemics, fires, earthquakes. The splendor, in fact, always threatened to be swallowed up by nature's upheavals. Many women died

Page  150 150 MONO NO AWARE in childbirth, and early deaths resulted from many other diseases that with prudent care ought not to have been fatal. There was little or no medicine; the principal recourse in times of epidemics, for example, was incantation. It was not just that medicine was still in its infancy, but rather that there was a lack of scientific spirit in the reasonable treatment of the sick. There was no notion either of preventative measures to avoid fires and infectious diseases. There may even have been a prejudice against medicine as something not aesthetic. It is from this source that the aikan emerges. Behind the brilliant culture and flowerlike beauty of the life, which satisfied the aesthetic demands of the age, lurked that which drew forth the lacrimae rerum. The surface tone of the age was gay and bright, but beneath the gaiety and brightness ran a current of dark, gloomy melancholy. With this kind of experience of life, it is small wonder that Buddhism was able to make progress with its doctrine of the impermanence of all things and its hatred of the world. Onishi concludes that the age was characterized by these two qualities: a deep-flowing, fatalistic stream of melancholy, which gave, nevertheless, aesthetic satisfaction; and a thisworldly, sensuous, impulsive, playful, hedonistic feeling for life. The deep melancholy enabled the Heian nobles to penetrate to the heart of life, the heart of man and of all existence. It was the sadness, the aikan, brought on by the conditions of the time that served as the means by which they came to know and feel the kokoro and aware of things. Another important element in the development of the Heian sensibility was the influence of nature. The age's feeling for nature had been formed to a large extent by an education based upon past tradition, especially the literary works, the waka, and the Chinese poems. It was limited, moreover, to a very narrow range, that of the mountains, rivers, and other scenery about Kyoto. Kyoto gardens, in fact, are the most frequently depicted scenes. Also, the frequent religious ceremonies could not but influence their approach to nature, and such Buddhist teachings as that of the impermanence of all things gradually seeped into their consciousness to affect their outlook on nature and their feeling toward it. The visits to the temples and shrines, the rites of each season, etc., are all involved with the beauty of nature and its seasonal changes. Nature was closely observed - not only general objects such as birds, flowers, mountains, waters, but also every minute change in these, especially changes brought about by the passing of time. This minute observation is to be found particularly in Prince Genji, the paragon of the age. Such keeness of perception was accompanied by a deep contemplative attitude toward nature. The feeling for nature went beyond mere natural enjoyment of it to a kind of metaphysical, quasi-mystical contemplation. Moreover, the uncertainty of the future served to frame this contemplation in a kind of deep melancholy, a melancholy which could very easily be projected into nature. The changing aspects of nature corresponded all too well with the experience of man's impermanence. Though there was little or no philosophical meditation upon the essence of beauty and its evanescene and fragility, still by reflecting upon the beautiful objects that they saw ever changing about them the Heian nobles were able to reach an intuitive understanding of the impermanence and evanescence of all things, even of man himself. It was only one step further to look upon the fluidity of nature as a symbol of the impermanence and fragility of man's existence. Their experience of life as dominated by cruel fate and their observation of natural change came together to form their aesthetic intuition, their mono no aware.

Page  151 FRANCIS MATHY, S.J. 151 Had the changes in nature been perceived to be without order or reason, they would have been merely interesting phenomena, capable of heightening aesthetic interest, but not really seen as aware. But the changes were dominated by an order, a law, a constancy. It was when the rhythm and periodicity of the change had come to penetrate their consciousness and become part of their experience of beauty that the Heian nobles came to realize man's impermanence and nature's symbolization of it in a kind of continuing memento mori. The direct effect of this memento mori was to place before man, with his natural tendency toward pride, the rhythm and periodicity of change as a kind of hourglass devised by some great and unchanging power to make him realize and reflect upon the passage of time. This effect depends psychologically upon just the right tempo of change. The period of one day, from dawn to dusk, for example, would be too short to produce it. With the loss of a day we do not feel that our lives have been significantly shortened. Too long a period, on the other hand, would also fail of aesthetic effect. The most suitable tempo is after all that of the four seasons. One more element is significant. The more energetic dynamism and zest for life a man has, the less he will be touched by all this. But in an age as effeminate and lacking in vital energy as the Heian, it was very easy for this sensibility to develop. Onishi sees the Japanese sense of mono no aware to be the result finally of a negative, passive acceptance of life and of an adaptation of living and culture to nature in all its changes. R. H. Blyth in the preface to his volumes on the haiku attributes to Zen the shaping of Japanese poetic sensibilities. But at the conclusion of this study of aware it can be seen that what Blyth says of Zen as it is to be found in the haiku can already be said of mono no aware as it appears in the earlier literature, before the influence of Zen had come to be felt. The haiku record, Blyth writes,...what Wordsworth calls those "spots of time," those moments which for some quite mysterious reason have a peculiar significance. There is a unique quality about the poet's state of feeling on these occasions; it may be very deep, it may be rather shallow, but there is a "something" about the inner mind which is unmistakable. Where haiku poets excel all others is in recognizing this "something" in the most unlikely places and at the most unexpected times. It belongs to what Pater calls, in speaking of Wordsworth, the quiet habitual observation of inanimate or imperfectly animate existence. Haiku is a kind of satori, or enlightenment, in which we see into the life of things. We grasp the inexpressible meaning of some quite ordinary thing or fact hitherto entirely overlooked. Haiku is the apprehension of a thing by a realization of our own original and essential unity with it, the word "realization" having the literal meaning here of "making real" in ourselves. The thing perceives itself in us; we perceive it by simple self-consciousness. The joy of the (apparent) reunion of ourselves with things, with all things, is thus the happiness of being our true selves. It is with "all things" because, as Dr. Suzuki explains in his works on Zen, when one thing is taken up, all things are taken up with it. One flower is the spring; a falling leaf has the whole of autumn, of every autumn, of the eternal, the timeless autumn of

Page  152 152 MONO NO AWARE each thing and all things. Then Blyth goes on to comment on the nature of Japanese art and literature in general:.. the whole of Japanese art and literature are aimed at the same infinity as that of the Western world of the last five centuries, but not through space, not through the horizon. It is the infinite grasped in the hand, before the eyes, in the hammering of a nail, the touch of cold water, the smell of chrysanthemums, the smell of this chrysanthemum. Haiku are thus an expression of the union of those two forms of living which Spengler regarded as irreconcilable and mutually ununderstandable, the Classical feeling of the present moment, of restricted space, and the Modern European feeling of eternity, infinity. "The infinite grasped in the hand" - is that not a good description of the fifth stage of aware as described by Onishi? As the aesthetic experience of aware deepened and became more intense, it joined to itself a methodology whereby the experience could be communicated, could reproduce itself, could so implicate itself into the national culture as to become the experience of all Japanese for many ages. Found in this methodology are zazen, the Zen meditation which strives for satori, the ultimate goal of aware; the tea ceremony, the art of flower arrangement, of calligraphy, of archery, all the so-called "Ways." The sensibility of mono no aware, therefore, culminates in the satori of zen, and perpetuates and diffuses itself through the cultural institutions it has created and continues to inform. It is for this reason that the sense of mono no aware is even today much more a part of the average Japanese's psyche than any of the imported philosophies or creeds that he may for a time embrace but will often in the end reject. As Maruyama affirms in the passage referred to in the beginning of this study, the most enduring stratum of Japanese "thought" is that of the traditional sensibility, which includes as one of its basic elements the sense of mono no aware. NOTES 1Maruyama Masao, Nihon no shiso (The Thought of Japan) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shinsho, 1961), pp. 5-6. 2On Mumyo-zoshi and early references to mono no aware, cf. Hisamatsu Sen'ichi, Nihon Bungaku Hyoron Shi: Kodai Chusei Hen (History of Japanese Literary Criticism: Antiquity and the Middle Ages), (Tokyo: Shibundo, 1936), pp. 481 ff. 3See, Hisamatsu Sen'ichi, "Genji Monogatari Hyoron no Rekishi" (History of the Criticism of the Tale of Genji) in Kokubungaku, Vol. III, No. 5, pp. 31 ff. 4Motoori Norinaga, Zenshi, Vol. V (Tokyo: Katano Toshiro, 1902), pp. 1160 ff. 5We prefer to retain the Japanese word kokoro in place of the usual English translations "heart", "soul" or "spirit". The term generally points to that which is deepest and most char

Page  153 FRANCIS MATHY, S. J. 153 acteristic in a person, thing, or situation. In the present passage Norinaga implies that a man who does not know aware has not really penetrated to his own deepest being and is, therefore, without kokoro. 6The Tale of Genji, tr.. by Arthur Waley (London, 1935), p. 246. 'Onishi Yoshinori, Yfgen to mono no aware (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1939). 8The Japanese word tansho is more comprehensive than our English "admiration". The word is composed of the characters for "to approve" and "to sigh". One sees, one is moved, one sighs: this is tansho. Whereas "admiration" is generally used today of people and seldom of anything else, tansho can be used of anything that moves one to exclaim. The English usage of "admiration" most closely resembling this is that of the expression "to admire the view. " 9Aikan is composed of the character which is also read aware in its narrow meaning of sadness, pity; and of the character for "feeling". 10Watsuji Tetsuro, Nihon seishin-shi kenkyu (Studies in the Intellectual History of Japan) (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1927), pp. 225 ff. Francis Mathey, S. J., Professor of Japanese Literature at Sophia University in Tokyo, received his Ph.D. in Comparative Literature from The University of Michigan in 1963. He has served as Editor of Monumenta Nipponica and is presently a member of its advisory board.

Page  154

As a Driven Leaf: Love and Psychological Characterization in The Tale of Genji

Gail Capitol Kahanpp. 155-174

Page  155 AS A DRIVEN LEAF: LOVE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION IN THE TALE OF GENJI by Gail Capitol Kahan The University of Michigan

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Page  157 The light leaf scatters in the wind, and of the vaunted spring no tinge is left us, save where the pine-tree grips its ledge of stone. Murasaki Shikibu. It seems an anomaly that the words 'universal' and 'timeless' best describe a novel focalizing the cloistered existence of Heian aristocrats keenly sensitive to the transitory, illusory nature of all things. Only once in the history of man has there existed a way of life so devoted to the cult of beauty, charged with acute emotional susceptibility to the myriad forms and forces of the sensual world. Sensitivity to the ambience of one's environment is not in itself extraordinary. What is unique is the degree to which Heian aristocrats indulged it, and the fact that it innately involved the awareness of the 'sadness of things' (mono no aware). The responsiveness of the Heian courtier was not confined to superficial qualities of external stimuli, but expanded to savoring the emotional essence of an experience. Understanding the essence of things was consonant only with understanding the ephemeral nature of all that flourished; the observing consciousness and the thing observed were fated to fade and disappear. The pre-eminent mood of the aristocrats in The Tale of Genji is thus one of melancholy (aware) engendered by and in response to the melange of evanescent beauties and pleasures comprising worldly life. Yet while The Tale of Genji is a singular cultural phenomenon born of a medieval society imbued with Buddhist metaphysics, it transcends cultural and temporal boundaries, speaking of emotions shared with modern Western man. Murasaki Shikibu's characters are created primarily through descriptions of the psychological ramifications of romantic love. The concept or experience of psychological involvement in romantic love is one familiar to the Western reader; further, though he cannot attain empathic identification with the general aesthetic and melancholic tone of Heian life, he can identify with the aware of love. For Western man, as for the Heian gentleman, the romantic dream is compounded of longing and regret for the fleeting perfection of the moment. If sorrow is in the nature of all things, it is the particular providence of love. Two persistent themes in The Tale of Genji, jealousy and death, are essential to communicating the ephemeral nature of love. Jealousy, most painfully experienced by female characters -- but known to males as well -- is rooted in this awareness as much as in the polygamous mores of Heian society. It is an intense manifestation of the conviction that once-possessed love is fated to die and fear of the moment of its death. Paradoxically, the preservation of love is possible only through the death of the beloved. Inevitably, the romantic dream is heightened through separation, but love can be sustained only when the hope of recapturing the past is unalterably eclipsed by death. Only then can the lover freely nourish his deepest emotions with remembrances, with crystallized recollections secure from the encroachment of time. Time, however, bears witness to the lie: nothing is forever. The past cannot be recaptured. At best, it can be closely imitated, as nature re-creates herself in the unending cycle of the seasons. Yet, while there is the ever-renewed moment, there is its necessary corollary, the destruction of the moment. Every experience is marked with the melancholy of 'having been' while it is in process of 'becoming.' The Tale of Genji is thus a powerful novel of sustained dramatic eloquence, approaching Aristotelian tragedy in its construction. 157

Page  158 158 AS A DRIVEN LEAF Basically, the novel is composed of two movements, the first centering upon the hero, Prince Genji, at the urban center of Heian-kyo (modern Kyoto), and the second upon the antihero, Kaoru, set amid the wilds of nature at the province of Uji. The action gradually evolves away from a splendorous, artificial human environment into a somber, natural, basically lonely one. The progress away from the capital into the isolated province is one of increasing closure; the balancing of an enclosed patrician society against an open natural world results in an intensified scrutiny of a limited set of characters and range of action. The Uji chapters, in their psychological density and heightened melancholic tone, stand as a coda to those that re-create the ceremonial pattern of life at the Heian court, and the complex web of human relationships fostered therein. Overall structural unity is accomplished, however, primarily through corresponding experiences of the two leading characters. Genji's love affairs and psychological nature exposed through them are the counterpoint to Kaoru's adventures and temperament. Internal unity is maintained throughout the novel by a relentless focus upon Genji; not only is the major portion of the work devoted to his amorous escapades, but he is both prototype and protagonist. Although an exact correspondence of detail is not unalterably present, the nature of love as explored through Genji's attachments is at the core of the novel. All other characters are ultimately subsidiary and best understood with reference to him, for they are revealed by a repetition of themes stated among his affairs. In terms of the structure of the novel, therefore, whether Genji emerges as an ideal being ablaze with apollonian beauty is less important than the fact that his is the presence that pervades and sustains the work. Genji's beauty is the source of his magnetism, however, for: No one could see him without pleasure. He was like the flowering tree under whose shade even the rude mountain peasant delights to rest. And so great was the fascination he exercised that all those who knew him longed to offer him whatever was dearest to them. The 'Shining One', therefore, is unmatched in the scope of his love affairs, comprised of two basic types: those pursued in search of an ideal, and those resulting from assumed responsibility for the welfare of a young girl, the latter being an extension of the former as they involve the recollection of an ideal lost, and the attempt to recapture it. His search for the perfect union, permanently poised in time, is the root of his self-delusions, appetites, and unfailing ability to torment himself and the women bewitched by the genuine ardor he evokes. Genji never forgets; this is his power, and his pain. The variety of Genji's romances, however, does not rest solely upon his search for ideal love. He is equally, irrepressively subject to infatuations aroused by physical gratification, or a cool response to his advances. These minor affairs of the moment, and his marriages to two women of superior rank, function as secondary alliances complicating the cycle of his life. Thus, the characterization of Genji emerges out of the interplay of three romantic themes: ideal love, momentary infatuation, and the marriage of convenience. His personality is revealed through rapprochements with women, evolving, as a consequence of these experiences, from a willful youth to a man nearly defeated by the knowledge that love is a fragile dream that fades the moment it is realized. The theme of quest for a perfect love, and the resultant realization that it is destined to

Page  159 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 159 end in disillusion, is stated at the onset of the novel in the "Broom-Tree" chapter, where Genji is regaled with the reminiscences of his jaded fellow courtiers. There is general accord that the perfect woman does not exist, the emphasis of the discussion centering upon the inevitablydiscovered faults in a lady's education or temperament. Uma no Kami expresses disenchantment with one woman due to her uncontrolled jealousy, with another due to her frivolous attachment to a second lover; TO no Chuj6 lost a gentle lower-class mistress, mother of his child, who fled from him because she mistrusted his love. Both hope for nothing more than union with a faithful woman of amiable disposition and a respectable level of accomplishment in the social graces. The fantasy of finding the perfect woman, however, cannot be completely relinquished, and Uma no Kami voices the hoped-for discovery -- one that Genji, and later his ostensible son Kaoru, and grandson Niou, will realize again and again: But suppose that behind some gateway overgrown with vine-wood, in a place where no one knows there is a house at all, there should be locked away some creature of unimagined beauty -- with what excitement should we discover her! The complete surprise of it, the upsetting of all our wise theories and classifications, would be likely, I think, to lay a strange and sudden enchantment upon us. At this moment, however, such a hope is far removed from Genji's concern: The frivolous, commonplace, straight-ahead amours of his companions did not in the least interest him, and it was a curious trait in his character that when, on rare occasions, despite all resistance, love did gain a hold upon him, it was always in the most improbable and hopeless entanglements that he became involved. Here every clue to his character and the progress of his career as a lover is given. Already at this early stage of life, Genji has or soon will have known all the common amours. Lonely and motherless, he is deeply in love with his father' s consort, Fujitsubo -- the only well-bred beauty he has often seen in informal, relatively intimate surroundings. Beloved of father and son because she is "so like his mother," Fujitsubo is the ideal woman in whom Genji can discern none of the defects catalogued by his compeers, whose appeal is heightened because she is forbidden. Furthermore, he well knows the disillusionment expressed by To no ChtljO and Uma no Kami, for he is married to an admirably accomplished woman, Aoi, whose immaculate beauty and aloofness intimidate every attempt at intimacy; and, though he is loath to relinquish an unendurably longedfor, hard-won conquest, he is weary of a previous ideal, Rokujo, whose jealousy mitigates against her superior elegance. For all his disdain of his companions, however, Genji immediately displays typical inconstancy and absence of self-insight as he embarks upon the series of reckless infatuations, starting with Utsusemi, that form the undercurrent to the more enduring stream of his entanglements. At this time, moreover, he finds his third ideal love, Yugao, the embodiment of Uma no Kami's fantasy. The pathos of this fragile creature hidden unsuspected amid what are, to Genji, other-worldly, lower-class surroundings, enchants him. The dream-like quality of their union in a forelorn retreat never loses its hold upon his memory; Ytigao is Genji's first experience with the love-death duality that haunts his life. Convinced that he has caused her death through a heedless pursuit of pleasure and neglect of Rokujo, who cursed Yugao, Genji suffers not only the pain of love lost as soon as won, but shame at having indulged in a disastrous illicit affair. The rainynight conversation in the "Broom-Tree" chapter and its immediate aftermath therefore elucidate

Page  160 160 AS A DRIVEN LEAF the present and anticipate the future course of Genji's romances. Genji's courtship of Utsusemi and seduction of her more compliant companion, Nokiba no Ogi, provide insight into one of his basic characteristics, and lay the foundation for his later involvements with Suyetsumuhana, Asagao, Oborozuki, and Akikonomu. As T5 no Chujo adroitly observes, Genji is a man "given to odd experiments" -- an unflagging devotee of the beautiful, the strange, the fleeting diversion fraught with mystery and danger, flavored with the lady's hesitation. He cannot tolerate failure to win the love of a woman; yet, as a necessary condition to the persistence of desire, love must elude him. Thus, Utsusemi's refusal to continue their affair, had not affected him as it would have affected most people. If she had encouraged him he would soon have regarded the affair as an appalling indiscretion which he must put an end to at all costs; whereas now he brooded continuously upon his defeat and was forever plotting new ways to shake her resolution. The same compulsion is present in his continued correspondence with Asagao, who, determined not to be "classified among the common ruck of his admirers," remains a constant source of pique to him. Here again: Genji tended to fall most deeply in love with those who gave him the least encouragement. The ideal condition for the continuance of his affections was that the beloved, much occupied elsewhere, should grant him no more than an occasional favour. Genji's strong attraction to any fantastic, new, or forbidden situation, and his appetite for conquest when apprised of what would seem an awesome variety of female charms are equally evidenced in his relationships with his more enduring loves: Fujitsubo, Rokuj6, and Yugao,and their later counterparts, Murasaki, the Lady of Akashi, and Tamakatsura. Excepting Murasaki, each of these women figures only sporadically in Genji's life, but, in contrast to the above brief diversions, each is of major significance in the development of his mature personality. As noted above, Genji is immediately attracted to Fujitsubo because she embodies the dream of a lost mother, but his lifelong devotion to her is more essentially rooted in the fact that their passion, only once consummated, produces a bitter secret shared: their son Ryozen. Their affair remains the classic embodiment of the agony of love lost. From Fujitubo Genji first learns of the enduring shame and misery resulting from ungoverned desire, the fleeting nature of love satisfied, and the tortuous persistence of desire stemming from the realization that his love can never again be expressed or gratified. Fujitsubo, coldly determined to protect the secret of their "swift transgression, " never ceases to rebuff the Shining One; he, though cognizant of the need for prudence and grateful for the reserve and discretion lacking in other women, remains throughout life "drawn toward Fujitsubo as though by some secret power, and except at rare moments her coldness caused him nothing but torment and despair." Despite his adulation of Fujitsubo, Genji' s greatest love is the woman with whom he shares more than twenty years of life, Murasaki. His affair with Murasaki is composed of all those elements necessary to his continued affection, save the fact that she is never much occupied elsewhere. Initially, he is attracted by her uncommon loveliness as a child; more basically, she provides him with an amusing new experience. Genji determines to adopt her not only because she is the illegitimate child of Fujitsubo's brother and, he is certain, will grow into a

Page  161 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 161 beauty as breathtaking as her aunt, but because she is a child of rustic simplicity whose tastes can be easily molded to his own. His abduction of the frightened girl is one of the more distasteful examples of his often wanton seizure of whatever he desires, yet it is excusable in a society where youth and beauty justify all things; even those most fond of Murasaki must forgive, and ultimately applaud, his zealous behavior: Because he was so young and charming Myobu felt that despite her indignation she must smile too. At his age it was inevitable that he should cause a certain amount of suffering. Suddenly it seemed to her perfectly right that he should do as he felt inclined without thinking much about the consequences. In this instance, the consequence is rewarding for both 'father' and 'daughter', and Genji is soon deeply involved with his wholly trusting pupil who, among all women, "gave him her whole heart." Murasaki's gentle disposition, child-like charm, and quick mind never fail to delight him, for "the idea that so perfect a nature was in his hands, to train or cultivate as he thought best, was very attractive to Genji." Her education is therefore flawlessly suited to his taste; she remains the one woman who cannot fail to win his admiration. Others may engage his attentions, or surpass her in one or another of the artistic accomplishments so necessary to the evocation of affection, but Murasaki remains a creature of perfection in her fastidious bearing and uniform proficiency at all social graces. Ultimately the child matures, and Genji establishes lamplight falling upon her, he realized with delight that she was becoming that she as ee very image of her whom from the beginning he had loved best." Though briefly convinced he could never love anyone as he does this woman he has so carefully fashioned, Genji, with his usual alacrity and lack of self-insight, subsequently declares his passion to Fujitsubo, becomes hopelessly enmeshed with desire for the never-yielding Asagao, and seduces his step-mother's sister, Oborozuki. It is not easy to sympathize with the young libertine when, due to various difficulties in these affairs, he realizes the frailty of worldly glories -- a realization heightened by the machinations of court factions, leaving him no alternative but exile from Kyoto. Murasaki Shikibu approaches Socratic irony at this stage of her herds career. Prior to leaving the capital, Genji appreciatively reflects upon the continued warmth of a sadly neglected former mistress, the Lady of the Village of Falling Flowers: If by chance anyone resented this kind of treatment and cooled towards him, Genji was never in the least surprised; for though, as far as feelings went, perfectly constant himself, he had long ago learnt that such constancy was very unusual. Genji's two subsequent loves, the Lady of Akashi and Tamakatsura, also attract him because they recall former mistresses and provide stimulating new challenges. Furthermore, both appeal to his uncontrollable fascination with the fantastic. As with his delighted discovery of Murasaki, Genji's appreciation of the Lady of Akashi is largely due to his finding her amidthe lonely, rustic surroundings of his exile. In addition, though of comparatively low rank and raised in the provinces, her proud elegance faintly recalls Rokuj5. To Murasaki, he blithely dismisses his affair as a mere "trifling dream"; nevertheless, he becomes deeply enamoured of the Lady of Akashi when he realizes that her incomparable beauty, revealed through her musical aptitude, will be lost to him upon his return to the capital: "This fresh discovery of her, this last-hour revelation filled him with new longings and regrets. Must he lose her 2". Unwilling to

Page  162 162 AS A DRIVEN LEAF accept the reality of fleeting love, Genji begins calculating a series of wildly devised schemes to bring her, against her will, to Kyoto. Thus, her image haunts him after his return to Murasaki. The circumstances attending the appearance of Tamakatsura, T6 no Chiujo's daughter by Yugao, are even more compelling. Genji, having known of her existence since that youthful rainy-night conversation, had always wished to assuage the guilt caused by Yugao's death by caring for the child -- a pattern, it might be added, typical of him; it is equally the motive behind his solicitous concern for Fujitsubo's son Ry6zen and Rokujo's daughter Akikonomu, and it is basic to his encouraging the childless Murasaki to adopt the Akashi princess. The sudden appearance of an astonishingly beautiful Tamakatsura is most appropriate to the dream-like memory Genji harbors of her mother. She exceeds Yugao's lovliness, however, for: she had all of her mother's beauty and something more besides;....she seemed to have inherited from her father's side a singular air of high breeding, an aristocratic fineness of limb and gesture, that in Yigao, whose beauty was that of the by-street rather than of the palace, had been entirely lacking. This, of course, is the apparent reason for Genji's interest in her, but here a concentration of motifs occurs, leading to a pivotal climax in his development. Tamakatsura, like the Lady of Akashi, is uniquely attractive because, having been raised in the provinces, her elegance is altogether unexpected. Here, then, is that fantastic element so appealing to Genji. Like Murasaki, she enters his household as his daughter, and he is therefore able to live in relative intimacy with her, while playing his beloved ego-gratifying role of mentor and guide. Finally, she reminds him of Yugao, a woman whom Genji at the end of his life still longingly remembers: But such a love as Yugao's, such utter self-forgetfulness, so complete a surrender of the whole being to one single and everpresent emotion -- I have never seen or heard of.... Due to her resemblance to Y-ugao, she seems to hold the promise of yielding passion, therefore frustrating Genji -- a necessary condition for the heightening of his desire. Genji's love for Tamakatsura effects a turning-point in his maturation, and the growing process evidenced through their affair is thorough and progressive; Genji emerges from this liaison cured of his youthful addiction to heedlessly satisfying his desires. He restrains himself for a long period, judiciously playing the role of 'father', until he can no longer tolerate the need to possess her. Rationalizing his more sensuous desires, he finds it increasingly necessary to discuss 'business' matters with her, and finally, piqued by Murasaki's insight into the real reasons for his parental concern, he spends even more time in Tamakatsura's company to convince himself that there are no grounds for Murasaki's suspicions. These strategems fail him however, and realizing that he does not possess the self-control needed to sustain these passionless roles, Genji at last is able to consider the consequences, should he act according to his desires. Middle-aged, he suddenly discovers he can no longer indulge in the irresponsible behavior characteristic of his youth; he relinquishes a potential conquest because there is no way, without creating a scandal and causing pain to both Murasaki and Tamakatsura, to make the latter his consort.

Page  163 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 163 More important, however, is his insight that despite his resolution, he may not be able to execute such a sacrifice, or maintain the tranquil life he determines to subsequently lead. The determination to free himself from all romantic entanglements is a familiar sentiment, one he consistently voices when vexed by the complications of love; now, however, Genji first admits self-doubt: "Even were this course in every way desirable, he greatly doubted his own capacity to pursue it. Such self-sacrifices, he knew, are easier to plan than to effect." Finally, when Tamakatsura is unalterably lost to him, he arrives at his first moment of the acceptance of defeat, and honest self-appraisal: It is said that whatever happens to us is ruled by our conduct in previous existences, or, as others would express it, by Fate. But it seemed to Genji that for the miseries into which he constantly found himself plunged, no other person or power could possibly be held responsible. They sprang from his own excessive susceptibility, and from no other cause whatever. This is the beginning of Genji's denouement; he progresses to a more acute stage of selfdoubt and self-knowledge, effected by the stunning blow of the adulterous union between his second wife, Nyosan, and To no Chfuj's son, Kashiwagi -- a blow struck, like a deus ex machina, when he is at the height of his worldly power: He knew that when he was merely amusing himself with someone, without really being in love, the discovery that this person was receiving attentions from another man at once made it impossible for him to continue his own mild dalliance. In such cases it galled him that another should receive what he himself had never claimed. And now Nyosan....No, this was something he could never forgive. The birth of their child, Kaoru, resuscitating all the painful details of his affair with Fujitsubo, brings forth the supreme moment of self-realization. Despite his care to avoid a repetition of his own youthful offense by forbidding Yugiri, his son by Aoi, to see either Murasaki or Nyosan, Genji at last experiences the effects of his self-gratification upon others' lives: Suddenly it occurred to Genji to ask himself whether perhaps his father... had not been in just the same fix. No doubt he too (though Genji never before suspected it) knew perfectly well what was going on, and had merely pretended not to see. There was no denying it: that was a disgraceful affair, as indeed he had always known; though all that his father might have suffered through it he had never until this moment guessed. Certainly, Genji previously had not been an insensitive or wholly imperceptive man. Indeed, one is struck by his delightfully honest self-appraisal while visiting, during the period of his greatest love for Tamakatsura, with the Lady of the Village of Falling Flowers: "'We are both singularly fortunate,' he concluded to himself. 'I in my capacity for self-delusion; she in hers for good-natured acceptance of whatever comes her way. "' He has suffered the aftermath of remorse when his affairs with Rokuj5, Yiigao, Aoi, Utsusemi, and Oborozuki have ended disasterously, the torture of guilt with Fujitsubo, and the frustration of love denied with Fujitsubo, Asagao, and Tamakatsura. Furthermore, throughout life he recognizes the disastrous effects of his pursuit, conquest, and abandonment upon the lives of his lovers. While in exile at Suma, for

Page  164 164 AS A DRIVEN LEAF example, his appreciation of Rokujo's suffering is heightened by empathy. Though justifiably disdaining her -- her jealousy caused the demonic possession and death of Aoi and Yugao, and she herself made public the details of their affair that necessitated her retirement to Ise -- a letter from her occasions the following reflection: He knew well enough that she was not to blame for what had occurred and that his own feelings towards her were utterly unreasonable, and now that he was himself suffering the penalty of exile he felt more than ever ashamed of having driven her away by his sudden coldness. Genji, however, has never known the extreme self-torment, reaching the point of madness, some of his women experience. His suffering never remotely approaches Rokujo's, who, knowing she has lost his love forever, often felt as if her whole personality had in some ways altered. It was as though she were a stranger to herself. Recently she had noticed that a smell of mustard-seed incense for which she was at a loss to account was pervading her clothes and hair.... It was bad enough even in private to have this sensation of being as it were estranged from oneself. But now her body was playing tricks upon her which her attendants must have noticed and were no doubt discussing behind her back. Yet there was not one person among those about her with whom she could bring herself to discuss such things and all this pent-up misery seemed only to increase the strange process of dissolution which had begun to attack her mind. The degree to which Genji' s scorn shatters the personality of a proud and fastidious woman is further revealed when, after death, her tormented spirit finds no rest, but clings to earth and possesses Murasaki; the all-consuming hatred Rokuj6 bears Genji erupts with a fury that reveals the uncontrollable self-destruction precipitated by the never-forgiven loss of his love: Nothing, not one thought nor feeling, have I brought with me unaltered into the world of death, save this insensate passion, that even on earth made my own nature loathsome and despicable to me. Rage, jealousy, hatred -- they alone cling to my soul.... Genji, furthermore, has never known the utter desperation that could cause the Lady of Akashi, faced with the terrifying prospect of life among social superiors, to conclude: she was amazed to think that she had ever drifted into this miserable union, which had brought nothing but trouble and confusion upon herself and those for whom she cared. She found herself envying those whose fortune it had been never to cross this prince's path. There is, moreover, a qualitative difference between Genji's previous experience of disillusion, shame, empathic remorse, and frustration, and the cold fear and abject defeat that attend his realization of what his father may have known and suffered; Genji is now the lover betrayed! The betrayal and retirement into nunhood of the one woman of faultless lineage in his household, the woman who might have presented him with the heirs Murasaki fails to conceive, precipitates the shadows. Genji can no longer pretend youth. His life force is ebbing; and as his elders often

Page  165 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 165 pardoned his youthful indiscretions because of his beauty, so he, realizing that Nyosan' s loveliness is that of a child, must forgive his wife's unfaithfulness: the real trouble is that I am too old for you. It is true. I am hideously old. Indeed, what in the world could be more natural than that an infant like you should desire to escape from me?.... It is Murasaki, his unfailingly devoted 'pupil,' who makes life tolerable as Genji reaps the misery he has sown. The deep affection they share is reflected in Genji's long discourse to her, when he is completely subdued by the knowledge of life's fleeting joys and recognizes Murasaki's imminent death: What a strange life mine has been! I suppose few careers have ever appeared outwardly more brilliant; but I have never been happy. Person after person that I cared for has in one way or another been taken from me. It is long since I lost all zest for life, and if I have been condemned to continue my existence, it is (I sometimes think) only as a punishment for certain misdeeds that at all times still lie heavily on my mind. You alone have always been here to console me, and I am glad to think that, apart from the time that I was away at Akashi, I have never behaved in such a way as to cause you a moment's real unhappiness. Murasaki is his strength -- the mother, mistress and child to whom he can always repair for solace and pleasure. Yet, he remains even now the unperceiving Genji of his youth, proceeding, with charming alarcity, to recount to her the assets and defects of other lovers, and affecting complete ignorance of the fact that Murasaki's life has been filled with the gnawing fear that he would cease to love her, that the "dreaded turning-point" would come, when "the whole sovereignty in his affections that had been so long her pride, would begin to slip away from her...." The climax of ls th her long-suffering existence also comes with herrealization of middle-age; despite her amiable reception of Nyosan, affected to protect Genji from distress at her pain, Murasaki knows there is no way to preserve a young love-dream now fossilized in the past: After all, this was not the first time that she had been called upon to suffer the presence of a rival in the house. But hitherto these rivals had been without exception her inferiors in birth, and not much less than her equals in age; whereas Nyosan was a person of quite as much social consequence as herself, and...was just entering upon that season of sunshine and flowers to which Murasaki was already bidding farewell. The season of sunshine and flowers cannot be held constant; it gives birth to autumn, and autumn, with its dying flush of color, portends the season of death. Murasaki's death is the virtual end of Genji as well. Wizened and saddened by irrevocable aloneness, Genji rallies from Murasaki's death only to serve the demanding goddess of propriety. He exits as he enters, however, remaining an irrepresible Shining Prince, still desiring the adulation of women, appearing "more beautiful than ever" among his guests at the Festival of Buddha's Names, and fading from view as he busies himself with preparations for the most lavish New Year celebration yet seen at court.

Page  166 166 AS A DRIVEN LEAF As noted above, Genji figures in the tale titled for him as both protagonist and prototype. His affairs are consistently relived by the lesser male and female characters in the novel, the difference between them centered in the less idealized nature of these men and women. They neither experience the scope of his amours, nor do they sustain his valiancy and success in their pursuits. Genji's half-brother, the ex-Emperor Suzaku, suffers because his consort Oborozuki's affections are already devoted to Genji; the latter's illegitimate son, the Emperor Ryozen, takes as his consort another desired by Suzaku, Akikonomu, while remaining infatuated with a love denied, Tamakatsura. T6 no Chiij6's son, Kurodo no Shosho, is rendered wretched to the point of illness by the loss of his one great love, Tamakatsura's daughter Himegimi, wedded to Ryozen to accommodate his loss of Tamakatsura. Here, then, are the themes so prevalent in Genji's career: the marriage of convenience, love denied, and love transferred to a young woman who recalls the first beloved. The outstanding example of correspondence between Genji's career and others' experiences, however, is the Kashiwagi-Nyosan episode. The weakness and foolishness attending their affair heighten, by contrast, the monumental strength and superior breeding of Genji and Fujitsubo. Nyosan' s childish ineptitude in allowing an incriminating letter to be left where Genji could discover it, her inability to mask her guilt when with him, thus confirming his suspicions, and Kashiwagi's illness and death reflect the romantic entanglements and foibles of more probable Heian courtiers less idealized than the Shining Prince. Indeed, greater realism is evident in every facet of this unfortunate alliance, from Kashiwagi's frustrated declaration, "Ochiba is Ochiba and Nyosan is Nyosan, " when he cannot suppress desire for his forbidden ideal love through marriage to her sister, to the utter unrestrained guilt and fear that render both lovers incapable of functioning with any degree of social propriety. The hypersensitive responses of the personalities involved in this triangle are particularly believable when considered within the context of a social order where the rule of 'good taste' governed behavior. Thus, Genji disdains the lovers not so much because of their transgression, as because of the stupidity and crudeness, i.e., absence of restraint, both display. Nyosan retires from worldly life not because she is guilt-ridden so much as because her unfaithfulness is known to Genji. The same factor precipitates Kashiwagi's death: What makes me glad to die is not remorse for my guilt, but a strange terror that comes over me when I think that Prince Genji knows my secret. In some way it is his glamour, his dazzling ascendancy that, after what has happened, make life impossible for me. On an even lesser scale, the sensible Yugiri most closely parallels the progress of his father's romantic liaisons. He endures a constant love, augmented by the obstacles to their marriage, for Chiijo's daughter Kumoi, until he is finally allowed to marry her. Their compatibility approximates that of Genji and Murasaki and Genji and the Lady of Akashi, for Yugiri and Kumoi are lifelong companions, and she remains always capable of arousing his affection despite the fact that he later loves another. His second passion, centered on Ochiba, can be correlated with Genji's relationships with Murasaki and Tamakatsura. Yugiri, having accepted responsibility for Ochiba's welfare after Kashiwagi's death, experiences emotions akin to those Genji felt whenever his love was scorned, and through this affair also gains self-knowledge: How often had Yugiri watched other men falling into the helpless state in which he now found himself! There had always seemed to him something unreal in their languishings; and he had spoken of

Page  167 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 167 such people with considerable severity, feeling that with a little effort they might at any moment have escaped from their difficulties. But no, there was no escape; nothing to do but endure. Finally, Yiigiri repeats Genji's fatal attraction to a mother image as he falls hopelessly in love with Murasaki; but Yugiri is a prosaic bureaucrat lacking all his father' s brilliance. Despite the authoress' pains to point out his fine qualities of scholarship, serious-mindedness, thoughtfulness, and solidarity, neither she nor the reader actually admires the man who never attempts to consummate this love, but contents himself with imagining life with someone like her. Rather, one feels that the age of shining princes is being eireplaced by a new lackluster generation. The more mundane level of Yugiri's lovelife is equally evident in Kumoi's response to Ochiba. Though Kumoi reflects Murasaki in that she holds a supreme position in Yugiri's affections, she is incapable of Murasaki's devotion, forbearance, and outward tolerance of polygamy. Instead of welcoming the newcomer into her home, she returns to her father' s household. Marasaki Shikibu reaches the climax of her power to create psychologically real characters in the Uji chapters of The Tale of Genji. Descending from the dazzling heights where the 'Shining Pring ce' dwells, she focuses with myopic intensity upon the more materially present 'Fragrant Captain,' Kaoru, and, to a lesser degree, upon the 'Perfumed Prince, Niou. Genji's suffering always results from the desire to capture, re-capture, or eternally sustain ideal love. Kaoru persists in an identical struggle, but with the pivotal difference that his yearnings precipitate a hellish internal dialogue; even the brief illusion of perfect love shared is denied him. Furthermore, Genji's character expands and matures through bitter experience, and, for all his sensitivity and melancholia, he never loses the ability to seize at life. Kaoru is, from the outset, a man incapable of deriving any satisfaction from life; with him there is no culmination, no fruition, no maturation -- only a consistent shattering of an already tenuous ego, until his only hope for survival remains the affectation of a reserved and cynical disinterest. Kaoru, like Genji, is one of those apparently blessed men to whom all things come, but, "sunk in perpetual broodings and speculations Kaoru himself barely noticed the grandeurs that made many shy of approaching him. " The sensation that strange circumstances attended his birth, coupled with the early loss of his supposed father, make loneliness and insecurity his soulmates from childhood. This is reflected in his confession to Ben no Kimi, the maid at Uji who reveals the fantasy-like story of Kashiwagi and Nyosan to him: Genji's death,... happening when I was a mere child made -- I now think in looking back upon it -- a disastrous impression on me. I grew up feeling that nothing was stable, nothing worth while, and though in course of time I have risen to a fairly high position in the State and have even managed to win for myself a certain degree of celebrity, these things mean nothing to me. A tragic reversal from Genji, loneliness and insecurity lead Kaoru not toward romance, but away from it. Better suited to the inward, meditative life of the temple retreat than to the outerdirected propriety of court etiquette and social exchanges, he is nevertheless plagued by women who interpret hesitant politeness as a signal honor. His feelings for Himegimi, for example, chiefly stimulated by curiosity as to whether she finds him interesting, were of quite a negligible order. But there was something about his appearance and character which tended to arouse sympathy

Page  168 168 AS A DRIVEN LEAF even when he was least in need of it, and he was constantly being credited with emotions that he did not in the least feel. How different from Genji is this diffident man who will not trouble to make the acquaintance of Ichi no Miya, a reputed court beauty; how different this man whose resolute disinterest in the lesser ladies of the court and serious detached countenance cast a pall over any merriment. The spirit of easy camaraderie with women is totally absent in Kaoru; he, in general, possesses less joy than any inhabitant of that twilight world. At best, he can manage a slow, halfmocking smile at the absurdities of life, a smile before bitterness results from his fatal attachment to the residents at Uji. He remains, always, one who communicates distressed selfconsciousness, evoking only respect or grateful affection in return. Kaoru's search for stability and order beyond the illusions of the material world initially lead him to Uji, home of Prince Hachi no Miya and his half-orphaned daughters, Agemaki and Kozeri. Here Kaoru finds a physical and intellectual refuge from the court. Intent only upon religious instruction, he characteristically avoids complicating his purpose by shunning any contact with the girls. A theme basic to the novel, however, that of the unexpected discovery of a woman who is cultivated despite a provincial education and the subsequent birth of love after assuming responsibility for her, is maintained. Furthermore, Kaoru's love for one of the sisters, Kozeri, and his affair with their half-sister, Ukifune, continues the pivotal theme of The Tale of Genji, that of the continual attempt to recapture an ideal love lost. With the death of Prince Hachi, Kaoru, having accepted the obligation to insure the future of Agemaki and Kozeri, embarks upon the affair that will haunt his life. He falls deeply in love with Agemaki; yet, he is incapable of consummating that love. Gentle and solicitous, with a tenderness that is almost feminine, he elicits her confidence until he expresses his sensual desires. Characteristically, her resistence precipitates torment, filling him with the determination to overcome her hesitancy. He never does, however, and actually has no desire to do so -- a fact which renders him unique among other characters who have similar moments of failure and frustration. Kaoru, above all, is not seeking sensual gratification, but an ideal alter-ego, a mirrorimage with whom he can share his innermost thoughts. What Kaoru passionately longs for is not "love in the ordinary sense, " but "'someone to whom I can speak freely and openly about whatever came into my head, however trivial or however secret and intimate the thing might be.... Trt His idealization of woman is necessary to mask his insecurity; Kaoru is not impotent -- proven by his marriage to the Second Princess and affairs with maids and Ukifune -- but he cannot hazard rejection from someone he loves. After spending the night with Agemaki, separated from her by a screen, he realizes that it is not the barrier keeping them apart: The real barrier -- and one, it seemed to him, far more ridiculous -- consisted in his own miserable timidities and compunctions. Always there was this dread of striking too soon, of inflicting upon her against her will caresses that, if he had waited, she would in the end have come to desire. But the expression of love through physical union is least among Kaoru's needs; Agemaki retains his love because she never descends from the neo-Platonic heights where he has cast her. Indeed, "He had formed his conception of her character, and would have been disappointed if, even to his advantage, she had behaved at variance with it. "

Page  169 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 169 Agemaki never does. She vainly tries to bully her suitor into transferring his affections to Kozeri; foiled in this plot by Kaoru's encouragement of Niou's eager seduction of the younger girl, she becomes increasingly cold and forbidding. In contrast to Kozeri, willing to accept Niou's protestations of love as valid and excuse his long absences from Uji as due to the restrictions of his rank, Agemaki believes he has merely taken advantage of her sister's innocence: She had of course often heard her women say that lying was 'the only thing men were any use at,' and that they thought nothing of addressing the most passionate speeches to women about whom they cared hardly at all. But she had always supposed that this applied only to men of the same class as these women themselves -- people among whom it was natural that a low standard should prevail;.... Evidently she had been mistaken. Her father knew better; he had always spoken doubtfully of Niou's character.... Her conviction that all men are liars is confirmed in her attitude toward Kaoru, who, she is certain, would rapidly tire of her should she consent to live with him. More important than her mistrust, however, is the presence of 'her father,' who forms the real barrier between Agemaki and Kaoru. The Oedipal overtones of Genji's relationship with Fujitsubo are complemented and complicated by the Electra overtones of Agemaki's love for Prince Hachi. He is the only man to whom, after his death, she cries: " 'Send for me... I will come to you wherever you are.T " His death leaves her no purpose or meaning in life, other than the securing of Kozeri's future, and it is difficult to distinguish whether her self-imposed fast, illness and death are due to her dismay at Niou's 'betrayal' of her sister, or to her wish to be united with her father. Though distressed that Prince Hachi's progress in the spirit-world is impededed by his concern for his daughters, of one thing she thing she was more than ever determined. She must join him now, while his soul stil still hovered between incarnation and incarnation, so that they might be born together in the Land of Happine ss. Kaoru could not have been more fortuitous in his choice of a beloved; like him, Agemaki does not require physical consummation of love. Both are united by their ability to fashion one another according to their own needs. Agemaki is an equally lonely, fearful person whose perverse victory over Kaoru is death. Consistency with the thematic development of The Tale of Genji renders it more than understandable that, after the death of his ideal love, Kaoru fastens onto Kozeri, who recalls Agemaki to him. Again, however, he is secure in the unapproachability of the woman who has become Niou's official consort. Like Agemaki, Kozeri is fond of Kaoru, her affection chiefly based upon gratitude for his solicitous concern for her, and she too desires to make him happy by urging him to love a woman reputed to be the image of Agemaki -- their half-sister, Ukifune. The climax of the novel, when abl themes merge in a descant like a mass for the dead, begins here. Kaoru's character is an attenuation of the inward-turned, self-defeating, melancholic aspects of Genji's nature. The character of Prince Niou is an attenuation of Genji's confident, hedonistic drive toward self-gratification. Caught between these two polarities, Ukifune has no recourse but death; her attempted suicide, and unshakable committment to anonymity, symbolize the virtual death-agony precipitated by the conflict between the passions that ordain decisive,

Page  170 170 AS A DRIVEN LEAF thrilling action, and the morbid sensitivity and insecurity that foster indecision and retreat. Ukifune, like Kaoru, is painfully sensitive to her blemished birthright, and shares with Tamakatsura, also illegitimate, an unhappy childhood among a low-ranking provincial family. She is more pathetic than Tamakatsura, however, for the latter was tended by servants solicitous of her rank and in awe of her beauty. Ukifune matures as an unwanted child continually scorned by her stepfather and unduly dependent upon her mother, who keeps alive the promise that rank and beauty entitle her daughter to a secure, materially rewarding life among her social peers. She is endowed with exceptional grace, recalling the delightfully unexpected charm of Murasaki as a child, Tamakatsura, the Lady of Akashi, Agemaki, and Kozeri. She resembles Agemaki and has a voice like Kozeri; thus, for Kaoru, she is an ideal love resurrected, and her role with reference to him recalls those of Murasaki, the Lady of Akashi, and Tamakatsura in Genji's life. Furthermore, Kaoru discovers her in a house far removed from the aristocratic dwellings of his fellow courtiers, and spirits her away to an even remoter setting where, he believes, only he visits her. His discovery of her therefore is reminiscent of Genji and Yugao, while her establishment at Uji recalls that of the Lady of Akashi at Oi. Total correspondence between Genji's affairs and these last chapters of The Tale of Genji, however, is fully affected only through the presence of Ukifune's second lover, Niou; he, as opposed to Kaoru, revives the passion of Genji's romances, and not merely their form. The same parallels can be drawn between Genji's liaisons and Ukifune and Niou as between Ukifune and Kaoru, with the exception of the theme of the beloved recalling a lost ideal. This single exception is pivotal; by having him desire Ukifune for herself alone, rather than because she reminds him of another, Murasaki Shikibu completely touches earth in her characterization of Niou. He knows desire, the satisfaction of desire, and little else. Niou's attempted seduction of Ukifune when she is living with Kozeri is to be expected of an utterly selfish, uninhibited man, whose reputation prohibits women from entering Kozeri's service. His rash behavior leads to the complications of Ukifune's removal from her half-sister's household, Kaoru's discovery of her, her wretchedly lonely existence at Uji, and to the enduring fear that Kaoru will disdain her, should he learn of Niou's indiscretion. Heedless, relentless Niou, incapable of tolerating pleasure tasted but not satiated, pursues her and finds her. Regardless of the pain he causes Kozeri, aroused by his passion for Ukifune and his suggestion that his wife wishes to commit adultery with Kaoru, and regardless of the pain he will cause his only friend should Kaoru discover that Niou has seduced the one woman with whom Kaoru remotely approaches happiness, Niou proceeds to ravish Ukifune with a demonstrative force that literally leaves her helpless. The passion marking his virtual rape of the girl is heightened by his subsequent outburst of love, and his refusal to leave her. Like Genji in his wholehearted yielding to love, Niou's actions here recall Genji' s sobbed, unrestrained "tale of passion and despair" to Fujitsubo; Genji's love, however, is more than mere sensuous passion, for Fujitsubo is more than a woman -- she is his archetypical ideal of Woman as mother and mistress. Niou's love is basically rooted in sensual desire, and Murasaki Shikibu actualizes his earthiness by transcribing, rather than referring to his words of love unveiled by oblique poetic allusions: 'Listen,' he said, 'I've been thinking about her for months, day and night, the whole time -- I've been almost out of my senses. And do you suppose that now that I have found her at last I care what her mother or anyone else may think? I am in love with her, madly in love. You don't seem to know what that means. It's no use talking to me about what people will think or say.'

Page  171 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 171 There is indeed no use in talking to a man who insinuates the desire for an incestuous union with his sister, who excuses his inexcusable betrayal of Kaoru by maintaining that Kaoru is an indifferent lover, who can finally leave his new-found love and within moments decide "whatever he might have felt during the infatuation of the moment, Kozeri was really a thousand times better-looking than that other girl." Niou's inhumanity is further revealed in that, once he realizes Kaoru is deeply attached to Ukifune, his only emotions are satisfaction with himself for having always suspected Kaoru's protestations of indifference to women, and fear that Kaoru will be Ukifune's favored lover. Regrets, remorse, repentance are as alien to Niou as is tolerance; again, he presents a vivid contrast to Genji in his torment of a girl who is little more than another conquest, pressuring her to betray the one man who consistently shows her kindness and who, unlike Niou, will not abandon her should he tire of her charms. Overwhelmed by Ukifune's supposed death, Niou felt that he must at all costs find some means of distracting himself, and his experiments in this direction multiplied so rapidly that he was soon leading much the same life as before. There is no justification for Niou's seduction of Ukifune, but there is more than ample justification for her response to him. Indeed, Kaoru is an indifferent lover. Like Niou, Kaoru is less idealized than Genji; lacking the harmonious balance between the sensual and the spiritual characteristic of the Shining Prince, Kaoru's extreme sensitivity conditions and controls him to main focused on her predecessor to a degree that discloses the neurotic foundation of his need to retain an ideal image of woman. Abstracted and inhibited when with Ukifune, not only because he is plagued by guilt at betraying Agemaki's memory, but because of his habitual concern with the impression he is making, Kaoru is even more constricted by unabating self-disgust. He cannot forget that the one great love of his life was unconsummated, yet he is constricted by guilt because of this obsession; always convinced of his superior self-control and indifference to the illusory attachments of the world, he is incapable of tolerating his compulsive preoccupation with the memory of a woman. Finally, his self-torment assumes excruciating proportions through the persistence of desperate lorwliness, fed by his need for psychological empathy rather than physical gratification: Night after night alone on his bed (when there was no reason why he should be alone) Kaoru would go back time after time over all that had happened.... As far at any rate as his relations with other people were concerned, his life, he decided, had been a complete failure in the past and seemed likely to remain so. He had plenty of acquaintances, people with whom it was agreeable to talk, dependents whom he was used to having about him and to some of whom he was, in a way, rather attached. But among them all there was not a soul with whom he was in any real sense intimate. Above all, Kaoru is a humorless man, and it is no wonder that the sensitive, responsive Ukifune, rejected by her father and step-father, compares him unfavorably with Niou: How different the manner of his entry I! A feeling of constraint came over her. For some reason she felt frightened of him -- frightened to submit herself to his cool, deliberate inspection, she who had

Page  172 172 AS A DRIVEN LEAF fallen so easy a prey to Niou's boisterous love-making!.... Viewed simply as a lover he was not, she now realized, very satisfactory; but there could be no question which of the two would in the long run make the better friend and supporter. The conflict between her warm response to Niou's behavior, and her restrained cerebral affection for the man she realizes is the dispensator of future welfare, is complicated by Niou's urgent, repeated request that she leave Kaoru. Torment not before known in The Tale of Genji is hers, for the mingling of desire, shame, and fear she suffers far surpasses the jealousy known to women such as Rokujo, Murasaki and Kozeri. As an ironical twist on the theme of jealousy, however, Ukifune's nightmare is comparable to the eloquent voice of Rokujo's madness; her inability to purge herself of desire for Niou, her fear of scandal should she submit to his will, and her belief that she will lose Kaoru's love once he learns of her secret liaison determine Ukifune's attempted suicide and grim self-removal into the seclusion of nunhood. The final reversal in the affairs of these hopelessly driven creatures, Ukifune and Kaoru, is the apotheosis of non-communication, and the refashioning of reality according to one's own convictions. Ukifune, regretfully recalling the details of her affair with Niou, not only resolves that Kaoru must never know of her actions, but concludes that he can be spared this knowledge only if he believes her dead: At the critical moment she had thrown her one chance of happiness away, and when she looked back now on all that had happened she could not understand how she had ever come to forgive Niou for the cruel injury that he had inflicted upon her. Everything down to this night of sordid terror was his doing, and his alone. The memory of his swift wooing... filled her now with nothing but distaste and remorse; whereas the thought of Kaoru's calm, steady affection.. still made him infinitely dear. It mattered in reality very little whether other people knew or did not know of the depths to which she had fallen; he at any rate must never know. He must always think of her as dead.... Thus, when Kaoru discovers her, she cannot acknowledge her own existence, but, with the claim that he is mistaken, sends his messenger away. This act convinces Kaoru, fully cognizant of her affair with Niou, that she is a woman undeserving of his love. Already distrustful of women because of his own incapacity to evoke and consummate desire, Kaoru, in response to Ukifune's dual betrayal, reaches maximum hatred of the ever-present siren: He had always thought her a singularly gentle and affectionate creature, inclined perhaps to lean on him too much. And all the while these unpleasant cravings were going on. It was disgusting. She was obviously the sort of woman who could not exist without a lover for a single day. She had in fact the same disagreeable tendencies that were ruining Niou, and they would make an excellent pair. This conviction is the prime illustration of Kaoru's belief: "What one should do is to look upon the world as real only from our own particular point of view, and therefore incapable of producing in us affections that have any finality." Never forgetting the inconsistencies of his character, for Agemaki remains an enduring affection, Kaoru can only tolerate life by reshaping it according to the microcosm of himself. As he enters, Kaoru exits embittered, despondent,

Page  173 GAIL CAPITOL KAHAN 173 carefully piecing together the fantasies produced by his own mind. Ukifune, relegated to the limbo of his disbelief in her nunhood, is transformed in his mind into a coarse sensualist indulging another clandestine romance. Kaoru, however, cannot exist without an ideal love. Disillusioned with Ukifune, he proceeds to idolize the forbidden First Princess, and the macabre episode wherein he fashions a tableau with his wife, re-creating a scene he witnessed of his unapproachable beloved among her ladies, is one of chilling horror. His wife is transformed into a dehumanized puppet; Kaoru, like Ukifune, has reached delirium. Love never gained twisted into love lost, and refashioned with pygmalion artistry -- such is the karma of Kaoru's life. Gail Capitol Kahan received a Master of Arts degree from The University of Michigan in 1966 and is a candidate for the Ph. D. degree in Japanese Art History in the Department of the History of Art, The University of Michigan. Mrs. Kahan served on the staff of the Detroit Institute of Arts for three years as technical assistant and Junior Art Curator in the Education Department. The recipient of several scholarships at The University of Michigan, she was awarded the Charles L. Freer Research and Publication Scholarship for 1966-1967. Her article "A Heian Buddhist Sutra" appeared in The Detroit Institute of Arts Bulletin, Vol. 44, No. 3, 1965. At present Mrs. Kahan is engaged in graduate research at The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.

Page  174

Mishima Yukio: Three Primary Colors

Miles K. McElrathpp. 175-194

Page  175 Mishima Yukio "THREE PRIMARY COLORS" Translation by Miles K. McElrath The University of Michigan

Page  176

Page  177 MILES K. McELRATH 177 It would be a relatively simple matter to identify the author of The Three Primary Colors, one of Yukio Mishima's earlier (1955) one-act plays, even if the name of this extraordinarily versatile and prolific writer were not indicated. As is true of several of Mishima's other modern plays and short stories, it would seem to be a work contrived primarily for the purpose of providing sophisticated entertainment, and produced under the influence of an apparently pressing, but quite conscious, need (especially patent during the 1950's) to apply his talents to every existing literary medium. In the technical sense of the word, the play is certainly a comedy; yet, one receives the impression that Mishima is being far too serious in his praise of external beauty (and interestingly enough, in this case, to the utter neglect of that inner, elusive, and often inexpressible concept of beauty that forms such an integral feature of the ura of traditional Japanese aesthetics) to permit one to casually label the work a farce, much less a mere jeu d'esprit. It would be equally erroneous to regard the play as a fantasy or even as a mildly penetrating psychological study. The elements of all of these are apparent in varying degrees, but no single design is sufficiently salient in its own right to endow the play with the substance and unity it might otherwise have had. On the other hand, for a work in so difficult and restricted a medium as the one-act play, and one that in all other respects is faultless in form, this is, perhaps, petty criticism. In terms of content, the play is interesting not only for the humor inherent in the "stranger than fiction" situation presented, but also for the interplay of several concepts that recur, a mere detached, superficial appreciation as the basic source of happiness and the ultimate in human experience, a vague mocking of traditional morality, a wistful regret (almost in the pathetic strain of the mono no aware Spirit) that the inevitable passage of time all too soon forces one beyond the delicate line, perceptible only in retrospect, that separates that supreme carefree interlude of late adolescence from the onset of social maturity replete with its often dreary and cumbersome responsibilities. But most of all, Mishima is proclaiming here that it is physical love in its three forms, all recognized but only one sanctioned, - hetero-, homo-, and bi- -, that "makes the world go 'round. " This view, of course, has been expressed before but seldom with the qualification that Mishima here attaches to the process, namely that all modes be indulged in, at least by the male, concurrently and interactively. His three characters would seem to personify, however imperfectly, these three patterns of sexual behavior. After one has read the play, the Japanese title, Sangenshoku, assumes in fact the dual role one is at first hesitant to attribute to it (shoku refers both to "color" and to "eroticism"). At the onset, Ryoko is the on'ly real character in the play; Keiichi is essentially but not completely so; and Shunji is almost pure symbol, but chameleon-like and multifarious. Whatever degree of reality each of the characters may at first possess, however, is ultimately dissipated, not so much by the nature of the conflict solution Mishima elects to employ, but rather by the way in which the play ends. Nevertheless, the dissolution is not quite complete enough to prevent one from being left in a state of uneasy limbo (intellectual, not moral) over the question of whether Mishima is simply advocating in this one case the kind of revolving menage a trois he describes, or whether he is suggesting that the only road to complete fulfillment in general is bisexuality for the male of the species and polyandry for the female. In either case, the champion of conservative (i.e. traditional) mores will very likely react with a sense of outrage and indignation. This, perhaps, is precisely what Mishima intended. No matter how one views the play, however, the fact remains that it presents an image in miniature of much that constitues Mishima, not in close-up, obviously, but rather as though one were viewing him through the reverse end of a telescope. Miles K. McElrath

Page  178 THE THREE PRIMARY COLORS A Play in One Act Mishima Yukio Time: A summer afternoon. Place: The garden of a seaside cottage. At stage right there is the suggestion of a flight of stone steps leading to a sandy beach below. On the lawn is a beach umbrella of red, blue, and yellow; and arranged around it are various pieces of lawn furniture including a chaise longue and a small table containing a portable radio. Characters: KEIICHI, a handsome young man of twenty-five. RYOKO, his beautiful nineteen-year-old wife. SHUNJI, his friend, a handsome youth of nineteen. SCENE I RYOKO, wearing sun-glasses, is stretched out on the chaise longue under the beach umbrella reading a book. She is dressed in beach attire. Unable to concentrate on her book, she sets it on the table and gets up from the chaise longue. She removes her sun-glasses and waves toward stage right. KEIICHI, wearing a pair of swimming trunks, comes running toward her from this direction. RYOKO spreads a large mat of nylon toweling on the lawn for him. KEIICHI sprawls out on it turtle-fashion and basks in the sun. KEECHI. Then you're sure you won't come for a swim today? RYOKO. I guess not... I've got my bathing suit on underneath, though. KEIICHI. Well then....Hmm, I guess you won't go in at that. RYOKO. After getting all ready so I'd be able to go in anytime I got the urge, here I sit just idling my time away -- seems as though I'm letting the sea go to waste, I suppose. Even if I don't go swimming, though, the sea won't be affected by it one way or the other, so even for me it's not at all uneconomical, really. KEIICHI. Did you say "uneconomical?" Such a word from the lips of a nineteen-year-old wife!... "Uneconomical" indeed! RYOKO. What do you mean? * Sangenshoku 178

Page  179 MILES K. McELRATH 179 KEIICHI. Somehow it makes me feel awfully washed-out even at twenty-five! I'm still young. (Showing the muscles in his arms as he raises the upper portion of his body.) See, I'm bursting with strength! And even if I weren't, do you think I could assume the attitude of some pseudo-sophisticate? Can you picture me pussyfooting around with a glum face poking into your budget book like some husbands we know of? RYOKO. I've never kept an account of household expenses. You know perfectly well that we're dependent on your parents. Why, even this cottage belongs to your father, so... KEIICHI. That's precisely why I feel as though I still haven't come face to face with life. It seems as though life hasn't really started for me yet... RYOKO. Now let's take a look at my side of this for a moment, shall we? I married at eighteen. You were the first man I was attracted to -- the first man I fell in love with -- and I married you, in spite of the objections of my parents. It was then when I was eighteen that life really began for me! KEIICHI. Yes, perhaps so; but for me, life still has one more thing to offer -- I feel as though something were lacking. RYOKO. "Youthful Marriage Ends in Failure" -- that's how it goes, isn't it? The newspapers everywhere are full of such stories. But it's always selfishness on the part of the husband that's responsible I KEIICHI. You don't see what I mean. From the time I was nineteen until I was twentyfour I knew my share of women -- so many, in fact, that I got sick of them, but I married you because I felt you were the best of the lot. I've never had any reason to regret it. RYOKO. I thank you for your generosity, kind sir! KEIICHI. Oh, stop it -- I don't mean it that way at all! And don't ask me if I'm talking about never having had to work for the necessities of life. There's a difference between "making a livelihood" and "living"... Ryoko, look -- what I mean by "living" is -- well, doesn't it encompass something startling -- like the sudden appearance of an apparition at the window? RYOKO. That was you! KE IICHI. For you, yes. RYOKO. You were an awfully attractive apparition! KEIICHI. But the apparition himself wasn't startled particularly. RYOKO. What you mean to say is that your particular apparition -- the apparition for the apparition -- hasn't appeared yet, right?

Page  180 180 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS KEIICHI. Yes, exactly. In other words, I'm rather tired of waiting for my apparition to show up. (During the course of the conversation, RYOKO has been looking intently at her book, flipping its pages. ) What's that book you've got there? (RYOKO shows him the cover.) Romantic Love? Why that's ridiculous! Romantic Love, indeed! Isn't that like trying to swoop up a minnow with the type of coarse mesh net one might use to catch a carp?... Why are you reading that sort of thing?' RYOKO. I'm trying to find out whether I'm a carp or a minnow. KEIICHI. Which are you? RYOKO. Well, I'm still not sure, I... KEIICHI. You know, I wonder if it isn't better to avoid taking human love too seriously. God, it's hot! I guess I'll sit over there. (He goes over and sits down in one of the chairs under the beach umbrella.) Look, this is how I feel about it. I think everyone enjoys beautiful things. As far as I'm concerned, I love anything as long as it's something beautiful. RYOKO. I do too! KEIICHI. The blue sky, the clouds, the sea, women -- they're all beautiful. I'd like to wallow in beautiful things. As far as the hearts of these things are concerned, well, they just aren't visible to my eyes. Externals are everything. The world is composed only of externals. RYOKO. I think so too. KE IIC HI. What? RYOKO. I was just agreeing with you -- about not being able to see into the hearts of things, I mean. KEIICHI. Really? It is true, though. See how the sand gleams. It's the surface of the sandy beach that strikes our eyes, but we can't see whether what lies beneath sparkles like that too. You're beautiful -- your eyes sparkle and your skin glistens. So I've never given any thought to what you might be like inside. RYOKO. It's not necessary to consider what a person might be like inside, you say -- do you mean that only people who are beautiful deserve the privilege of being regarded in this light? KEIICHI. Yes, I would say so. (Exercising the upper part of his body). Well, I guess I'll go for another swim. (As he stands up and starts to leave) Oh, I wonder when Shunchan will get here? RYOKO. If he came on the two-thirty train, he should be here by now.

Page  181 MILES K. McELRATH 181 KEIICHI. I wonder if he took the next train? Oh well, I'm going for another swim anyway. He'll probably feel warm when he arrives, so tell him to put on his suit right away and come for a swim. RYOKO. Why did you invite him again so soon? He was here only recently... KEIICHI. Why? Because he's a friend of mine. Furthermore, since he's the same age as you, I thought he'd be good company for you. RYOKO. But I'm quite content with your company! Really, I'm not that much of a child! KEIICHI. I've always been fond of children. (He runs toward stage right and exits.) SCENE II RYOKO reaches toward the table and snaps on the portable radio. Jazz music is heard. It is obvious that she has made little progress in her reading. SHUNJI, wearing a shortsleeved sportshirt and slacks, enters from stage left carrying a small traveling bag. SHUNJI. Hi! RYOKO. Oh, hello. Keichan just went... SHUNJI. Swimming? RYOKO. (Pointing toward stage right) Oh, there he is -- see? He's swimming out quite fast! SHUNJI. So he is. RYOKO. He told me to tell you to join him as soon as you arrived. SHUNJI. (Going over to Ryoko) You sound as though you'd like me to go. RYOKO. Would you rather stay here? SHUNJI. Yes, I would. (Switching off the radio) But I can't take this jazz. RYOKO. You'd think you were my husband or something -- turning off my radio like that without even asking if I minded. SHUNJI. But... (He sits down in one of the chairs.) It's hot, isn't it! RYOKO. "It's hot, isn't it!" That's a fine way to greet me! SHUNJI. Why so touchy?

Page  182 182 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS RYOKO. Because I seem to be losing my mind, that's why! SHUNJI. Losing your mind? I don't think you have much to worry about on that score. RYOKO. When I think what would happen if Keichan were to find out, I... SHUNJI. It wouldn't matter particularly if he did. RYOKO. Wouldn't matter! Good lord, what a child you are! SHUNJI. I'm sweltering! I guess it's 0. K. to get rid of these clothes. Mind if I drink this coke? (He takes off his clothes, stopping every so often to take a swallow of coke. ) RYOKO. Oh, your trunks are just like Keichan's! SHUNJI. Yes, they are. RYOKO. Coincidence? SHUNJI. No, the last time I was here I noticed the trunks he was wearing and decided I'd like to have a pair like them myself, so I bought them. RYOKO. You imitate Keichan in everything, don't you? SHUNJI. Yup, everything! RYOKO. Oh, honestly -- you're awful! SHUNJI. (Failing to get the point of RYOKO's remark, he looks puzzled for a moment.) I'm very fond of you -- that's why it happened. It seemed quite natural to me.. RYOKO. It did to me too. (Pinching her cheek) Am I really Keichan's wife, or is it all a dream, I wonder? SHUNJI. And only nineteen at that. RYOKO. That's a funny thing to say. And how old are you, may I ask? -- You're the one who's "only nineteen"... But what am I to do? I love you just as much as I love Keichan -- really, just as much. It's just like having two cubes of sugar and trying to decide between them; it's impossible -- they're both completely alike. So you see, it seemed quite all right for me to do the same things for you as I'd do for him. SHUNJI. Precisely! Now isn't that the best way of looking at it? RYOKO. Yes, I guess so, but society just wouldn't agree, I'm afraid. SHUNJI. Now you're talking like an old woman!

Page  183 MILES K. McELRATH 183 (Pause) RYOKO. Shunchan...have you ever thought much about things like morality and the laws of society? SHUNJI. No. RYOKO. Neither have I. But I feel that they're watching us very closely from a distance -- keeping tabs on our lives through a telescope from an observation post located on the top of some lofty mountain. SHUNJI. But this is the sea! It's perfectly level. From a point higher than a man, no one could possibly see what others are doing. People look quite flat regardless of what they may be doing -- whether they're lying down, floating on the water, or swimming -- it's all the same...no one pays any attention to anyone else. RYOKO. Honestly, I feel as though I were talking to someone from a foreign country! How can I make you understand what I mean? SHUNJI. That's all right -- I see what you're trying to say. This is how I look at things, though. It seems to me that everything in the world -- morality, laws, everything -- revolves around us. Now, if we feel that something is beautiful, then that constitutes morality. And everything we have done becomes law for others. We are what I might call the basis of both morality and law -- I might even say the "fundamental elements." Consequently, as far as we personally are concerned, there is no specific code of morals or set of laws. RYOKO.... and no heart, either... SHUNJI. Yes, and no heart. RYOKO. You know, you are like Keichan, even in the way you think. SHUNJI. No, I wouldn't say that. I'm just patterning myself after him, that's all. RYOKO. No wonder I can't make up my mind which of you I love more -- you or Keichan. You keep getting me more and more mixed up, and you find the whole situation highly amusing, don't you! You're certainly a peculiar person! I don't believe I could possibly like the real you -- the you which is so different from other people. SHUNJI. The real me? Even I don't know what the real me is yet! RYOKO. No, I suppose not. After all, you're only nineteen. SHUNJI. And you know your real self, I suppose! RYOKO. There's no need for a woman to know herself at first. But be like that if you want to -- it's all right if you want to run away.

Page  184 184 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS SHUNJI. Run away? From what? RYOKO. From me! SHUNJI. What? -- don't be absurd! (Kisses her) When have I ever run away from you? RYOKO. Well, if not from me, then from the memory of that night! SHUNJI. Even though it happened only a week ago, you've already placed it in the category of a memory I see... If Keichan hadn't left us alone and gone to that woman's house to play poker that night, it wouldn't have happened. We went for a walk, remember?...along the shore. Your eyes shone so in the moonlight that I was a little frightened. But you were so very beautiful. "See how the sand sparkles in the moonlight," you said, "let's wear a robe of sand. " So we went in for a moonlight dip together and then rolled around in the sand when we came out... like a couple of savages. RYOKO. You're not making a bit of sense -- just listening to you ramble on like that gives me a headache. SHUNJI. Ha, so you're the one who doesn't want to remember what happened! RYOKO. No, that's not true!... the way you looked that night, I thought you were beautiful -- like a god. SHUNJI. You' re the one that seemed divine. Your body glistened in the moonlight. The salt water clung to your face like so many little drops of silver. If there were such a thing as divine wrath, it would have descended on me at that moment for just standing there doing nothing. RYOKO. We were spared the wrath of heaven, weren't we? SHUNJI. Yes, and the wrath of the sea, too. And the wrath of the fish which abound in the sea, of the seagulls, of those translucent clouds which drifted across the face of the moon, and even the wrath of the wind that sighed in the tips of the pines as it passed. RYOKO. Oh -- why must you make it sound so much like a fairy tale down to the smallest detail? We really shouldn't be talking this way any more, anyway. Just before you came, Keichan and I were discussing "household budgets" and the idea of being "uneconomical." SHUNJI. Did Keichan actually talk about such things seriously? RYOKO. Well, no -- he wasn't serious at all. (To herself) If we go on like this, what's to become of our marriage? SHUNJI. Try to think of yourself as a bird, Ryoko. A bird now perched on a branch recalls having just flown to this branch from the top of some far distant tree, over a valley deep enough to make her giddy. Try to remember what happened the

Page  185 MILES K. McELRATH 185 other night in exactly the same way. Would the bird think it strange that it was able to fly so high? Of course it wouldn't, because even though flying may be a miracle for a human being, for a bird there is absolutely nothing at all miraculous about it. From high in the air the bird gazed down upon a town set in the valley -- the log bridge spanning the blue river, the red mail box -- each such detail of its flight it can recollect instantly. Anytime it so desires, it can... RYOKO. I see what you're driving at, Shunchan, and you couldn't be any more impudent even if you didn't couch your remarks in fairy-tale terms. What you're implying, if I'm not mistaken, is that you can make love to me anytime you feel so inclined. I am now perched on a low branch and am unable to fly up into the sky with Keichan... but you're wrong -- absolutely wrong! Keichan's attractions are no less than yours. If it had been Keichan standing there in the moonlight that night, he too would have seemed like a god to me, I'm sure. SHUNJI. I don't understand you at all -- why must you always resort to comparisons? One minute you prefer one thing; the next minute you prefer another; and then when you discover that you like both equally well, you fall into a state of anxiety. I just don't understand it... I'm not like that at all. Everything that qualifies for inclusion in the concept of "beauty" is the same and possesses the same degree of power. Consequently, each member of this fellowship of beauty should get on famously with every other -- it's really quite democratic. I mean they're all equal. We can't say which one is superior. I intend to live harmoniously with all of them -- beautiful birds and clouds, beautiful locomotives and ships, beautiful women -- RYOKO. A real Don Juan! SHUNJI. But how could I be otherwise! RYOKO. I guess you couldn't; but that's because you feel that there's nothing perfect for you in this world. You've come to think that way because you pretty much tend to disparage everything. SHUNJI. That's not so. You still don't understand, do you... As far as perfection is concerned, it doesn't exist in any one individual. When you and I are together -- when we make love, or when you and Keichan make love, don't you have the feeling that the great circle of perfection seems somewhat blurred? In that circle, a great variety of things are joined together -- like the necklace of an aborigine! Beautiful women, beautiful men, beautiful birds, beautiful clouds, beautiful towns, beautiful countries, beautiful worlds... RYOKO. Do you mean that I shouldn't make a choice -- that I shouldn't even try to select one from among them? SHUNJI. Exactly. Don't try to make a choice. Just shut your eyes... gently...then yo ure b o und to blend into the scheme of things automatically. It's at that moment that the bird can fly. It doesn't have to make any decision to do so. RYOKO. That night I chose you, but that doesn't mean that you chose me, is that it?

Page  186 186 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS SHUNJI. (Composedly) Right you are. RYOKO. Oh, I hate you! I hate you! I hate you! (She turns on the radio. Jazz music blares forth. ) (SHUNJI and RYOKO carry on the remainder of the scene in pantomime. Their conversation can not be heard by the audience. They seem to quarrel. Then they kiss. They quarrel once more and then kiss again. While they are thus engaged, KEIICHI appears from stage right and looks on indifferently. He approaches them gradually and finally stands between them. They are silent when they become aware of his presence. KEIICHI switches off the radio.) SCENE III KEIICHI. After all this time, I've just seen an apparition! RYOKO. Keichan... SHUNJI. What' s this about an apparition? KEIICHI. I was talking about you! (He picks up the book, which had fallen on the ground, and hands it to RYOKO.) Here's your book. Now that you've enjoyed the feast, I guess you can read the cook book. RYOKO. It was nothing; really, we didn't mean any harm. KEIICHI. Such excuses destroy your beauty. Just look at the innocent expression on Shunchan's face. SHUNJI. Keichan, do you mind if I ask you something? KEIICHI. No, what? SHUNJI. At this moment you feel wonderfully refreshed, am I right? KEIICHI. You understand completely, don't you. Yes, I do feel refreshed -- very much so. SHUNJI. (Slapping RYOKO on the back) There, you see? I was quite right after all. (RYOKO jumps to her feet) KEIICHI. (Smiles brightly) With Shunchan, I just can't win. SHUNJI. Spoken like a man, I would say. KEIICHI. Well, I am a man! I'm twenty-five years old. Not only that, I'm also that most illustrious beast of prey in the world -- a "husband. " I'd appreciate it if you would tender me a little more respect.

Page  187 MILES K. McELRATH 187 RYOKO. Look, we... KEIICHI. What? RYOKO. I swear to you, all we did was kiss. KEIICHI. In Japan, that means that you also did something more, you know. SHUNJI. You're quite right. We did do something more! RYOKO. Shunchan! KEIICHI (In semi-soliloquy) — Well, my life is beginning! SHUNJI. (Objecting) Life? -- Stop talking about life! KEIICHI. Why? What's the matter? SHUNJI. This business of beginning to live -- let's drop it, Keichan. I don't see why the three of us ever have to be concerned with such a thing. KEIICHI. (As though he were dreaming) It's a terrific temptation! Now that you mention it, Shunchan, it's a terrific temptation. RYOKO. (Suddenly standing up) Well, really, such talk is disgusting! What's to become of me? How did this issue ever arise in the first place? I won't have you abandoning me, I won't! Look at me! KEIICHI. Here under such a hot sun you stand there glaring at me. How did such a situation come about? It's all so strange. Seems just like a dream. RYOKO. I assure you, Keichan, it's no dream. You're wide awake. Don't you believe your own wife when she tells you something? Shunchan and I had quarreled, and we were just teasing one another in fun -- that's all there was to it. You mustn't let a little thing like that get you all upset. It would be even worse, though, if we were to pretend that such a thing never happened. It's a matter of facing facts squarely. Keichan, stick by me. Judge for yourself in an adult fashion and then deal with the matter intelligently and calmly. Scold me, Keichan, please -- slap me across the face if you like -- do anything, but don't just ignore me! KEIICHI. You want me to be a judge -- is that what you're telling me? Well, I'm sorry, but the role doesn't appeal to me. RYOKO. All I'm asking is that you be a fine, upstanding, reliable husband, that's all. KEIICHI. Don't ask for the impossible, Ryoko. RYOKO. If you won't, then what you call your "life" won't begin -- ever!

Page  188 188 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS KEIICHI. (To Shunji) Well, what's the story? SHUNJI. Ryoko, why did you say that... RYOKO. Shunchan! SHUNJI. Don't glare at me like that! Why did you lie like that, Ryoko? The truth of the matter, Keichan, is that the other night we did do something more than kiss. RYOKO. (Throws herself on the chaise longue and weeps) It's not true! It's just not true! KEIICHI. (Gently stroking Ryoko's hair) There, there, Ryoko, it's all right. There's nothing false in either version -- yours or Shunchan's. It's impossible for me to see your hearts, but your beauty I can perceive quite clearly. Your stories differ, it's true, but it's merely because you're both speaking in terms of your own personal worlds. Both of your respective worlds are enough to dazzle one -- both have their risks. (Sighs) I just don't know which one I should fling myself into. On the one hand, a cozy world fraught with danger. On the other, a world in which there lies concealed a wonderful contentment stemming from the dangers within the dangers. Shunchan, it is your world that involves the greater risks...and consequently, the greater temptation -- a fabulously vast world... RYOKO. Oh, I hate the thought of such a thing. Anything vast frightens me. SHUNJI. You're a bird, though, remember? -- a little bird with a lovely voice and beautiful wings. Why do you avert your eyes from the wide blue sky? KEIICHI. Shunchan, it won't do any good to talk that way. You simply don't know anything about women yet. SHUNJI. Don't I? And yet I touched every inch of Ryoko's beautiful body with my lips. KEIICHI. (with a forced smile) Come on now, that's enough! (Helping RYOKO to her feet) Come on Ryoko, the matter's closed. Let's relax and have some fun. RYOKO. No! Don't touch me like that, as though you were handling a corpse -- please! I'm no corpse yet, you know! SHUNJI. What are you talking about? I've never seen anyone so full of life! KEIICHI. Stop it now, Shunchan -- there are some things you don't understand. RYOKO. Keichan, the one I'm in love with is -- KEIICHI. That's all right, you don't have to verbalize it. RYOKO. But why? Don't you want to hear it? It's you... you're the one I love. SHUNJI. And what about me?

Page  189 MILES K. McELRATH 189 RYOKO. You? You, I despise! SHUNJI. (With obvious amusement) Ha! You just told another lie! Why, just a moment ago you were saying that you love me as much as you love Keichan. KEIICHI. Really? Well, then, what's wrong with that? RYOKO. "Well, then, what's wrong with that?"! How cruel can you be?! KEIICHI. Cruel? -- Only another human being would ever accuse me of that! The birds, the flowers, the trees -- they're all living silently in a world which is even more ruthless. See for yourself. Look at that grove of pines over there -- trees worthy of the name. There they stand quietly and without a word of complaint, fully exposed to the wind from the sea. That they stand there so apparently serene might well be because each one of them harbors in secret a heart more cruel even than that of any human being. I say this only because I'm trying to imagine that they do have something akin to a heart -- because I assume that they do have a heart. If they don't, then the question of ruthlessness or what have you can't arise. RYOKO. But we are human beings! KEIICHI. Yes, that's true, but we have no heart. SHUNJI. I have none and neither do you. RYOKO. I have a h... SHUNJI. Try to convince yourself that you don't, Ryoko, and you'll feel far better. RYOKO. I suppose I could have my heart removed by surgery. SHUNJI. You're certainly an obstinate one, aren't you! You're bound and determined to stick to your belief that you are the only one who has a heart. KEIICHI. (Laughing) Shunchan, will you shut up! RYOKO. (Takes off her beach outfit) I'll think it over while I'm swimming. SHUNJI. It's not necessary to think it over. KEIICHI. Shall we go with you? RYOKO. No, thanks. I prefer to go alone. SHUNJI. Let's make up and all go for a swim together. RYOKO. I said "no, thanks. " I'd rather go by myself -- at least for the moment. (In her bathing suit, she runs toward stage right and exits.)

Page  190 190 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS SCENE IV SHUNJI. Well, I see the shade from the umbrella's shifted over there. Keichan, why don't you get some more sun if you like? -- I'm going to stretch out in the shade. KEIICHI. O.K. (They lie down side by side at the edge of the stage, SHUNJI on his back just within the shade cast by the umbrella, and KEIICHI face downward in the sun just beyond the outer rim of shade. There is a long pause.) SHUNJI. Are you angry? KE IIC HI. No —. SHUNJI. (Pause) Depressed, then? KEIICHI. No, not really. Aren't you the one who just told me that I probably felt refreshed? SHUNJI. Yes, but... (Pause)... Ryoko's beautiful, isn't she? KEIICHI. Yes, she is. SHUNJI. I... aside from that... do you know why I did what I did? KEIICHI. Well, I think I do -- halfway, at least. SHUNJI. You know, no matter how beautiful Ryoko might be, if she weren't your wife, I doubt very much that I would have done such a thing. KEIICHI. (Laughing) Hey, now! -- Most people would consider that "insult to injury"! SHUNJI. Does that mean, then, that you think like "most people"? KEIICHI. (Firmly) No! -- Absolutely not! SHUNJI. The fact is that I'm not quite sure which of you I love the most, you or Ryoko. Ryoko seemed to be quite distressed about the same thing in regard to you and me, but I'm not bothered by the matter at all. Do you think I'm peculiar? KEIICHI. Yes, -- just a bit, I would say. SHUNJI. I don't think it's at all strange to love you both the same, do you? After all, you're terribly attractive, and so is Ryoko.

Page  191 MILES K. McELRATH 191 KEIICHI. (Without looking at SHUNJI) Shunchan, you, my friend, are the one who's so terribly attractive. SHUNJI. Am I? -- I don't know about that, but I do know that I love everything about you. Why I love you so much, I don't know. I want to be like you in every possible way. The only thing I can't do anything about, though, is the difference in age... KEIICHI. It's strange, you know, it really is. In spite of what you've done, it's absolutely impossible for me to be angry with you. I do, however, feel just a bit resentful of the fact that you yourself knew beyond a shadow of doubt that I would not be annoyed. SHUNJI. I wanted to be like you in every conceivable way, Ryoko's body glistened in the moonlight, and at that moment I somehow felt as though I had actually become you. It made me so happy I jumped up and crushed her to me. That she was my own wife was all I could think of. -- Even later on, it never occurred to me that I had wronged you in any way whatsoever. KEIICHI. I can hardly believe that a handsome boy like you could feel envious of someone else. SHUNJI. I never have envied anyone else particularly, but you're an exception. I don't know...you're different somehow. You know, I often dream about you. KEIICHI. It's funny, but here I am talking to you like this without even looking at you, and yet I'm clearly aware of you -- so much so that an almost painful tingle is running up and down my spine -- like the sun shining on my back... like the strong rays of the coastal summer sun. SHUNJI. Your voice, your beautiful teeth, Ryoko's voice, her exquisite lips -- these things I can touch -- they're tangible. Why should one need a heart, I wonder? What I wanted to do was to melt away between the two of you, like a little bird that dissolves into the blueness of the sky. I wanted to become the wind so that when the two of you kissed I'd be able to slip between your lips, brushing them as I passed. But regardness of how much I try to imitate you, I guess it's impossible for me to become another you -- no matter how many pairs of swimming trunks like yours I wear -- no matter how much I try to part my hair like yours...You know, though, it's really strange. When I held Ryoko in my arms, I felt that I had actually succeeded. But now that I'm actually in your presence, I find that it's absolutely impossible after all. Of course, there's no reason whatsoever for there to be two of you in the world. And suppose I were to become another you,... I don't know whether you would like the other you or not, so perhaps it's just as well...I wonder why the world never contains two identical people? In the case of roses, though, we can find any number of them exactly the same, can't we? KEIICHI. It's not only you, Shunchan. Everytime I saw you, I too longed to be like you. But I'm twenty-five years old now. For me to revert to nineteen as you are now is impossible -- I realize that now. When one begins to hear the voice of the twenties calling, a chest like yours and lips like yours fade away somewhere

Page  192 192 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS never to return. To me you seem almost like the embodiment of time itself. On second thought, minutes rather than time -- no, not minutes, but seconds -- yes, that's it -- seconds -- a single beautiful moment...a moment which I was afraid would pass by forever before I could even breathe a sigh. Therefore, I dared not make a sound. I tread ever so gently -- holding my breath. SHUNJI. Have I already passed by? KEIICHI. (Closing his eyes) No, you're still there... At least for the moment... SHUNJI. For the moment?... KEIICHI. How I wish you would stay that way for me always! SHUNJI. Don't be silly. I'll never go away. You don't ever have to start your life, Keichan. KEIICHI. No, I don't intend to. This is the most dangerous temptation of all. SHUNJI. We've become brothers, haven't we, thanks to Ryoko. KEIICHI. Yes, we have. SHUNJI. The circle has finally been completed. (KEIICHI suddenly raises up and gazes into SHUNJI's face. SHUNJI returns his gaze. They embrace and their lips meet.) SCENE V RYOKO returns from stage right. KEIICHI and SHUNJI, still kissing, fail to notice her. She turns on the radio. The music which comes forth is soft and beautiful. KEIICHI and SHUNJI slowly draw apart, and without the slightest disconcertion gaze at her vacantly. RYOKO. Well, it's all quite clear! Three's a crowd, I see. I guess you don't want me around. I'm going home today and I won't be back. Good-by, Keichan... Shunchan. (She starts to go toward stage left.) KEIICHI. (Stands up and holds her back by the arm) Ryoko, you mustn't go. You've got to stay here. SHUNJI. (He too stands up and takes RYOKO's other arm.) You can't go, Ryoko, you can't! RYOKO. You have your nerve trying to keep me back, too, Shunchan. KEIICHI. Oh, sit down now! (He makes her sit between them.)

Page  193 MILES K. McELRATH 193 SHUNJI. Our circle has finally been completed! Why were you about to go away just now? -- and break up our circle after all we went through to perfect it! RYOKO. I've had all I want of fairy tales, thanks! KEIICHI. You've got it all wrong, Ryoko! When we were kissing, Shunchan, didn't you feel it too? SHUNJI. Yes, I felt it too. KEIICHI. We both felt that the kiss was definitely incomplete -- we needed one more person. RYOKO. Who, me? Thanks, but does that mean that hereafter if I should kiss one of you, I'm obliged to feel that I need the other also? SHUNJI. It can't be helped! You love Keichan and me the same. RYOKO. And you love Keichan and me the...? KEIICHI. And I love you and Shunchan! RYOKO. (Indignantly) Why, I've never heard anything so ridiculous in all my life! SHUNJI. That's the point. You finally understand. You see, we're like the three primary colors. If even just one of us -- the basic elements of all the other colors -- is lacking, then there is an inevitable lessening of all the other colors in the world. The three primary colors -- red, yellow, and blue... I'm yellow, there's no question about that. KE IIC HI. I'm blue. RYOKO. Ard I'm red? SHUNJI. Yes, you're red. (At this point, he and KEIICHI link arms with RYOKO, one on each side. They rise, go to the front edge of the stage, and look out across the audience.) Look, the blue of the sea -- that's you, Keichan! The red roof of that cottage far out on the cape -- that's you, Ryoko! And...there, that yellow is me... in the straw hat of the little boy playing over there. KEIICHI. The green of the cape soaking up the afternoon sun seems so soft, so delicate. SHUNJI. It is we who are responsible for that green, too. RYOKO. There's a ship passing by far out at sea. The black of the smoke... SHUNJI. That too we have created. KEIICHI. The purple of the little birds offshore...

Page  194 194 MISHIMA YUKIO: THREE PRIMARY COLORS RYOKO. SHUNJI. The white of the sea-gulls... The apricot color seeping from the base of the clouds... RYOKO. See how the inlet shaded by the cape is darkening into indigo and green. KEIICHI. And the marvellous grape-colored sparkle of those rocks sticking up over there SHUNJI. If we should not get along with one another, how ugly the world would become. KEIICHI. The world is overflowing with color. SHUNJI. As long as the three of us are here... RYOKO. A happy, bright, awakened world... SHUNJI. I guess you do feel that way, Ryoko. KE IIC HI. So let' s... RYOKO. Yes, let's live together happily and harmoniously until the end of time. (CURTAIN) Miles K. McElrath, Jr., Assistant Professor of Japanese at The University of Michigan, is presently preparing a study of the Seisuisho (Anraku-an Sakuden), a collection of humorous anecdotes of the Sengoku Period. Mr. McElrath has attended the University of California (Berkeley) and Yale University and has held teaching positions at the University of Hawaii and Kanazawa and Nagasaki Universities in Japan.

Mishima Yukio: The Monster

David. O. Millspp. 195-212

Page  195 Mishima Yukio "THE MONSTER" "THE PEACOCKS" Two Short Stories Translations by David O. Mills The University of Michigan

Page  196

Page  197 DAVID O. MILLS 197 Mishima Yukio is one of Japan's leading postwar writers. Born in 1925 to an aristocratic family and educated in the Peer's School (Gakushuin), he began to write during his teens. He continued his interest in literature through law school at Tokyo University, but in 1948, after a brief period of employment in the government, he decided to devote himself completely to writing. By 1965 he had produced twenty-two novels, thirty-seven dramas (including the five modern no plays), and many shorter works of fiction and non-fiction. Even excluding his poetry the number of titles runs to more than three hundred. The peak of his activity, at least in quantity, was reached around 1960. Not only did he also try his hand at writing for radio, television and the movies during this period, but he even directed and starred in some of the productions. After that he slackened the pace somewhat. In an interview in 1959 he expressed the desire to limit the range of his output, and to concentrate on writing for the theatre and the reading public. Nevertheless, he has continued to write more than one novel a year, in addition to dramas and short stories. Mishima favors the more intellectual approach of the literary fabrication, perhaps due to his legal training, and considers himself to have been influenced by French psychological novels. He rejects the clinically raw description of the naturalists, and dismisses the shi-shosetsu (first-person fiction) technique as a misconception about the novel. His interest in the satanic is reminiscent of Tanizaki Jun'ichiro. He likes to delve into the strange and perverse, describing in psychological detail such things as homosexuality and premeditated cruelty. Many of his works have moments which can only be described as bizarre. Like many writers of this period his works are pervaded by a nihilistic darkness. However, Mishima's search for beauty amidst all the gore and futility, and his skillful use of words in expressing what he finds, sets him apart from the mainstream of postwar writers. In the first of the two short stories, The Monster (Kaibutsu, 1949), Mishima treats the disintegration of values and the futility of life that prevailed in Japan following the war. After the opening flight of lyricism the story progressively unearths the life of a monster. Through the thoughts (and nightmares) of the old man, one sees an evil world relieved only by rare glimpses of beauty. And even the beauty is described as "gloomy" or "ominous." The final act of vengeance embodies the frustrations of the whole story, and the reader might wish for a fuller description. However, the irony of the old man's compulsion to destroy the one remaining thing of beauty brings the story to a fitting close. The Peacocks (Kujaku, 1965) is an analysis, as through a prism, of the various facets of beauty. The current beauty of the peacocks is contrasted with the faded beauty of Tomioka and his wife. The prevailing gloom is broken by vivid descriptions of color, and, in the end, color fills "every tiny particle of darkness." The interesting discussion of meaninglessness and splendor, the moving description of the death of the peacocks, with the metaphor of the "swollen green river," and the implicit linking of beauty, color, darkness and death all show Mishima's great talent for expression and the meticulous care with which he chooses his words. The cleverness of the surprise ending is that, far from resolving anything, it only deepens the mystery surrounding Tomioka and the peacocks. David O. Mills

Page  198 THE MONSTER* Mishima Yukio It was after five in the evening when he collapsed. The May sea surrendered the setting sun to the mountains on the isthmus, and reverently offered up the drifting twilight like a soft prayer to the departing light. From the shadows of the cliff a lone hawk arose. Apparently it was building a nest the re. It stopped to rest its wings in the top of a red pine tree atop the cliff, and Narimochi, who had once been an avid hunter, saw it was a hawk. The color of the wings of this bird of prey was not much different from that of the tree trunk. However, the sinking sun was shining brightly on the treetop, and he could see the movements of the bird's head crouching on its square shoulders. The hawk once again spread its wings. Long, stout, ominously dark wings they were. Slipping out of the top of the red pine tree it climbed high into the sky. It soared up through the strangely transparent atmosphere of the evening sky. Undoubtedly it felt some inner impulse -- urgent and compelling. It pierced the height of the spacious sky, and was transformed into a speck of dazzling motion. It looked as though it would keep right on going. Narimochi was standing on the edge of the veranda. He stood on his tiptoes in order to see the sky from under the eaves. At that moment his strained position burst the hardening blood vessels in his brain. This was a villa on top of a high flat spot, not far from a not-so-respectable hot-spring in Tsukene on the Izu peninsula. Immediately beneath was a tunnel through which the bus route wound. Rising above the tunnel was a cliff that continued out over a beautiful view of the ocean. Matsudaira Narimochi had been provided with a three-room wing of the villa. The daughter of his now deceased second wife busied herself taking care of him. The first thing Narimochi heard when he awoke from his twenty-four hour coma was a dull but annoying sound. It took him several minutes to discover that it was the sound of the wings of a bee hovering around the wisteria trellis. When his mind became clear, he tried to ask the immediate questions -- where he had been placed, and what had happened to rupture his senses. There was a strange, deep feeling of numbness. His speech was gone. Due to hemmorrhaging in the left chamber of his brain, the right half of his body was paralyzed. Slight bleeding in another spot had also attacked his speech center. "I believe he has regained consciousness." "He is trying to say something." *Kaibutsu Ji 198

Page  199 DAVID O. MILLS 199 "It's me -- Higaki. Can you understand me?" Mr. Higaki, the plump, middle-aged owner of the villa thrust his face in front of Narimochi's eyes. Seeing that face, Narimochi's aged aristocratic eyes, peering out from under the ice packs that were piled on his forehead, opened wide in a moment of fear, blinked in bewilderment, and then closed. He saw in Higaki's face the face of a boy that had been slapped for a trivial theft. Higaki saw Narimochi's fear immediately. He drew back and looked over at Narimochi's daughter, Itsuko, shaking his head slightly. Narimochi closed his eyes. He was overflowing with anger. It irritated him to think that he had felt fear for even a moment. Never in his life had he known such a thing as fear toward another person. All around him there was whispering. There was the rustling of dresses as people got up and down, the dry sound of the soles of tabi lightly striking the tatami mats, and the faint squeaking of the tatami. "He's come to, hasn't he." It was the voice of the oldest son, Nariaki. His cold, highpitched voice made him sound younger than he was. "But apparently he can't use his voice," said Higaki. "I guess he can't say anything, can he?" "It's going to be very hard to take care of him." "Yes, but I..." Itsuko spoke. "I can't leave him in the hands of a nurse. I'll do it myself. You needn't worry about it." "It's better if he can't talk, don't you think?" said Itsuko's older sister, Teruko, hot caring who heard. "That will make it easier for Itsuko." "Ha ha!" Nariaki laughed. Narimochi, overrun by a dark anger, tried to get up. His left arm was extremely warm and heavy, but it moved. The bedclothes shook, and the ice from the ice packs dug its hard corners into his forehead as it slipped down toward his cheeks. He groaned, and four people dashed over to hold the "absolute rest and quiet" patient down. A sharp horn sounded. It was a bus entering the tunnel. The sound of the motor traveled up through the ground and rumbled faintly. When that faded into the distance, the sound of the waves returned as if forgotten. Narimochi suddenly recalled the flight of that hawk. It already seemed like a memory from a previous existence. The sky was brilliant, and a chain of clouds was of a grandeur out of this world. Viscount Matsudaira Narimochi had lived his life with the aid of an intense evil power of influence, or more correctly, a spiritual power. He had had an interest in cruel pranks ever since childhood. Once he shot a cat with a toy bow and arrow, cut off the head, and hung it up on an old plum tree. Another time he greatly enjoyed pouring boiling hot water on a baby sparrow that had gotten lost.

Page  200 200 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER How could a man, whose personality did not have the least drop of that human charm that attracts people, so manipulate others in whatever way he wanted? You could say it was his family status, but people with higher status than his have fallen into Narimochi' s hands, and been utterly taken in. You might also say it was his strong pride, but depending on the time and place, he thought nothing of doing something himself that would destroy his own pride. His ready acceptance of Higaki's proposal that he come and stay at this villa is a good example. The awareness that he had hurt many people, and made them unhappy, was always a source of strength in Narimochi's life. He was confident of a kind of obscure power that was inherent in his body, and had been since birth. For instance, he was insanely egotistical about his heaven-sent ability concerning premonitions and mysteries. If he put a curse on a certain man, that man invariably either died or became extremely sick. Seeing other people's unhappiness was a never-ending source of diversion. There was a period in his life when, surprisingly enough, he took an interest in philanthropic work. But that was because he enjoyed seeing terrible poverty and sickness. He dearly loved different kinds of libel, slander, cynicism, abusive language, completely groundless rumors, estrangement, and scandal. He staked a surprising amount of enthusiasm on causing men who were overly successful to lose their positions, or on causing married couples who had become too happy to fall into the tragedy of divorce, and this enthusiasm was one of boundless vengeance. Nothing made him feel more insulted than unwarranted happiness. Following his drop-out midway through his course at Kyoto Imperial University, he entered the Department of the Imperial Household, known as the wastebasket for the offspring of the aristocracy. One of his colleagues in the Department had an affair with a lady of the court. Narimochi told everyone about it, causing his colleague a great deal of trouble. But, in the end, he dug his own grave. At that time there were discussions of marriage between a cousin of his and a certain young prince. The prince announced boastfully before the entire family, "I am a virgin!" Narimochi had long been a friend of the prince, and had showed him the way around the gay quarters, calling him "Your Highness, Your Highness". However, prior to these discussions of marriage, "His Highness" had stolen Narimochi's mistress by means of foul play. Feeling bitter, Narimochi made the rounds of the many teahouses they had frequented, gathered unshakeable evidence of "His Highness'"! profligate life, and offered it to his cousin's family. As a result the engagement was broken off. The prince fired off a letter, written in his own hand, severing all connections, saying, "I will never forget this as long as I live!" That winter, while Narimochi was visiting his family's old territory on business, a document that bordered on blasphemy was discovered in his desk at the Department of the Imperial Household. It included a poem which ridiculed the prince, as if out of spite, and even went so far as to satirize the licentiousness of the emperor. As it happened this was toward the end of the Meiji era when the K6toku Shusui Incident* caused quite a commotion. Due to this literary burlesque Narimochi was mistakenly labeled a socialist. Some people intentionally mislabeled him. Kotoku Shusui -- a man arrested and sentenced to death as a socialist in 1911 (Meiji 44) in connection with the Daigyaku Incident -- an attempt by the socialists to assassinate the emperor.

Page  201 DAVID 0. MILLS 201 They were men who, for some time, had hated Narimochi's actions in getting his colleague into trouble. One man made a special trip just to take that literary burlesque to the prince. The prince was furious. The chief of the Bureau of Peerage and Heraldry was summoned by the imperial family. After returning to Kyoto, Narimochi realized that if this incident leaked out to the public, it would be an even worse scandal for the prince. So, he planned his moves carefully and got off with only a reprimand. However, he quit his job at the Department of the Imperial Household. Narimochi put a curse on the prince. His curse was an extremely modern, "protestant" kind of curse, and did not need elaborate incantations or magic rites. It was enough to simply keep chanting it constantly in his mind and not forget it. In 1914 the prince passed away from a sudden illness. Narimochi had a passion for collecting all kinds of pornography and obscene photographs. Especially following the world war, the negatives of the German-made "Pictures of All Aspects of the Boudoir" had been imported in great numbers. Along about this time he once again became interested in photography. He learned various tricks from a photography expert in the technique of making prints. He could take a picture of a man he disliked, put his head in an obscene photograph, and, without even showing that weird creation to anybody else, just enjoy it by himself. The manager of a certain bank, who had previously served as a deputy clerk and an administrator to the household of his father, the viscount, refused to give him some money for some reason. So he put a picture of that bald head next to the ample, undulating stomach of a German beauty. The man himself never dreamed to such a situation. 'That fellow doesn't know what good dreams he has been having the last few days.' Narimochi wanted to tell this to the bank manager so much that the next morning he made a special point of going to see him. "By the way, you had a good dreans last night, didn't you?" "I'm afraid I don't quite understand, sir. " "I was just thinking that you must have had a good dream." "Please, sir, the viscount shouldn't make fun of me!" Narimochi's father, the viscount, had passed away the previous year, and the title had passed on to him. It was because the viscount's household had had this bank and this manager, however, that they were not damaged at all by the- failure of fifteen banks that brought on the bankruptcy of many leading families. In spite of this, Narimochi feigned illness and did not attend the wedding ceremony of his manager's favorite daughter. Dreaming vaguely something about exercising first night's privileges with this beautiful girl, Narimochi was offended when he found that the marriage arrangements had been completed without even one word of consultation with him. He boasted that, after she was married, he w ie, hediligently set out to seduce her, succeeded, and then went and notified her husband of the whole thing, himself. After bearing two children, she hanged herself.

Page  202 202 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER The husband could not bring himself to marry again. In the prime years of his life Narimochi happened to meet an interesting person who was the perfect partner for him. She was a geisha from Gion called Ofuku. She had once married a wealthy merchant from Osaka, was divorced, and then was sponsored for a comeback debut as a geisha. The causes for the divorce were variously rumored about. For example, there was this rumor. Ofuku detested the child from her husband's former marriage. However, she was not the kind of woman who would show this on the surface. She appeared to be the sort of second wife who was attractive, kind, and even liked by her mother-in-law. His former wife's child was an eight-year-old boy. On cold nights the stepmother, Ofuku, would often strip off her stepson's pajamas so he would catch cold. Or she would forcibly stuff cake and other sweets into the child's stomach so he would get sick, planning that if all went well, he would develop a toxic condition. But the boy was a strong child, so this kind of mild cruelty had no effect. Then, one evening, Ofuku and her stepson were taking a bath together. The servant, who was outside the bath room* taking care of the fire that heated the water in the tub, heard a voice from within tell him to make it hotter. As it happened, there was a telephone call for Ofuku, so the maid went into the bathroom without warning to give her the message. She found Ofuku, completely naked, sitting on the tightly closed lid on top of the tub. The stepson was nowhere to be seen. Barely short of suffocation from the steam, the boy was pulled out of the tub. Ofuku, pretending to be playing a game, had tightly closed the thick cypress boards of the lid over the child's head as he was soaking by himself. The rumor had it that the maid told the husband about this, and as a result he sent Ofuku away. However, after she was paid for by Narimochi, there was not even the slightest trace of that kind of thing. She became quiet, and gave birth to two children -- Nariaki and Teruko. In both cases, about a month after they were born, Narimochi transferred them to the care of his real wife. He decided he could kill two birds with one stone. In this way he could make two women unhappy at the same time. Namely, one would be a mother bereft of her children, and the other a barren woman serving a sentence of jealousy. His wife's sterility had come about when, during her first pregnancy, he got angry at something and kicked her squarely in the abdomen. Seeing the profuse bleeding, he knew she would be sterile. His wife later died of pulmonary tuberculosis. - Thus another day passed drowsily. Suddenly, without warning, there was the shrill laughing voice of a child right by his ear. Then he heard a tongue clicking it quiet. Children cannot long keep from laughing. Again he started to laugh. Narimochi opened his eyes halfway. The freshness of the fine May day completely flooded the yard and the sky over the ocean. There were broad clouds that looked like brightly shining powder. They covered the sky from the edge of the ocean to the eaves of his house. *In Japanese homes the bath room contains a waist-deep wooden tub complete with lid, whereas the toilet is a separate room.

Page  203 DAVID 0. MILLS 203 "Are you awake? I'm sorry the boy is so noisy. " So said a youthful, big-boned voice. It was Hisao, son of the woman who had hanged herself because of Narimochi's perfidious conduct, and the grandson of the now deceased bank manager. He grew up having no idea that Narimochi was behind the cause of his mother's death, and from the time he was a little boy he had often come with his grandfather to visit Narimochi. This audacious child had now become, at about thirty-f ive, a cheerful young man who, for the most part, could not believe in the evil in man. He had grown remarkably. Narimochi turned his head more toward the garden. When Hisao had plopped himself down in a chair on the veranda, he called to his wife who was gazing out at the sea. The sport coat Hisao was wearing was an extremely loud checkered one. He had been on the soccer team during college, so his shoulders were broad. He took off the camera that was hanging from his shoulder and showed it to Narimochi. It was a model from a new American company unfamiliar to Narimochi. If only he were able to say something, he could scoff at Hisao for being satisfied with an American-made camera, but since he could not, he frowned and twisted his lips disgustedly. However, Hisao was calling his wife's name again, and so was not looking at the old man's unshaven, unsightly face. Today, again, the bees were flying around the wisteria trellis. No doubt there was a nest out of sight nearby. Narimochi barely managed to raise his head and look. When he did, his view was narrowed to a strip of ocean. On it floated the figure of a vague, eggplant-colored island. Just then, the figure of a young woman appeared, leading a child by the hand. She had been about to take the child, who was making a lot of noise with no regard for the patient, and go for a walk out toward the cliffs. Narimochi looked at her as she came across the lawn, smiling. She was wearing a stylish dress, and Narimochi's farsighted eyes could see her earrings dangling and glittering. They looked as if they were made of gold rings with pieces of agate hanging from them. This was because the glitter looked like small, dancing red flames. Indescribable envy came to life in the old aristocrat. He tried to speak. Even at this age words that could capture a woman's heart and wound a man's pride were abundantly stored up, and yet only a meaningless whisper leaked from his mouth. His lips formed in the air the words he was trying to say....But, the shape immediately became hazy, crumbled, and disappeared... He tried to get up. Thrashing people for no reason at all had been an everyday occurrence. Nevertheless, his body, buried in bed like a heavy stone, did not move. Where did Itsuko go? Hisao and his wife were completely unconcerned, not like people who had come to visit a sick person. Not that they did not treat him as if he was sick, it was just that they treated him like an ordinary mute old man. They talked incessantly, expecting no answer. Hisao told him they were on a weekend trip, and had stopped by. Hisao's wife, Mutsuko, sat down on the veranda across from her husband, and from time to time looked over in the direction of Narimochi as if in pity, or diffidence. "Thanks for looking after things while I was gone," said Itsuko, coming into the back yard carrying a shopping bag.

Page  204 204 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER "He's awake, now. Just to look at his face, you wouldn't think he was sick, would you?" "It's unfortunate that he can't answer, but I talked to him for a while." "Thanks for your trouble. I'll make some tea, so why don't you go on into the other room." When she had shown the couple and their child into the other room, Itsuko came back in, and put her hand to her father's forehead. "Do you feel okay?" she asked. Narimochi nodded. Had the fact that he could not speak changed everything so much? Narimochi looked at her rosy cheeks -- like a nun from Kyoto who did not powder her face, her innocent mouth around which grew faint traces of soft hair, and her long, narrow eyes. Narimochi did not ordinarily look at his daughter's face so much. And even when he did, it was never this close nor this often. Still less had he realized what a youthful fragrance that face had. Itsuko had gone shopping all the way to the village in the hot sun, so she was perspiring a little. Her eyelids were reddish, and her cheeks a little flushed. Mixed with her breath were the fragrances of the grass and the wind from off the May ocean, and a smell like that of the bark of a fruit tree that gives off waves of heat haze in the sun after a rain. He could see her tongue, taut pink flesh, moving in the moisture of saliva like a wily living creature. That youthfulness, which had not yet become anyone's possession, gave Itsuko's face an almost gloomy look. There was no fear in Itsuko's eyes. This greatly disappointed Narimochi. There was no pity, either. Itsuko was just doing it out of simple kindness. In staying by her father's side and looking after the affairs of the household, as well as remaining single all this time, she was not at all trying to be a martyr. She enjoyed doing it. Narimochi saw these feelings in Itsuko's sincere "Do you feel okay?" It was an unbearable discovery. He closed his eyes, telling her to go in the other room. "Now you be quiet, okay? It's not good for you to move around." Itsuko had never spoken in such a familiar way to Narimochi before he collapsed. After a moment Narimochi opened his eyes slightly. He could see those healthy bare legs walking down the corridor toward the living room. She always went shopping, nonchalantly, in a skirt with bare legs. She had beautiful legs, faintly sunburned, and under that sunburn he could see veins like traces of blue chalk. Those legs went along the polished corridor, stepping on the reflection of the white glass door, and hurried unreservedly toward the living room. 'That girl's mother, my second wife, was the only one who didn't die because of me. I don't remember ever doing anything against her mother. It's a strange thing. I have killed at least fifteen women. One woman, after I shoved her away, cried outside in the garden for more than an hour in the pouring rain. I would have gone out and brought her in, but I hated to get my new suit wet. In the meantime, I was bored, so I read the English language newspaper from front to back. It takes more time to read that one. A large Mikimoto advertisement strangely sticks in my mind. Three days later she died of pneumonia without a struggle. I wrapped a funeral gift of five yen and sent it. A scandal sheet printed an expos6, treating me like a mean old man, so I threw a big party in Shimbashi, and made it a special point to invite the newspaper reporters. After that, they printed a correction. They called me "a man with a big heart." A man with a big heart. Imagine that -- a man with a big heart!'

Page  205 DAVID O. MILLS 205 He tried to laugh, but, like a balloon with a hole in it, the laugh would not swell at all. His stiffened mouth just became distorted. He felt as though the ice packs were still on his forehead, so he put his hand up to see. The ice packs had already been taken away. The water-pillow supported Narimochi's head with sullen-like resilience. Just then he felt a shadow fall across his face. A four or five-year-old boy was standing there with one hand on the sliding door, looking down at Narimochi. It was Hisao's boy, that he had seen earlier. Narimochi felt afraid, though he did not know why. The boy pulled up the leg of his short pants with one hand, and scratched an itchy place on his thigh. Just standing there, staring at Narimochi, he laughed slightly. Then he rubbed his body against the corner of the sliding door like a cat. Making up his mind, he came a little closer to the bed. Narimochi hated kids. It was a mystery to him why the world held so much affection for such things as children. When Hisao was a child, Narimochi had treated him kindly only because he had had a guilty conscience. The boy came over to the side of the bed, squatted down, * and stared at the old man's face. There was no fear in that expression -- nothing but curiosity. Narimochi permitted curiosity toward himself only when mixed with envy. However, a four-year-old boy was not likely to be envious. The boy opened his mouth slightly, and, looking at him steadily, breathed a long sigh. Then the boy stretched out his hand, laid it on the old man's head, and in all seriousness asked, "Do you feel bad?" Narimochi desperately shook his head, and glared at the child with frightening eyes. But the dauntless child smiled broadly, his eyes shining. In both corners of his mouth was the faint yellow of dried egg. He leaped onto the bed like a leopard, and straddled the sick man's head. Then, laughing, he began to pull on his sagging cheeks for all he was worth. Next he pulled his whiskers, his hair and his ears, and played with his earlobes. Narimochi tried to grab hold of the boy with his good hand, but his weakened arm had been lying under the covers, and did not have the strength to throw back the weight of a four-year-old child. Meanwhile, the boy's round, fleshy fingers hung onto his wrinkled throat. In a twinkling Narimochi's face reddened. 'I'll be killed! I'll be killedI' Finally, he pulled his arm out from under the covers, and tried to grab the boy. The boy nimbly dodged the hand, escaped to the far side of the room, and rolled with laughter. At that moment, remembering that there was a call bell by his pillow, Narimochi groped around for it, and shook it frantically. A Japanese style bed consists of one or two quilt-like mattresses placed directly on the tatami mats.

Page  206 206 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER Itsuko, Hisao, and his wife rushed in, and, seeing the situation, they burst out laughing. Seeing the adults laughing, the boy laughed all the harder. No one understood Narimochi's crisis. Neither the sharp anger in the old man's eyes nor his urgent expression begging for help could undermine the comical ugliness of his drooling mouth. Itsuko knelt down, and wiped Narimochi's mouth with a towel. Calmly she wiped the perspiration from his forehead. "He was showing you how much he loves you, again, wasn't he? Earlier he was laughing at your snoring, too. You're not acting very grownup if you let a child's laughter make you angry." "Itsuko, would it be all right if we took a nice friendly picture of our boy and your father?" "That's a good idea. There's still enough light to take it. Okay, Itsuko?" Narimochi thought she would refuse, but she agreed readily. "That's all right, isn't it, father? I don't believe I've ever heard of anyone getting worse from having his picture taken!" Narimochi shook his head earnestly, so Itsuko relayed his feelings. But Hisao paid no attention. He went right ahead getting things ready. The child was set beside the pillow. Narimochi pulled his head back off the pillow so they would not take it. The shutter clicked, and his mouth looked like that of a beast gasping for breath. Narimochi fainted, and for two days wandered about in a dim consciousness. The doctor did not agree that a new blood vessel had burst. Rather he suspected that there was the further complication of a nervous condition. Narimochi saw many dream-like hallucinations. A hawk spread its wings and tried to fly. But it could not. It was struggling around the moonlit garden giving off sad cries. Then countless ants swarmed all over the hawk, eating it alive, infesting its entrails.... Or, out on the moonlit ocean Narimochi could see a hugh pitch-black freighter heading for his cove. It was filled with men and women who had suffered from his cruelty. The freighter dropped anchor at the base of the cliff. Carrying briefcases the passengers, one after another, came climbing up the cliff. Their fingernails were long, so they traveled nimbly from rock ledge to rock ledge, without even dropping their briefcases. The numerous faces lined up on top of the cliff, and peered into Narimochi's sick room... For the most part they were this kind of conventional hallucination. Narimochi was more or less lacking in anything like a poet's nature. Affected by these banal hallucinations he uttered delirious ravings of pure and simple fear. After four or five days he returned to the condition he had been in before he lost consciousness -- unable to speak, half of his body paralyzed, but with a vigorous appetite. It was one morning past the middle of May. The morning was beautiful. The ocean was calm, and there was not a cloud left in the sky. The fishing boats went out in droves, and even from his sick room Narimochi could see the white sails scattered about, moving in and out, and passing each other by. In the branches of the

Page  207 DAVID O. MILLS 207 red pine tree little birds chattered, and a large evergreen magnolia in the garden was dressed in large flowers that looked awkward and artificial. The bees were busier, and the automobile horns more frequent than usual. Many cars and jeeps came out of the tunnel and headed for the hotspring. That was why he noticed that it was Sunday. Exactly one week had passed since he lost c onsciousne ss. Higaki, Nariaki, Teruko, and Hisao (who had some sense of responsibility) had all come the night before. Itsuko was feeding her father milk with a silver spoon. She had put a towel under his chin. Milk was spilled time after time, running down his chin and wetting the towel. Itsuko was feeling so good that she lost her gentle touch. His false teeth were out, so that when she pushed the spoon roughly into his mouth, she hit his tender gums. Narimochi, in retaliation, spit out all the milk he had in his mouth. There was not even one person who understood this constantly angry, imprisoned spirit. They all laughed at Higaki's vulgar jokes, and even Itsuko often got so interested in the jokes that the hand with the spoon stopped. "Well, I must say, we'll never forget your kindness in taking such good care of our helpless father, Higaki. And looking after Itsuko, too. I think you're just wonderful. This is something no ordinary person would do. " Noticing that flattery seemed to work to her advantage, Teruko started using such transparent compliments as this. However, the fact that a family member who took no financial responsibility, herself, could say such a thing as 'I think you're just wonderful' -- that in itself was 'something no ordinary person would do'. Teruko, with her spoiled upbringing and her worldly ways, sneered at her big brother, Nariaki, for knowing nothing about life. But there was little difference between the two. "This is a lot of inconvenience for you, isn't it, Higaki. We can't thank you enough." Nariaki spoke patronizingly, as usual. A man whose intention to become a composer came to nought because of his laziness, who raised Angora rabbits in the ruins of his father's mansion and ate off that income -- it gave a queer feeling to hear this man say such things to one who is president of a securities corporation. "I'm embarrassed by all your gratitude. Forget it. I'm simply doing this as a friend. Because I'm a great fan of your father's. Why, I'd do anything for my former employer. And please don't say that that sounds feudal or something. I like your father very much, and that's all there is to it!" "I wonder what you like about him." "Like they say, each according to his taste. But father's more like garlic, isn't he?" "But anyway, garlic is a hormone drug, don't forget." Itsuko remained quiet. Being silent was a sign of criticism. She was already treating her father as an affectionate doll to be nursed, but when she heard these words, she thought about the fact that her father, too, had ears that could hear, and eyes that could see. Her father's eyes and ears seemed to be someplace separate from his body. They seemed to be eyes and ears from

Page  208 208 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER another world silently turned toward this world. Even if something were overheard in that other world, it would cause no shame in this world. Only before these eyes and ears could a person behave shamelessly, nakedly. "Had he drunk it all?" "No, he quit taking it." "Here, let me try it." Higaki, heedless of the crease in his trousers, sat down on the tatami with his legs under him, and took over the milk spoon. Once again Narimochi felt that unexplainable fear. However, by now fear had become his life. Fear toward other people had already become his creed. Higakis eyes and the old aristocrat's eyes -- half stuck shut with mucus -- met. Narimochi saw Higaki's little eyes, pug nose, and pudgy chin, and they all made him want to laugh. In fact, the reason that Narimochi caused Higaki so much trouble was so he could laugh at him. --- Higaki's mouth overflowed with good will. He held out the spoon, looking as if he were about to belch from eating too much good will. It was embarrassing to find there the sharp expression of the youth who was slapped. It had happened twenty-five years earlier. The son of the man who was steward at that time stole the lighter that Narimochi had left lying in the back yard pavilion. He did not really steal it, he was just examining it out of curiosity, when Narimochi returned, grabbed hold of him, and slapped him. He was a small boy, and bright. Narimochi knew he was bright, but did not like his homely features. Narimochi was cruel to beautiful things, too, but mixed in with his inhumanity was love. However, toward homely things he showed absolutely no mercy. As the result of this, Higaki was disinherited by his old-fashioned father, and went to live and work as houseboy for a certain stockbroker. He gained his master's confidence, and worked his way up. After the war the company set him up in business. He became the head of his own securities corporation. He bought this villa, and instead of getting someone to take care of the place in his absence, he invited his old boss and his daughter, who had lost their home in the war damage, to come and stay as guests. --- Higaki filled the spoon to the brim with milk. He pushed the bottom of the spoon against Narimochi's lower lip. Nariaki and the others leaned forward expectantly, cheering him on. "Father, drink it!" said Nariaki in a cold, imperative tone. A man who talks this way is surprisingly soft inside. "Go on and drink it! It'll taste good!" Teruko spoke impolitely. "Keep trying, Higaki, keep trying," said naive Hisao.

Page  209 DAVID O. MILLS 209 Narimochi had the feeling that everything depended on his momentary reaction to this. This kind of premonition is practically never wrong. In real life there are often important moments that appear insignificant on the surface. To give an exaggerated simile, it is similar to an assassin, indiscernible in the crowd, dressing and acting even more inconspicuously. It was fun to close his mouth stubbornly in refusal. It was fun to turn his face away and spill all the milk. And it was also fun to throw the spoon back with his lips, and see Higaki's nose wet with milk like a dog' s. Narimochi glanced over at Itsuko. She was leaning on the bed, her body bent, playing with a white feather that had been sticking out of the silk cover of the quilt. She gave the appearance of having no interest in what Narimochi's attitude was. And yet, if anybody looked, it was obvious that she was asking for something. It was just that nobody was looking. Narimochi saw this, and unconsciously felt like surrendering himself to something. His mouth obediently opened. The milk slid smoothly through his half-numbed mouth. "Well, he finally drank it." "Now, then, that tastes pretty good, doesn't it?" said Higaki. Narimochi drank spoonful after spoonful. Teruko tired of watching this. She borrowed Itsuko's hand mirror and stood up to put on her makeup. The mirror caused the May sunlight to scamper around the room for an instant. Itsuko spoke. "At this rate, father, you'll soon be well." "Sure he will, sure he will, " said Higaki. Soon, Itsuko got up to go fix lunbh, and Higaki and Hisao decided to go for a walk. Narimochi, for what was probably the first time in his life, was floating in the sweetness of a feeling of peace. He felt the sky was beautiful, and the sea was beautiful. The chirping of the birds, and even the droning of the bees sounded sweet. His feeling, even in the half of his body that was paralyzed, was a kind of refreshing harmony. There was no vanity table, so Teruko stood the mirror on the window casing, and fixed her face standing up. She finished. She picked the mirror up again, and flashed it around the room here and there like lightning. Her older brother, Nariaki, was sprawled out reading the morning paper. "Cut it out! You're bothering me!" "But I'm so mad I don't know what to do. Itsuko is treating us like children or something. She makes us sleep in this small room while she sleeps with Higaki in the main bedroom. "That was Higaki's intention from the beginning, so there's nothing we can do about it."

Page  210 210 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE MONSTER "But I think it's pretty shocking!" "When I came this time, and saw that Itsuko had changed, I thought something was up. Higaki had been waiting for a good opportunity." Nariaki affected a big yawn. Hearing this, Narimochi's momentary respite of feelings was shattered. 'A guy like Higaki.... of all people, a guy like Higaki!' He recalled the strangely serious look on Itsuko's face earlier when she was playing with the white feather from the quilt. That must have been love. With that as his inspiration, Narimochi had unfortunately gone ahead and accepted the spoon from Higaki. It would have been better if it had been poison. He had no choice but to wait to be given everything -- even poison. Narimochi's eyes burned with anger. His ability at prophecy and mystery had vanished before his eyes. Probably, even a curse would not work any more. Who would understand this imprisoned body, this spiritual captivity? He did not understand it himself..... He prayed for death. And yet, there was no doubt that, regardless of his plea, death would come to him some unpredictable morning like pennies tossed to a beggar. Matsudaira Narimochi was not repentant. And yet, if the unhappiness he had formerly given to others had grown strong, and unhappiness had begotten sons, grandsons, and descendants of unhappiness all out of proportion, then Narimochi probably would have had a strong desire to repent. However, the seeds of unhappiness which he had sown had merely grown up in the form of completely transformed affection, twisted humanitarianism, and milk criticism. None of them had given him any reward. Not one! There was not one thing that repaid him with the same enjoyment he got from other people's unhappiness and wounds. The only thing he received was the dribble of milk poured into his mouth by that affable millionaire's stubby, unsightly hand grasping the spoon. That was the only thing. That was the only compensation for his life. Narimochi had so wanted to be able to speak, but now that he had lost that desire from being so angry, he felt a different kind of freedom appearing. This old man, buried in his age, disease, and the smell of secretions, was inside an immovable cage, and secretly dreaming of a life based on the pretext of a delicate revenge. He felt deep inside that he must not entrust Itsuko to such a vulgar pig. 'At least Itsuko must stay with me, and become truly unhappy.' Higaki's actions were becoming more and more undisguised. Once, as Narimochi was waking up from a nap, he heard Itsuko's voice say, "No, don't. Not here. Please don't!" The two of them became more audacious, ecstatic, and often forgot Narimochi was even there. Once, the viscount had an "accident" before he even had time to ring the little bell. It was not discovered for more than two hours. One night there was a power failure. Itsuko brought a small candle in and placed it by his pillow. She put the naked candle down, stood up, and started for the main bedroom. Narimochi had been waiting for this chance. He stuck out his left leg and tripped her, causing her to fall.

Page  211 DAVID 0. MILLS 211 Itsuko, thinking it was a joke, cried, "Now stop that, stop that! It's bad for your condition!" Narimochi held both of his daughter's legs clamped between his good left leg and his useless right leg. Then he picked up the little candle with his left hand, pushing down forcibly on her breast with his shoulder. His left hand was well practiced, so it did its job beautifully. With the candle flame he roasted Itsuko's cheek. She fought back so intensely, that the flame moved to part of her hair. The fire spread, seeming to carefully, delicately coil each hair. However, the flame in her hair did not really catch on. --- This, Matsudaira Narimochi's final scheme, was betrayed. Now, with unusual magnanimity, Higaki bravely married the girl with the ugly scar for a cheek. A week after their marriage, Narimochi suffered another stroke, and died.

Page  212

Mishima Yukio: The Peacocks

David O. Millspp. 213

Page  213 THE PEACOCKS* Mishima Yukio Mr. Tomioka was taken completely by surprise when the man who suddenly appeared at the front door one evening turned out to be a policeman. In the early dawn of October 2nd, twenty-seven Indian Peacocks* had been killed at nearby M Amusement Park. The story appeared in the evening paper, and the policeman came the next evening while Tomioka was still somewhat upset over it. Tomioka worked for a warehousing company on the south dock of the port of Yokohama. He went to work every day, but he cared nothing for the job. Tomioka was the son of a local landholder, and he had even sold some land to the M. Amusement Park. With the money he had traded in his old car for a new one, and now he drove to work every morning via the Yokohama Freeway. On September 26th, a clear bright Saturday, he had taken his only daughter by the hand and gone to M Amusement Park. Then, on Thursday, October 1st, he had gone there once more, alone. On the 26th, while taking care of his restless child, he had spent nearly a whole hour around the peacocks, which were allowed to wander freely about the park. Then on the 1st he had spent about two hours, alone, just looking at the peacocks. The park was only about a fifteenminute walk from his house. Through the sale of the land some of the amusement park employees knew his face. It is easy to suppose that someone saw him and reported it to the police. Tomioka had married late in life. He married at the age of forty, and his daughter, born that next year, was now four. His wife was a large woman who gave up trying to become an opera singer after she passed thirty, and married Tomioka with the help of a go-between. The Tomioka household was highly regarded in the neighborhood, and the policeman, who had entered the Tomioka residence through the large gate, behaved with all due respect. Still, Tomioka noticed immediately that he was under suspicion, though he did not know to what degree, in the killing of the peacocks. II The policeman was shown into the spacious old parlor of the Tomioka home. He felt that the decor was different, somehow, from what one would normally expect. *Kujaku I *Indian Peacocks llFLJtxW- (Pavo cristatus) usually found in India and Ceylon, and here contrasted with the Green Peacock W /L' (Pavo muticus) usually found in Indo-China, Burma, and Malaysia. 213

Page  214 214 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS The peacock ornament on the mantel was the most conspicuous. It was made of cast metal, realistic, and was beautifully colored. On the wall was a fabric design of several peacocks. To one side, on a whatnot shelf, there was a peacock delicately fashioned from glass. There were various other curios decorating the room, but these three were the only ones representing peacocks. From just this, however, it was obvious that the owner had a special affection for peacocks. The parlor was musty, gloomy, and too large. The white linen cover on the chair was damp, and when it touched his skin it felt like birch bark wet from the rain. Having been kept waiting for quite a while, the policeman stood up and examined one by one the various decorations in the room. There was an ebony folding screen that had been carved open-style in China, a piece of fishing equipment from the south Pacific, and on the wall there was even a framed sample of the calligraphy of a politician. It was all an unconnected hodgepodge, and the walls were so cluttered that there were hardly any open spaces left. There was an old framed certificate from having crossed the equator on a passenger boat, and on it danced mermaids and sea gods. There was also a porcelain plaque of a Dutch windmill done in a moonlight blue. Between them was a framed photograph that caught the policeman' s eye. The photograph was of a sixteen or seventeen year old boy wearing a baggy sweater and standing in front of a grove of trees that looked like something in this neighborhood. He was a young man of extremely good looks. His eyebrows formed a delicately smooth line, his eyes were deep set, his skin frightfully fair, and his lips rather thin and cruel looking. His face was covered with the passing worry and pride of youth like a thin coating of ice that forms in early winter. However, there was somehow something ominous in that face; a face so delicate -- even fragile -- that it had about it a vague aura of vitreous cruelty. The policeman, after looking at these various things, began to suspect that the head of this house was not an ordinary man. Just as he returned to his chair the door opened, and Tomioka and his wife appeared. Tomioka was a tall man of slender build, and his wife, as might be expected of one who had aspired to become an opera singer, was plump. Although at one time she probably had had clearly outlined, fine features, that outline had crumbled. Nevertheless, the strong, sharp lines around the corners of her mouth and nose remained, giving a gloomy, domineering feeling. "If you don't mind, I have something very serious I would like to speak to your husband about -- alone, " the policeman began, bothered because she made no move to leave. "Why must I leave?" Her voice was powerful, indignant, and in an abstract way, beautiful. "Needless to say it's about the peacocks." "I see you're one jump ahead of me." The policeman gave a businesslike laugh, and put his hand up to his head. Tomioka, showing no signs of irritation, sat quietly. Sunk deep in his chair with his light-brown cashmere cardigan pulled around him, he looked calm and complacent. The police

Page  215 DAVID O. MILLS 215 man's previous judgment was undermined by the feeling that this man looked more like a scholar type, and yet he also noticed that his forty-five or so year old face showed terrible devastation. His hair was graying, his skin had faded and lost its resiliency, and although his features were well proportioned, there was something over-expressed in such proportion. It gave the appearance of a miniature garden long neglected and covered with dust. A dust-covered pond, a leaning bridge, a little stone lantern, a ceramic farmhouse piled, even inside, with dust...., such was Tomioka's face. He was a man who had never decided what he wanted in life and then set out positively to get it; a man who held a job merely because, in the eyes of society, it was expected; a man of comfortable social standing. This, of course, was not the kind of man the policeman could care much for. However, on the other hand, Tomioka showed the marks of having accumulated a special, high refinement the policeman was not able to understand. That caused the policeman some concern. But looking at it from one side, perhaps the thing that had caused such devastation in his face, at only half way through his forties, was none other than that very refinement. "Well, since Mrs. Tomioka has gotten the jump on me, I'll go ahead. I did come about the peacocks. I understand that you are especially fond of peacocks, Mr. Tomioka." "It's much more unpleasant to beat around the bush! You really came here to say you think my husband killed the peacocks, didn't you?" " No, not at all." The policeman quickly shook his head. "But isn't it odd? Just because some peacocks were killed, you go around hunting for people who like peacocks. Do you think that all people who like cats kill them, or that people who like children would kill them? In response to this tirade the policeman fell silent and looked angry. "Now, there's no need to jump to such conclusions." Tomioka opened his mouth for the first time. "I know why he's here. Someone probably saw me watching the peacocks for a long time, alone, on the day before the incident, and reported it to the police. Isn't that it?" "That is correct," the policeman said, speaking especially gently to Tomioka. "Anyhow, my husband hasn't got that much courage. In the first place he hasn't any reason to kill peacocks. It's only that he likes them." "Now, now...." There were only calm movements in Tomioka's way of handling his wife, like hands dealing with fire. On the table the tea, brought out for the policeman earlier, was getting cold. On the surface of the brownish-green water dust floated like delicate embroidery. In this room, that had not been cleaned for a long time, it was as though dust were always quietly floating about. The policeman talked with them for about thirty minutes more trying to get a satisfactory explanation as to why Tomioka liked peacocks, but it was useless.

Page  216 216 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS "For some reason I just happen to like peacocks.... " Tomioka would say calmly. There was not the excess enthusiasm in his eyes that the policeman expected. His hand did not tremble, and he spoke with ease as though no matter who asked him, he would not be shy -- as if he were merely talking about whether a meal was good or bad. There was not the persistency there that the policeman was looking for. Not that Tomioka was being cautious, he clearly reiterated his answer that way, naturally. It seemed as though he did not know any other words, whereas a more persistent person, no matter how limited a vocabulary, would dig up all sorts of words to explain his one love with great passion. Such compulsion was lacking in Tomioka' s attitude. The policeman finally gave up. Mrs. Tomioka, who had been so highhanded in the beginning, turned her displeased face away and lapsed into silence when the questioning moved to her husband. Still, she made no move to leave her chair. She was wearing a modest suit, and appeared to be the kind who does not pay much attention to personal appearance. She did not look at all like a woman who had aspired to be an opera singer. She was so thoroughly disgusted that finally the policeman could no longer believe that it was due solely to him. He could see the impatience of wanting to get the peacock business over and done with as soon as possible. Occasionally she glanced down from her spot on high with a look of contempt for the conversation between the two men that was not making any progress. The policeman, starting to leave, got up, looked around the room, and said abruptly, "You have quite a collection of unusual things here, don't you?" "It's just some stuff my father collected," replied Tomioka, disinterestedly. The policeman felt a little lonely that, because of his profession, people usually think that any conversation other than business is just courtesy with an ulterior motive. He merely wanted a little recognition for his own amateur interests. The policeman let the conversation die there, and stared at the wall. He could feel the cold, unfriendly eyes of the Tomiokas standing behind him. He could feel that "Get outl" look all up and down his spine. He suddenly realized that the penetrating silence of the autumn night had spread all through the large musty parlor. The feeling grew stronger. There was a chestnut grove just outside the window, and even on the stone walk leading up to the entrance there were many fallen rotting chestnuts..... As the policeman's eyes played over the sundry items on the wall in front of him, actually in the back of his mind he could hear the cries of the murdered peacocks in the distance. Of course, by the time the policeman had arrived on the scene the peacocks had already become resplendent corpses. He had not heard their cries with his own ears. However, on this warm tenr night, far away, even now the frenzied clamor of the murder, thed peacocks seemed to continue relentlessly, thinly, like gold and silver threads woven into a black background. The policeman's feelings had been hurt by that disinterested reply, and, suddenly feeling irritated, he pointed his finger at the nearby photograph of the good-looking young man and said over his shoulder, "Who is this?"

Page  217 DAVID O. MILLS 217 For the first time, Tomioka's eyes, that had seemed dead, gave off a momentary gleam that sparkled like the scales on a fish as it leaps out of the water. "That's me." "What?" "It's me! Taken when I was seventeen. My father took it in our back yard." At that instant a smile of contempt, exactly that which the policeman himself felt underneath his amazement, flitted across Mrs. Tomioka's face. "You can't even imagine it to look at him now, can you? For the first time there is something we agree on. When I married him there wasn't even the slightest trace of this photograph left in him. Of course, that was only five y rs ago, you know." Since the policeman had come here determined to be most courteous, he did not laugh. He hid his surprise. And yet, now that he took a careful look, there was no doubt that it truly was the face of Tomioka in his youth. It was indeed strange that he who, by profession, was so thoroughly versed in physiognomy, should fail to notice the similarity between Tomioka and this photograph. Of course! Now that she mentioned it, the shape of Tomioka's eyebrows was the same as the eyebrows of that good-looking young man. The wrinkles under his eyes were so swollen that they bore no resemblance to those beautiful clear eyes, but the shape was the same. The nose, too, was the same shape, as well as the thin lips which gave a feeling of cruelty. However, the present Tomioka was lacking that former beauty to a frightening extent. The thing that was strange was the fact that this lack of beauty alone should have thrown the policeman's professional judgment off. But this lack was complete, not an ordinary thing. The present Tomioka was like a very poor caricature of the former Tomioka. Not that special characteristics were exaggerated with strong simple lines, but rather the details were too faithfully traced, and then finished up with weak, crumbly, unsure lines. That must be why he gave the impression that the similarity had been lost. Once he said, "That's me," the pieces immediately fell into place, and all the similarities came floating up like invisible ink. Now the policeman had no more doubt that the face was that of Tomioka in his youth. ---- As he was riding his bicycle back to the police station after leaving the Tomioka house, the exhausted face of the present Tomioka faded from his mind, and he was surprised to find only the image of that extremely good-looking young man gradually spreading through hi s mind. It was a moon-less night, but the face of this vision hung before the policeman's eyes like a moon. The road he had to take back to the police station was unpaved -- a rough, gravel road. On one side extended a long bamboo grove, and through the trees all that could be seen were yellowish lights from peoples' homes. On the opposite side there were rice fields, already harvested, and large vegetable gardens. It was not easy to travel this road on a bicycle, so finally the policeman got off and walked along the side of the road next to the bamboo grove, pushing his

Page  218 218 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS bicycle. This road had become a shortcut from M Amusement Park to the Yokohama Freeway. Suddenly, a beam of light came bearing down from behind, and the policeman's shadow was thrown violently out in front. He realized that a car was taking the shortcut back from the park, and kicking up gravel at a terrific speed. The policeman moved still closer to the bamboo trees, and let the car go by. The only thing he saw was the flash of the white scarf that belonged to the girl who was leaning on the man in the driver's seat. He could tell even in the darkness that the car, a large and rather old model, was covered with dust as it bounced along. The wheels jumped around over the uneven gravel, and it went past shaking terribly. Once the quietude had returned, the policeman stopped his bicycle and, starting to light a cigarette to think some things over, he looked back. In the sky behind him he saw the crimson lights of M Amusement Park reflected like fires as they softened the outline of the black bamboo grove. Among them he saw red, yellow, and green balls of light moving very slowly, and he thought they must be the topmost lights of the ferris wheel. III After the policeman left, Tomioka told his wife he wanted to be left alone for awhile. As she was going she left behind in a high, beautiful voice her usual parting remark. "What have you got to think about? It couldn't possibly have been you that did it, now could it?" "What do you mean? I've got an alibi, haven't I?" "I don't know what went on while we were asleep!" After his wife had gone, Tomioka was all alone. He sank deeply into his chair and puffed on a cigarette. When his wife left the room it was as though a pinwheel seller's noisy cart had faded into the distance. Tomioka realized that it was the season for a fire as night comes on. The gas heater that had been sitting out all summer must be dusted off. He was reminded of his childhood days, when, along with the warmth of the first fire of the season, there arose a nostalgic smell from this same old damp Tientsin rug in this same room. With the visit of the policeman this evening, the death of the peacocks had become remarkably close to him. It was probably Fate that he had watched them so to his heart's content only the day before their death. The shock he received from their death had been, until today, like an intoxication that continued day and night, ceaselessly, and had settled down inside him like sediment. But then, after the policeman came, the emotion opened its eyes, stood up, and took on a relation to reality. The death, that had been like a dream, became savage and gaudy. Due to the strange power of suggestion that a policeman gives; due to the corrosive quality in that man's eyes and voice that, like an etching, causes the supposed truth to ooze out; Tomioka himself began to feel as if he had had some uncommon relation to the death of the peacocks. Perhaps, as his wife had suggested with amazing coincidence, it was a crime he committed in a dream.

Page  219 DAVID 0. MILLS 219 If that were not so, there would be no explanation for that element in the crime that defies understanding, that element that is meaningless -- so meaningless that it is beautiful. Tomioka was thinking that, if the word "magnificence' applied to the raising of peacocks, it could be even more appropriately applied to the killing of them. He also realized that the reasons -- though illogical -- all originate in the peacock's existence itself. Perhaps it can be said to be magnificent to raise a thousand head of.cattle, or a thousand head of horses, or even a thousand canaries, but their slaughter certainly is not at all magnificent. This was all because of the peacock! It is truly a bird endowed with meaningless magnificence; and such things as the biological explanation, that the brilliant green of its plumage serves as protective coloring in the radiant forests that shine in the equatorial sun, just does not mean a thing. The creation of a bird like the peacock shows the vanity of Nature, since such a uselessly gorgeous thing as this was certainly not really necessary to Nature. Perhaps, as the result of fatigue from the work of creation, or as the result of having invented many and varied kinds of living things with both a use and a purpose -- in any case, there is no doubt that the peacock is one of the most useless ideas ever to take shape. Such magnificence was probably produced on the final day of creation amidst the multitudinous colors filling the evening sky, and, in order to be able to understand the nothingness and the darkness that must follow, was inlaid beforehand with the meaninglessness of darkness translated into color and splendor. That is why each little design on the peacock's shining feathers is supposed to tally precisely with the various elements that make up the deep darkness of night. It is not strange, then, that the incident which brought to light this essence of peacocks -- that their magnificence lies not only in their existence and their being taken care of, but even more in their being killed -- should plunge Tomioka, who had always liked peacocks, into a long intoxication. 'What form of existence can this be?' he thought during the lunch hour of his tedious job at the warehousing company, as he looked out on a line beyond the many boats floating in the harbor -- a line that shone green and dark blue like the feathers on a peacock's neck. ' Just what form of existence can it be, whose magnificence lies not only in living, but even more in being killed? A strange creature that holds such consistency in life and death; a bird in which the splendor of day and the splendor of night are one?' Tomioka pondered this from various angles, and the conclusion he reached was that a peacock can be fulfilled only by being murdered. That magnificence, drawn taut like a bow and aimed at the point of death, sustains the life of a peacock. Therefore, among the various crimes that man devises, the killing of peacocks would probably be the most helpful for Nature's plan. It is not something which splits up, but rather something which physically unites both beauty and destruction. When Tomioka thought about it this way, he approved of this crime he might have committed in a dream..... Now, as the night grew late in the musty parlor, that thought flickered with all the more sense of reality. He could not help but feel more and more strongly that he would always regret not having seen the moment the peacocks were murdered. When he revisited M Amusement Park alone on the afternoon of October 1st and watched them at length, he saw only live peacocks. Now, once again the recollection of looking carefully at those unpenned, well-behaved Indian Peacocks from various angles revived vividly in his mind.

Page  220 220 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS In a peacock's tail the upper tail coverts lie on top, and the best time to see them open up like a fan is a spring morning, when the male feels a need to show off his pride-filled beauty to the female. Tomioka used to make a special point of going to the zoo on spring mornings, and staying all day just to see that. The Indian Peacock, which could be allowed to wander about freely, was, unfortunately, far inferior in splendor to the haughty, violent Green Peacock. Seen at a distance they were no more than a group of shining green birds which might, from time to time, blend in with the green of the large lawn of the amusement park. Up close, however, when he looked carefully, their delicacy of hue was a point of superiority over the dazzling brilliancy of the Green Peacock. A peacock, as if it were expecting something, suddenly came running over to where he was sitting on a bench. The long neck, restless and imprudent, extended up from a large round breast, and continued up into the wizened face of a bird. The peacock came closer, nodding its head continuously. It was when it raised its head with a quick motion that Tomioka was able to see in great detail. Only the peacock's face, when compared with such an array of bountiful color, was haggard like other birds. The ashen beak, the eyes surrounded with stiff wrinkles, the little patch of white feathers just below the eyes, as well as the legs -- all made him imagine that its body was completely withered and imperishable like a mummy. However, that imperishability was appearance, only. Its life was wrapped up in its gorgeous clothing, and if you killed its clothing, it would die. The head plume shone blue in the sun, and the numerous little fans that fluttered in the breeze stood unevenly and vied with each other. The deep blue luster of the neck, under the influence of the sunshine, appeared greenish, also. As the reflection moved down toward the base of the neck, the color became a true green, and then a yellowish green. The manner of transition was a most dazzling deception of coloring, and when the deep blue thinned out to green, he could not tell just where the green began. The deep plumage hid this delicate transformation of color and splendor, and under a certain light, the whole thing could even begin to give off a dark blue like the ocean. If a shadow passed over, the yellowish-green part became a bright yellow. When the peacock fluffed up its feathers, preening itself, each one of its thickly piled feathers floated up, and beneath the shining green neck dark brown under-feathers were visible. On its back, and again on the sides of its stomach, there was a beautiful brown spotted pattern, and the brilliance of the green at the base of its ample breast caused ripples of green light to emanate around the peacock. It made him dizzy. The peacock curved its neck with clever skill, and when, from time to time, it scratched its breast and back with its beak, the green of its soft neck emitted a diffused light, raising every one of the feathers together as if they were attached like the feathers on an arrow. On the upper tail coverts, gray and brown seashell-like patterns were piled one on another, so that it looked as though long seaweed plants, holding numerous shells, had been gathered into a bunch. An elegant luxurious body. A faultless system in which every feather flows toward the tail..... They give the peacock the appearance of a section of a swollen, sparkling green river. Needless to say, the current of the river is bathed in sunlight and flowing over a bed of

Page  221 DAVID 0. MILLS 221 emeralds, and the sparkling face of the river stands between the extreme pressure of the sunlight and the extreme dignity of the emerald bottom. The brilliant green surface itself is a reflection of inestimable riches; and what is more, it is nothing more than a reflection. Many peacocks in this way conceal underneath their current of feathers a riverbed of jewels. But the peacocks themselves are a reflection -- each one a brilliant reflection of a rare, radiant, absolute green. They are, in other words, an illusion. When peacocks are killed, do they unite with the fountainhead jewels; is the river current linked with the bottom.... Tomioka, closing his eyes, pictured the place of the massacre, and thought about what a gorgeous thrill must have filled the scene. "The screams of the peacocks," he whispered, like a poem, on the edge of his lips, "must have been like the pale steel of a sword rending the dawning sky in all directions. Green feathers scattering. Oh, how they looked forward to that time, how they dreamed of that moment of emancipation -- those feathers, emitting a bluish-green glow, quietly affixed to the peacocks' bodies. Then, each one of those countless little feathers, like a tiny peacock, threw off a green flash as it shone in the first rays of the morning sun coming up behind the hill in M Amusement Park. Ah, I probably could have seen how the precious blood, the brilliant vermilion color lacking in the plumage of a peacock, gushed forth so sumptuously, and painted beautiful red designs on the writhing bodies. Thus, the peacocks played one more role -- that of pheasants. They showed the intrinsic appearance of the fowls used as game for the morning hunt, their own truly ceremonial type of form. Already the peacocks' restless, uneasy attitude, and the little fretful moves that could injure their pride, had been sealed off. Elegant, majestic blood-smeared prey; their indigo and olive and light green necks had become the armor and braid of a slain knight -- especially now when they were motionless. The prey -- just lying there under the expanse of the awful threatening sky. As peacocks, reaching the pinnacle of the fate of birds. That pain-filled neck reposing in the most appropriate arc. The countless little peacocks -- those feathers -- that had once taken off, again coming back down to rest, falling thick and fast like green snow, to lifelessness. Blood quietly oozing into the ground.... Then, especially then, the peacocks surely found their true nature, the river and the riverbottom became one, and the peacocks united with the jewels. Ah, I'll always regret not having seen that. If only I had been the one who killed them,I could have seen every bit of that miraculous moment. I envy the one who did it. I'd like to see the face of the fellow who committed the world's most magnificent crime. " Tomioka, without realizing it, had become excited. He looked around, wide-eyed, with his fists clenched. The antiquated certificate from crossing the equator, left by his father, was there on the opposite wall. The heaviness of many things -- his land, his household, his job, his world -- was bearing down on his shoulders like the weight of his knapsack when he was a boy. If he started to run, the celluloid pencil box inside the knapsack would rattle. But now, whether he ran or not, there was not one thing there on his back to rattle. The thing that was rattling was the sound of a piano. The sound was ringing all the way from his wife's room on the second floor. Afraid that it would disturb his daughter's sleep, he had told her many times to stop. And yet, his wife paid no attention to him. On this particular sullen night, banging away on the piano like that, she decided to try her faded throat. That howling, mixed with the piano, was a mournful sound. That too-high pretty voice was unleashed in all directions, and now it dashed, shining, among the late night rustle of the bamboo grove.

Page  222 222 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS Next to his father's framed certificate was that photograph he had not had the bravery to look at directly. Now, at last, he looked. That portrait of the troubled, extremely goodlooking young man. "My beauty has slipped through my fingers with such silent speed, with such uncanny stupidity. What sin could I have committed to deserve this? Can there be such a thing as a sin that a person himself does not realize? For instance, a sin other than that in a dream which is forgotten the moment one wakes up?" IV On the evening of October 20th, the policeman, riding his bicycle back from M Amusement Park, stopped in again at Tomioka's house. He was going to apologize for the other day. It was the fifteenth when the park completed buying peacocks again and announced it, and on the morning of the eighteenth the peacocks had once again been attacked. This time the original scene had been pretty well preserved, and quite a few dogtracks were discovered. On about the fifteenth there had been a mysterious phone call, and a threatening voice said, "I'm the one who killed the peacocks. If you don't bring $1500, I'll do it again!" Among the twenty-five newly bought peacocks only two were left. Twenty-three had been killed in the early morning darkness, about 1:00 A. M., without even one witness. The policeman got off his bicycle at the gate, and was about to push it along the stone walk in the evening twilight when a voice called from the side. He turned toward it, and saw Tomioka standing with a broom in his hand. On one side there was a chestnut grove, and on the other side there were maple and other trees. He appeared out of the shadows of the maple trees. The policeman put on the smile he had prepared. I'm sorry to bother you, sir," he said by way of greeting. "That's all right. I just got back from work. There are so many leaves on the ground, that I was just doing this before supper to work up an appetite..... Well, it happened again, didn't it?" said Tomioka with his usual frown. The policeman saw no need for that expression any more. He felt Tomioka should have just said that frankly, showing his fiendish delight. However, there were no white teeth glowing in the evening twilight. "Well, I came to deliver my apologies to you. I'm very sorry I caused such a commotion the other day. Actually, we reached the conclusion of the case, today. I'm sure it will be in tomorrow's papers." "Have you caught the culprit?" Tomioka, still grasping the broom, took a step forward. The policeman suddenly caught a whiff of the floating smell of the surrounding decayed leaves, the crimson maple leaves, which had completely covered the ground, and swollen the hardened, purplish-black heaps that had been violated in the darkness.

Page  223 DAVID 0. MILLS 223 "No. " The policeman felt a sudden hesitation inside, even though he had come here with such enthusiasm. So he said what he came to say, quickly. "I mean, the conclusion was that it was the work of wild dogs. Yesterday a top veterinarian from the Ueno zoo was called, and the verdict from his examination was that the wounds were clearly from dogs' fangs, and that those birds with no wounds on the surface died from internal hemorrhaging. According to the vet's explanation, peacocks are especially cowardly birds, and just thinking themselves in danger of attack from an invader, they will crouch and take off, apparently beating their heads against the wire netting. So, even just a nip at the feathers by an invader, it seems, will cause their lungs to burst and fill with blood. "Also, wild dogs are different from domesticated ones in that, even if only one attacks at first, before long he is joined by his friends. In the first place, wild dogs always dig, and there are signs that they dug under the wire netting of the peacock pen, and then invaded. Well, the veterinarian's explanation fitted in so many ways, that the wild-dog theory was accepted. Naturally, I intended to set up a decoy and see if they try again, but.... " "That's impossible!" Tomioka blurted out, as if accusing him. This was the first time the policeman had ever heard him put so much passion into his words, or speak in such a heated way. In the darkness the policeman felt as if Tomioka's hot breath were touching his cheek. "That's impossible. It's obvious that it was done by a person. If it were not a person, how do you suppose such a thing could have been thought up? It may have been dogs, but unquestionably the dogs were used by a person to do it. Isn't that right? Someone did a good job of using dogs!" "That theory was suggested, too. It was suggested, but anyway, the evidence...." "What about the evidence?" Tomioka's words became more and more charged with emotion. "A wild-dog theory -- that's absolutely ridiculous. It was a personI That's what I believe..... You said something before about setting up a decoy, didn't you?" "Yes, well, that...." "Well, are you or aren't you?" "We intend to try it for a while." "Tonight, too?" "That's right. Tonight, too." Tomioka fell silent for a moment, and thought. Soon the policeman heard his uneasy voice, hiding a fervent plea, timidly say, "Please take me with you, tonight. "

Page  224 224 MISHIMA YUKIO: THE PEACOCKS V The policeman's superior gave permission for the cooperation of this unofficial volunteer, so, in the middle of the night, after the amusement park was closed and all the preparations were completed, Tomioka was able to enter the park with the policeman. His wife, with a scornful smile, gave him a sack with some sandwiches. The policeman, dressed in old pants and a jacket, had a pistol and was carrying binoculars. The two men crossed the wide lawn of the deserted, late-hour amusement park. The fountain was still, the park lights had all been turned off, and the lights on the ferris wheel were also dark. The many round and gabled roofs were lurking darkly under the starry sky. The policeman went around the back of the House of Space Travel, and followed the yet only half-paved path to the peacock pen. That was where the peacocks slept. They were turned loose during the day, but when the sun went down they were put into this pen divided into six sections, with four or five birds in each section. Now, just the two remaining birds were there, as a decoy, in one pen. Behind the pen ran the tracks of the miniature train, and just beyond a slight rise ran the wire netting damaged by the dogs. Along the inside of the wire netting there was a hedge, and, looking through the leaves, one could see in the distance the woods and mountains that surrounded M Amusement Park. The hills in this area were gently rolling. Their bare round tops, whose surface looked as though all the trees had been cut down, floated out of the woods and bamboo groves behind them. There were no houselights anywhere. Tomioka and the policeman concealed themselves beside the peacock pen. The chill of the night gradually became more intense, and not even the sound of the birds preening themselves inside the pen could be heard. The two peacocks, having lost their greenish glow of the daytime, nestled up to each other in the darkness on the perch, and settled down. Tomioka felt even more that, amidst the darkness that filled this empty pen, the splendor of the dead peacocks was still vividly there. That was not mere darkness. If even one of those feathers left lying in the darkness preserved the gorgeous olive, indigo, and light green colors, then the darkness itself would press the memory of those colors into every little corner; in other words, the radiance of the peacocks would be housed in every tiny particle of darkness. The two continued to wait. The policeman was getting drowsy, only Tomioka's eyes were alert. Tomioka became excited, filling his gradually emptying mind with various visions of peacocks, and, from time to time, gazed in contempt at the crouched form of the policeman by his side who could barely keep his eyes open. He waited. Looking at the luminous dial on his watch he realized that the midnight hour had long since passed. In the broad expanse of the amusement park there was not a sound. Right in front of him the tracks of the miniature railroad shone in the starlight.

Page  225 DAVID 0. MILLS 225 In the sky here and there clouds were beginning to form. There was no wind. The outline of the mountains was becoming vague, and the reddish full moon was coming up. As the moon climbed into the sky it lost its redness, shone more brightly, and the shadow of the peacock pen lengthened brilliantly. A dog's howl could be heard in the distance, and its distant answer. Then, silence. Suddenly the policeman felt his shoulder shaken by Tomioka, and he sat up. Tomioka's eyes were shining. "Look! Just like I said!" The policeman turned his eyes in the direction of the bare hills. The hills were illuminated by the moon, now, and with the shadows of countless stumps, the scene had completely changed. Those shadows, in the moonlight, were like carefully arranged spots; like a diagram inscribed. on a plain piece of paper. There was the figure of a man approaching. In front of the figure stretched his shadow, and they could tell that the four or five thinly scattered figures dancing about chaotically were definitely dogs. When the figure turned to the side, they could see the man's body bent into an arc as he struggled with the strength of the dogs. The policeman lifted the binoculars to his eyes. The slender frame of the man's body was dressed in black, and he was holding on to the dogs' chains with both hands. The policeman caught a glimpse of the man's white face in the moonlight, and uttered a cry. It was, without a doubt, the face of that good-looking young man he had seen on the wall at Tomioka's house.... APPENDIX A Partial List of the Published Works of Mishima Yukio 1938 - September, 1965 Explanation Novels Dramas Short Stories Non-fiction Poetry Anthologies Translations List of Publishers and Periodicals

Page  226 226 MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY EXPLANATION This list is divided into seven main sections: novels, dramas, short stories, nonfiction, poetry, anthologies, and translations (into English). The entries are numbered consecutively throughout. Following this is a separately numbered, alphabetically arranged, list of periodicals and publishing companies pertinent to this list. Each entry, except for the list of translations, consists of four main parts -- the romanized title, the title in Japanese, the English translation, and the information concerning publication. 1) The entries within each section are arranged alphabetically by romanized title. The Hepburn system of romanization has been used. Other than proper nouns, only the first word of each title has been capitalized in accordance with the practice of the Library of Congress. 2) The original writing of the Japanese title has been preserved except for the use in this list of the modern abbreviated forms of the Chinese characters. 3) The English translations are, for the most part, literal approximations of the original titles. Foreign words and names have been rendered in their original spelling wherever possible. 4) There are two kinds of publishers found in this list -- periodicals, and (in the case of books) publishing companies. These are referred to in the list by number only (cf. sample entries). The publication information consists of two parts separated by a dash. The first half contains the number of the publisher with any additional pertinent information, and the second half is the date. For periodicals the date consists of the last two digits of the year (Western calendar) followed by a colon and the number of the month (1 through 12). For books only the year is given. To translate the date given into the corresponding year in Showa (as well as Mishima's age) subtract twenty-five. All of the information within semicolons concerns one publication. The number in brackets following the translated title of a play indicates the number of acts. Quotation marks indicate that the entry is about another work, such as a movie, play, etc. All poems not otherwise indicated were written by 1940, and are published in volume one of entry #362. In the anthology section the volume number, as well as the works included in the volume, has been included (by entry number) wherever available. In the translations section the romanized title follows the translated title. Following the romanized title is the name of the translator. At the end of each entry is the entry number of the original work. Many of the larger works were initially published serially, but that information has not been included unless no other was available. In most cases where a short stor sy or non-fiction entry is published as a book it includes several works in addition to the title work. Where such information was available it has been in

Page  227 DAVID O. MILLS 227 eluded by means of entry numbers. Sample entries: 27. Aya no tsuzumi,se y_ (The Damask Drum) [1] 15(spa)-51:1; 74-57:5; 56-1953. This one-act drama was published in a special arts issue of the periodical Chuo Koron in January, 1951. It was also published in the periodical Shingeki in May, 1957, and as a book by the Miraisha publishing company in 1953. 107. Kaibutsu + i (The Monster) 12(s.14)-49:12; 41a-1950, incl. #41,108,114,158, 160. This short story was published in special issue number 14 of the periodical Bungei Shunju in December, 1949. It was also published by the Kaizosha publishing company in 1950 as a book including five other works: entries #41 (Majin reihai), 108 (Kajitsu), etc. 159. Shishi 4 % (The Lion) 38-48:12; cf. #107. This entry, besides appearing in the December, 1948 issue of Jokyoku, is also included in one of the publications of Kaibutsu (see above) as indicated by the cross-reference to entry #107. Abbreviations: cf - see also ed - Mishima as editor s - special issue (which may have a number) spa - special arts issue sv - supplementary volume v - volume # - entry number * - translated into English, see page Outline: Novels #1-22 Dramas 23-60 Short Stories 61-180 Non-fiction 181-309 Poetry 310-330 Anthologies 331-368 Translations 369-388

Page  228 228 228 ~~~~MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY NOVELS 1. Ai no kawaki X (A Thirst for Love) 41a & 73a-1950; 40-1951; 47-1956. 2. Aoo idai (The Green Age) 41a &73a-1950. 3. Bitoku no yoromeki (Virtue Falters) 50-1957; 73a-1960. *4, Gog noeik (The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea) 50-1963. 5. Haru no yuki A)V 4) (Spring Snow) 73-65:9 (series begins). 6. Jumpaku no yoru t.%0'_ (A Pristine Night) l5a-1950; 47-1955. *7. Kamen no kokuhaku 0) -~a (Confessions of a Mask) 47-1949; 73a-1950; 41a-1951. 8. Kinjiki, pt. 1 & 2 ~~ (Forbidden Lust) 73a-1953. Kinjiki, pt. 1 73a-1951. Higyo6 (Kinjiki, pt. 2)4).~ -K (Secret Pleasures) 73a-1953. *9. Kinkakujio. A.4~ (The Temple of the Golden Pavilion) 73a-1956. 10. Kinu to meisatsu (Silk and Insight) 50-1964. 11. K6fukug6 shuppan4~ (h aln f h ~uu~ 3-1956; 90-1964. 12. Koi no miyako (The Capital of Love) 73a-1954. 13. Kybko no ie (Ky~kots House) 51-58:10; 73a-1959. 14. Megami ~ (The Goddess) 12a-1955. 15. Nagasugita haru ilk-4. (Spring was Too Long) 50-1956; 73a-1960. 16. Natsuko no b~ken (Natsuko's Adventures) 3a-1951; 47-1955; 40-1960. 17. Ongaku (Music) 15a-1965. *18. Shiosai ~(The Sound of Waves) 73a-1954. 19. Shizumeru taki V (Submerged Waterfall) 15a-1955. 20. Tozoku I~gjZ (The Thief) 75-1948; 73a-1954; first published serially as #69, 101, 110. *21. Utage no ato ~~ (After the Banquet) 73a-1960. 22. Utsukushii hoshi (The Beautiful Star) 33-62:1; 73a-1962. DRAMAS 23. Ai no fuan (The Anxiety of Love)1I 1] 11-49:2. 24. Aoi no ue (The Lady Aoi)[1]l 73-54: 1. 25. Asa no tsutsuji 9a)* VAla_(Morning Azalea) Ii] 5-57:7. 26. Ayame o5 t ) (Iris) 21-48:5. 27. Aya no tsuzumi t (The Damask Drum) [1] 15(spa)-51: 1; 74-57:5, 56-1953.

Page  229 DAVID O. MILLS 229 28. Bara to kaizoku L.j >U - (The Rose and the Pirate) [3] 33-58:5; 73a-1958. 29. Daishogai j 0_, (A Great Obstacle) [1] 5-56:3; cf. #48. 30. Dojoji - (Dojo Temple) 73-57:1; cf.#48. 31. Fune no aisatsu j^e ^ ^ (Greetings at the Boat) [1] 9-55:8. 32. Fuyo no tsuyu Ouchi jikki } L lCft (The Dew on the Lotus - Tales of Ouchi) [ii 73-55:1. *33. Hanjo ),~4-(Hanjo) [l] 73-55:1. 34. Iwashiuri koi no hikiami t_)U.~, (The Sardine-seller's Net of Love) I1] 18-54:11. 35. Jigokuhen ),,jGates of Hell) [1] 48-1953. 36. Kantan ~~ (The Magic Pillow) [1] 60-50:10. 37. Kataku )j~ (This Corrupt World) [1] 60-48:11, 74-58:10. *38. Kindai nogaku-shu ji t (Five Modern No Plays) 73a-1956, incl. #24, 27, 33, 36.52. 39. Koi no hokage, ig)( (The Sails of Love) [3] 5-64:10. 40. Kuro-tokage ~.. j (The Black Lizard) [3] 22-61:12. 41. Majin reihai (The Devil's Worship Service) [4] cf.#107. 42. Minoko - (Minoko) [3] cf.#58. 43. Musume-gonomi obitori-ike t> ''10r,.L). { (The Lady's Favorite Sash Pond) [1] *44. Nettaiju, [ (Tropical Tree) 13] 51-60:1. 45. Nihon dowageki ',. j1 (Japanese Fairy-tale Dramas) Ied] 67-1951. 46. Niobe -t,^' (Niobe) [1] 33-49:10; cf #54. 47. Onna wa senryo sarenai 4Jr, 6 4 - yr, (Women Will Not Be Captured) 51-59:10. 48. Rokumeikan jvv t (Rokumeikan) [4] 5-56:12; 84-1957 incl. #29,30. *49. Sangenshoku J.,, t (The Three Primary Colors) [1] 14-55:8. 50. Seijo i (The Holy Woman) [1] 15(spa)-49:10; 55-1951 incl. 51. Shiroari no su A jl^' (A Termite's Nest) [3] 9-55:9, 73a-1956. *52. Sotoba Komachi %y4h,]'' (Sotoba Komachi) [1] 33-52:1. 53. Tada hodo takai mono wa nai )lis4^)\, ts ' Y (Nothing is as Expensive as Gratis) [3] 73-52:2. 54. Todai t (The Lighthouse) [1] 5-49:5, 64-1950 incl. #46,50, 81,100,126,146,156, 165,184,221. 55. Toka no kiku \ 70s) * (Too Late) 13] 5-61:12. 56. Wakodo yo yomigaere ~]S,~U (Arise, Youth!) [3] 33-54:6; 73a-1954. 57. Yoroboshi y #? (A Begging Monk) [3 ] 51-60:7.

Page  230 230 230 ~~~~MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 58. Yorokobi no koto j _0 (The Harp of Happiness) [ 3] 9-64:2; 73a- 1964 inc. #42. *59. Yoru no hi mawari (Twilight Sunflower) 14] 33-53:4; 50-1953. 60. Yuya 40. (Yuya) [1] 58-55:5, 51-59:3. SHORT STORIES 61. Ai no shissa (The Speed of Love) 50-1963. 62. Akinaibito, 4 %,JjkThe Shopkeeper) 73-55:4. 63. Ame no naka no funsui ~4 g~o 1,,(Fountain in the Rain) 73-63:8; of. #118. 64. Amerika nikki h) 9.p\ )a tt (American Diary) 33-52:4. 65. Asagao *9 7o (Morning-glory) 23-51:8. 66. Asa no junlai -it)4&~ (Innocent Love in the Morning) 61-65:6; cf. #137. 67. Ashi no seiza /j (Foot Constellation) 63-56:7 68. Bishin (Goddess of Beauty) 9-51:12. 69. Biteki seikatsusha 11J' j it.4rW (One Who Lives Beauty) 6-48:10; cf. #20. 70. Bo-shi no hana, \ ) JU' (Flowers on a Hat) 33-62: 1; of. #118. 71. Botan ~, *- (Pe ony) 9 - 55:7. 72. Budo6-pan,,/ (Raisin-bread) 68-63:1; of. #118. 73. Butaigeiko, (Stage Rehearsal) 39-49:9. 74. Chuisei *,.r (The Middle Ages) 60-46:12; of. #139. 75. Daijin )Q1t- (The Cabinet Memb~er) 73-49:1. 76. Dan Kazuo no hiai a* (The Pathos of Dan Kazuo) 5-51:2. 77. E guchi Hatsu-jo oboegaki 1.c (Memorabilia of Eguchi Hatsu) 12(spa)53:4. 78. E ien no tabibito ~ The Eternal Traveler) 12(s. 51)-56:4. 79. Enj~kai (Long-distance Riding Club) 12(s. 17)-50:9; 73a-1951. 80. Esugai no karip-i"$ ) (Esugai's Hunting) 9-45:6. 81. Fuin XI4t (Obituary) 41-49:7; of. #54. 82. Fujitsu na y6gasa %- (The Unfaithful Umbrella) 23 -48: 10. *83. Fukushii (Re venge) 12(s)-54:8. 84. Fuman na onnatachi sZd ' r (Unsatisfied Women) 12-52:7. 85. Geijutsu-gitsune (Pseudo-art) 63-54:6. 86. Gettanso6 kitan lf (Gettans6 Romance) 12-65: 1; of. #137.

Page  231 DAVID 0. MILLS23 231 87. Hakone-zaiku - -Vgci(Hakone-ware) 78-51:3. 88. Hakurankai A4: (The Exhibition) 33(s)-54:6. 89. Hanabi -f ( Fireworks) 41-53:9. 90. Hanayama-in I&I-1 t (Hanayama-in) 20-50:1. 91. Hanazakari no monri (The Flowering Forest) 10-41:10; 70-1944; 53-1951; 40-1955; 50-1965. 92. Haruko *0. (Haruko) 60-47:12. 93. Hashizukushi 1"- 'L~ (Counting Every Bridge) 12-56:12; 12a-1958. 94. Hina no yado (Doll House) 63-53:4. 95. Hoseki baibai (Jewelry Store) 9-48:6; 50-1949. *96. Hyakuman-en sembei 'jO.- (Three Million Yen) 73-60:9. 97. Ichigo. (Strawberries) 63-61:9; cf. #118. 98. Idai na shimai4 (The Remarkable Sisters) 73-51:3. 99. Isu (The Chair) 12(s.20)-51:3. 100. Jid5 ) (Page) 79-49:3; cf. #54. 101. Jisatsu kitosha g (Suicide Planner) 6-47:12; cf. #20. 102. Jizen 4 (Charity) 41-48:6. 10. Jryiirshdnu4~ (Story of a Successful Woman) 63-51:1. 104. Juikyiisai{I~ (Nineteen Years Old) 9-56:3. 105. Junky6 aA (Martyrdom) 88-48:4. 106. Kagi no kakaru heya -1N (The Locked Room) 73-54:7; 73a-1954. 107. Kaibutsu (The Monster) 12(s. 14)-49:12; 41a-1950 inc. #41, 108, 114, 158, 160. 108. Kajitsu (Fruit) 73-50:1; cf. #107. 109. Kanojo mo naita, watashi mo naita ' }.f,4$6?lir< (She Cried, and I Cried) 50-1965. 110. Ka re i 4- (An Auspicious Occasion) 72-48:3; cf. #20. 111. Karunomiko to Sot~rihime X-0(Prince Karu and Princess Sot~ri) 33-47:4; cf. #139. 112. Kashiramoji 1 (Initials) 5-48:6; 73a-1951. 113. Kate i saiban (Family Litigation) 12-51: 1. 114. Kazan no kyjika 4%~ (Volcano Vacation) 42-49:11; cf. #107. 115. Kazoku awase (Family Card Game) 7-48:4. 116. Keitaiyo 'f (Portable) 73-51: 10. 117. Kemono no tawamure ~1 (The Beast's Joke) 73a-1961.

Page  232 232 232 MI~~~NSHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 118. Ken (The Sword) 73-63: 10; 50-1963 incl. #63, 70,72, 97, 121, 132, 154, 171. 119. Kiken Y (The Dignitary) 15-57:8. 120. Kingyo to okusama 4, (The Goldfish and the Wife) 63-52:9. 121. Kippu Aj~-9 (The Ticket) 15-63:8; cf. #118. 122. ~fukuto iuby~k no r~h6 ~~.- ) 1I)3 'i (Treatment for the Sickness Called Happiness) 9-49:1. 123. Koge no oteu A yi~ (A Hotel in the Highlands) 87-51:6. 124. Koi no omoni (The Heavy Burden of Love) 33-49: 1. 125. Koi to betsuri to. (Love and Parting) 22-47:3. 126. Kokei mommon $~ (Alone and Yearning) 63-50:8. 127. Kokyo 4w (The Book of Filial Piety) 89-49: 11; cf. #54. 128. Kujaku 4b" ( The Peacocks) 5-65:2; cf. #137. 129. Kurosu-wa-do-pazuru 9 -t? -;V k - /\O7::IL/ (Crossword Puzzle) 12-52: 1. 130. Kyjiteisha *- (A Sudden Stop) 15-53:6. 131. Kyokugen to riariti i ) (Extremity and Reality) 73-64: 1. 132. Magun no tsuka (The Devils' Passage) 12(s. 10)-49:2; 47-1949. *133. Mahobin (Thermos Bottles) 12-62:1; cf. #118. *134. Manatsu no shi (Death in Midsummer) 73-52: 10; 84-1953; 40-1955. 135. Me 1~J (Eye) 80-1965. 136. Meinu 6 )KL. (A Female Dog) 12(s. 19)-50: 12. 137. Migi ryoshui tsukamatsurl s-r k4 j4 Padi ul)6-15 138. Mikumano m6de I* ( A Pilgrimage to Mikumano) 73-65:1; 73a-1965 inc. #66, 86, 127. 139. Minomo, no tsuki 04) ) (The Reflection of the Moon) 10-42:11. 140. Misaki nite no monogatari ~ z)j~ (A Tale at the Cape) 33-46: 11; 65-19 47 inc. #74, 111. V 141. Mizuoto ~( (The Sound of Water) 68-54:11. 142. Nichiyobi Ig I (Sunday) 15(spa)-50:7. 143. Nikutai no gakk6 5 X~)i~ (The School of Flesh) 80-1964. 144. Nipponsei j-, 1-o/ (Made in Japan) 3a-1953. 145. Ojosan (The Maiden) 50-1960. 146. Onnagata (Onnagata) 68-57:1. 147. Eno j-. (The Ducks) 5-50:1; cf. #54. 148. Otto to Maay,%brOt and Maya) 10-44.

Page  233 DAVID 0. MILLS23 233 149. Rikyu~ no matsu 4.' 4) )rh (The Pinetree on the Palace Grounds) 12(s)-51:12. 150. Sdkasu 7Z (Circus) 76-48: 1. 151. San Pauro no "Hato no machi"l Jy/ 3)9 c94jj (San Paolo's "Pigeon Town") 15-52:5. 152. Segakibune - (The Requiem Boat) 33-56: 10. *153. Shigadera sh-nin no koi - )Y'2 (The Priest and His Love) 12-54: 10. *154. Shimbunshi V (Newspapers) 9-55:3. 155. Shinju j4 (The Pearl) 9-63: 1; cf. #118. 156. Shi no shima (Island of Death) 41-51:4. 157. Shinsetsu na kikai -I..4p 4(The Polite Machine) 24-49:11; cf. #54. 158. Shi o kaku shonen ~~Kvj (The Young Poet) 5-54:8; 40-1956. 159. Shishi ~, (The Lion) 38-48:12; cf. #107. 160. Shoudraku (Gluttony) 66(s)-50: 11. 161. Shugaku ryok6 -/j (Field Trip) 81(s)-50:3; cf. #107. 162. Suta X 9j-Y (Star) 33-60:11; 73a-1961; 50-1963. 163. Sukampo (Wood Sorrell) 25-38: 164. Tabako A (Tobacco) 60 -46: 6. 165. Tabi no bohimei (Epitaph for a Journey) 73-53:6. 166. Taikutsu na tabi I3/ j fk2 (Boring Journey) 79(s. 12)-49:10; cf. #54. 167. Tamago ~l (The Egg) 33-53:5. 168. Tenagahime 4 L (The Long-armed Princess) 79-51:6. 169. Tengoku ni musubu koi iz j (Love Ordained in Heaven) 63-49:6. 170. Tsubasa 9 (Wings) 5-51:5. 171. Tsuki (The Moon) 68-62:8; cf. #118. 172. Tsumibito (The Offender) 19-48:7. 173. Umi to yiiyake, ~ (The Sea and the Sunset) 33-53: 1. 174. Yagi no kub (A Goatshead) 12(s)-48: 11. 175. Yama, no tamashii J. (The Spirit of the Mountain) 12(s. 45)-55:4. 176. Yane o ayumu (Walking on the Roof) 63-55:5. 177. Yoru, no kuruma o (A Car in the Night) 10-44:8. 178. Yoru no shitaku (Nighttime Preparations) 60-47:8; 43-1948. 179. Yoyo ni nokosan.4s (For Prosterity) 10-43: 10. 180. Yiikoku (Patriotism) 77-60:12.

Page  234 234 234 D~~~~AISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY NON- FICTION 18. Akutagawa Ryunosuke ni tsuite ) jI-'1 (On Akutagawa Ryunosuke) 9-54:12. 182. Amerika no sewaba io 1% (America's Slums) 54-50:4. 183. Aporo no sakazuki j7% O ) 4 (Apollo's Wineglass) 3a-1952. 184. Bara e (A Rose) 11-49: 10; of. #54. 185. Barakei OLp (Punishment by Thorns) 80-1963. 186. Bi ni sakarau mono ), go) (Anti-beauty) 73-61:4; 73a-19 61. 187. Bi ni tsuite -1 I V 7 (On Be auty) 49 -49: 9. 188. Bi no shilgeki ~d ~~- (The Attack of Beauty) 50-1961. 189. Bo-getsu bo-jitsu $ (A Certain Day of a Certain Month) 11-49:1. 190. Botsuraku suru kizokutachi -13 t< 57 (Bankrupt Nobility) 23-48:9. 191. Bungaku ni okeru k5ha, - Nihon bungaku no danseiteki genri (The Stalwart Ones in Literature -Masculine Principles in Japanese Literature) 15-64:5. 192. Bungakuteki jinsei-ron i ~~~ (A Literary Discussion of Life) 47& 73a-1954. 193. Bungel jihy6 o J.-' (Comments on Literature) 91-49:12. 194. Bunsh5- tokuhon fj%~~ (A Composition Reader) 15a-1959. 195. Bungei tokuhon - Kawabata Yasunari 14 OfMt,A (A Literature Reader - Kawabata Yasunari) ed 47-1962. 196. Daiichi no sei --- d) I*. (The First Sex) 80-1964. 197. Damie garasu J '. (Stained Glass) 25-41:7. 198. Dansu jidai (The Dancing Age) 23-49:8. 199. Dokuyaku no shakaiteki ky5y ni tsuite fA ) 1< -7" (On the Social Use s of Poison) 24-49: 1. 200. Dorujeru-haku no buto-kai (The Fancy Dress Ball of Viscount d'Orgel) 69-48:5. 201. Fashizumu wa sonzai suru ka > 4$~.i (Does Fascism Exist?) 5-54:10. 202. "Fuibaika"l ni tsuite '-A.z-r.{(On "Filbaika"l) 33-52:12. 203. Fu-do-toku kyo-iku k~za (Lectures on Education Without Morals) i5a- 1959. 204. Fukuda Tsuneari-shi no kao (The Face of Fukuda Tsuneari) 73-55:7. 205. Gakusel kabuki katagi (The Character of Student Kabuki) 79-52: 1.

Page  235 DAVID 0. MILLS23 235 206. Gakusei no bunzai de sh~setsu o kaita no ki TV' r (An Account of Stories Written While a Student) 9-54:11. 207. Gakuya de kakareta, engeki-ron (A Discussion on the Theatre Written Backstage) 29-57: 1. 208. Geijutsu dans6o f-~ (Thoughts on Art) 28-63:9. 209. Geijutsu ni erosu wa hitsuy6 ka Y~ij Jh (Is Sex in Art Necessary?) 9-55:6. 210. Gendai bungaku no san-h5k6 It (Three Directions of Contemporary Literature) 89-65: 1. 211. Gendai sh~setsu wa koten tariuru ka V,~~1 ~ ~-s ' (Can Contemporary Novels Become Classics?) 73a-1957. 212. Genj ikuyo f1'>4 (A Requiem for Genji) 9-62:2. 213. Girisha kara gendai made 4' C (From Greece to the Present) 15(s. 31)-52:12. 214. Han-jidaiteki na geijutsuka,k-4 ar,4 {The Anti-modern Artist) 32-48:9. 215. "HanjoT' haiken f (A Look at?THanjoI) 46-52:7. 216. Hanko to bo-ken (Rebellion and Adventure) 33-49:4. 217. "Hayami Jojuku"l ni tsuite -,7k ir~ TtHayami Jojuku"t) 31-49:11. 218. Hayashi Fusao-ron ~ d (A Discussion of Hayashi Fusao) 73-63:2; 50&73a1963. 219. Hihyo-ka ni sho-setsu ga wakaru ka 4_) '~D Critics Understand Novels?) 15(spa)-51:6. 220. Hizoku naru buntai ni tsuite f IT~" Z (On Vulgar Style) 33-54:1. 221. Hoshi (Stars)?-48:11; cf. #54. 222. "Ilhojin" o yomu j, (Reading "The Stranger"T) 73-51:6. 223. Inon no nikki ff) (Diary of Prayer) 1-43:6; 10-44:6. 224. Ichiseinen no d5tokuteki handan - ll & (The Moral Judgement of One You~th) 60-49:7. 225. Ito Shizuo-shi o itamu (Grieving for 1t6 Shizuo) 85:53:7. 226. Jan June-ron >',- (A Discussion of Jean Jeaune) 33-53:8. 227. Jan Kokut6 no yuigon-geki - eiga 'T0rufe no ytiigon" $*L.>.j o (Jean Cocteau's Testament Drama - the Movie TTLe Testament dfOrpheelf) 29-62:5. 228. Jiko kaiz6 no kokoromi 1. U J (An Attempt at Self-improvement) 5-56:8. 229. J6en sareru watashi no sakuhin AQ j4. ~)~~ (The Works of Mine to be Performed) 54-55:6. 230. "IJoji no owariTT ' J## h' ("The End of an Affair") 23-55:6.

Page  236 236 236 M~~~~NISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 231. Jiihassai to sanjtiyonsai no sh~z~ga 0 ) W4tAPortraits of 18 and 34) 33-59:5. 232. Jiish~sha no kyo-ki je) (Weapons of a Very Sick Man) 60-48:3. 233. Kabuki-hy6-J,~ V (Comments on Kabuki) 29-50:12. 234. Kach6 to wa nanzo z.1 Th - (Just What Are Birds and Flowers) 2-55:5. 235. Kakekotoba J141- (Pivot Words) 10-43: 11. 236. Kame wa usagi ni oitsuku ka /j. v 1. b"(Wiill the Turtle Catch Up with the Rabbit?) 15-56:9; 59-1956. 237. Kamishima no omoide {I 0) (Remembrances of Kamishima) 71-54:4. 238. Kao -- Fukuda Tsuneari$ iI.4 (The Face - Fukuda Tsuneari) 33-52:2. 239. Kari to emono ~~ (Hunting and Game) 44-1951. 240. Kawabata, Yasunari no t~yo6 to seiy6 ~))I~~~A)i (The Orient and Occident of Kawabata Yasunari) 73a-1957. 241. Kawabata Yasunari-ron no ichi ho-h5 )%p C~19~(One Method of Discussing Kawataba Yasunari) 49-49:2. 242. Kindai no-gakushii ni tsuite i<z -7-,'TL- (On Five Modern N3 las 52-62:3. 243. Kinsei shiitome katagi J~.~~ (Modern Mother-in-Law Traits) 63-52:1. 244. Kokon no kisetsu ~~ (Seasons Old and New) 10-42:7. 245. Kokoroyusuru omoide (Heart-rending Remembrances) 23(s)-53:3. 246. Kosei no tanremba {j44d)# 231 (A Training Ground for Individuality) 5-57:1. 247. Kotobuki (Fe lic itations) 45 -43:1. 248. KWt mukei 4 (Nonsense) 17-47 249. Koza no gyokuseki - It6 Shizuo oboegaki _T2 _-') 471 'L (Pebbles from the Past - Memorabilia of It6 Shizuo) 10-44:1. 250. Kiihaku no yakuwari 1'ja ) j~A\ (The Allotment of Empty Space) 73-55:6. 251. Ma - gendaiteki j5ky6 no sh~ch6teki k6zu I %)4~1 l1oQk! *C! (The Devil - Symbolic Design for Modern ircumstances) 73-61:7. 252. Miyazaki Kiyotaka "Kempei"l "Zoku-kempei" Y 44 1 V>IJ (Miyazaki Kiyotaka's "Military Police" and "Military Police Continued") 73-53:9. 253. Moriagari no subarashisa;p' ) 0V 1 ) j -4' (The Magnificent Climax) 62-56:12. 254. Nakamura Shikan-ron ~~ ~~ (A Discussion of Nakamura Shikan) 30-49:2. 255. Nihon bundan no genj6 to seiy6- bungaku to no kankei 0~~'.iZ~% ~(L~)/' (The Relation Between the Present Condition of Japan's Literary Circles and Western Literature) (Lecture Notes from The University of Michigan) 73-57:9; 73a-1957. 256. Nihon no geljutsu (Japan's Art) 33-56:4-6.

Page  237 DAVID O. MILLS 237 257. Nihon no kabuka -* 04) {s' (Japan's Stock Market Prices) 41-53:3. 258. Nikki A > (L> (Diary) 73a-1959. 259. Nyuyoku no kinan kijo _- -7 0)j ~.4 (The Strange Men and Women of New York) 12-58:4. 260. Nyuyoku Shifi Bare - mita mama no ki i > ';t ': f ~ New York City Ballet - a Record of What I Saw) 29-58:3. 261. Ogai no tampen shosetsu ~ 9 a) ~ 4) (The Short Stories of Ogai) 9-56:12. 262. Omoide no uta I,) ~) s (Song of Remembrance) 23-52:3. 263. Origuchi Nobuo no koto 4, j ) ' (About Origuchi Nobuo) 58-53:11. 264. Osuka Wairudo-ron tJ, 5. *7 4/,:4(A Discussion of Oscar Wilde) 42-50:4. 265. Otoko to iu mono wa 9 y (That Which is Called a Man) 20-54:2. 266. Radige-byo '75 " (Radiguet Sickness) 20-52:1. 267. Radige no shi 0 53'. j_ (Radiguet's Death) 15(s)-53:10; 73a-1955. 268. "Radige zenshu" ni tsuite j';{, /,4 - ZZ7 (On "The Complete Works of Radiguet") 23-53:11. 269. Ratai to isho ~6t t (Nudity and Clothes) 73a-1959. 270. Rokusei Nakamura Utaemon t- W* 4 PtIt (Nakamura Utaemon VI) ed 50-1959. 271. "Rondo" no koto V " ) ~ - (About "Rondo") 33-52:9. 272. Sakka no nikki 4% % ~ (Diary of an Author) 5-50:3. 273. Seishun o do ikiru ka,44 g ~i b\ (How to Live Youth) ed 36& 44-1955. 274. Sengo kankyakuteki zuis5o %t 0,_~1, (Random.Notes of a Postwar Spectator) 31-49:2. 275. Shin-fashizumu-ron '5 > A."/4.i (A Discussion of Neo-fascism) 5-54:10. 276. Shinju-ron Iknv 4 (A Discussion of Double Suicides) 23-58:3. 277. Shin-kotenha j ~ f (r (The Neo-classic School) 5-51:7. 278. Shin-Utaemon no koto T vfi Ai o). (About the New Utaemon) 16-51:4. 279. "Shiosai" roke zuikoki f ( Aj J 7 ~j i'/.t (A Record from Being on Location of "The Sound of Waves") 23-54:11. 280. "Shiza to Kureopatora" nado rf1- 'L" t, 9 / 7 t l,'("Caesar and Cleopatra" etc.) 9-50:10. 281. "Shojo Orivia" t4- *) 97'yy ("Maid Olivia") 29-52:10. 282. Shosetsuka no kyuka I\} ~., $5 A Novelist's Vacation) 50-1955. 283. Shosetsu no gik5 ni tsuite 4)!:b U 1'7rS(On the Technique of the Novel) 69-49:3. 284. Shumatsukan kara no shuppatsu 1i, ~ ~),,5 (A Departure from the Day of Judgement) 73-55:8.

Page  238 238 MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 285. Sosaku gappyo j / 4- (A Joint Review of Works of Fiction) 33-61:7; 62-4 62:6. 286. S6saku noto "Tozoku" /~\J )-4 r_ j (Composition Notes of "The Thief") 35-1955. 287. Sotatsu, (Sotatsu) 57-1957. 288. "Soto no washi" ni tsuite d5J ~) 9 ic-,'"t (On "The Two-headed Eagle") 86-53:7. 289. Sugiyama Yasushi 4'9Y, (Sugiyama Yasushi) 12-65:7. 290. Suki na josei /4 4rjt -44-.(Women I Like) 14-54:8. 291. Tabi no ehon f<1) ( al (llustrated Travel Book) 73-58:3; 50-1958. 292. Tanizaki Jun'ichir5o a/ r y} (Tanizaki Jun'ichiro) 8-51:9. 293. Tanizaki Jun'ichiro "Irezumi" ni tsuite at/ I i _ { 7-, r7. (On Tanizaki Jun'ichiro's "Tatoo") 9-52:10. 294. Tanizaki Jun'ichiro-ron i/, i;y-'Cr^ (A Discussion of Tanizaki Jun'ichiro) 3-62:10. 295. Tokumei hihyo no zehi -> oL.; lt.-);j (The Pros and Cons of Anonymous Criticism) 9-55:2. 296. Tosui ni tsuite <) l\<7\ (On Intoxication) 73-56:11. 297. Ugetsu Monogatari ni tsuite iX [Z- Iv1iL (On the Ugetsu Tales) 11-49:9. 298. Utaemonjo no koto; 4< ) p_ L (About Utaemon) 9-52:1. 299. Waga hi-bungakuteki seikatsu 4bpf-' b Jv7,t (My Unliterary Life) 54-59:1. 300. Waga s6saku hWoho 4r 4I\ j { J (My Method of Composition) 4-63:11. 301. Watashi no henreki jidai @/ ), (My Itinerant Period) 50-1964. 302. Watashi no riso no josei 4&t) tL )- (My Ideal Woman) 23(s)-53:1. 303. Watashi no suki na sakuchf jimbutsu -4o) f ' 1; -A rj^ (Fictional Characters I Like) 12(s)-52:12. 304. Watashi no yoga keireki 4 0) 79 4 ~ (A History of My Foreign Films) 86-53:9. 305. Watto "Shiteru e no senshutsu".7 ). 4 r- /'o. 4^ (Watteau's "L'Embarquement pour l'ile Cythere") 29-54:6. 306. Yofuku onchi )~.ff (No Sense of Fashion) 82-53:3. 307. Yokomitsu Riichi to Kawabata Yasunari? ~,AJ - ~ 1\j ~~ Yokomitsu Riichi and Kawabata Yasunari) 47b-1955. 308. Yuibi-shugi to Nihon V fL.t]/i (Estheticism and Japan) 92-51:11. 309. Zoku-fudotoku kyoiku k6za $4,s jffieL %t v Lectures on Education Without Morals Continued) 15a-1960; cf. #203.

Page  239 DAVID 0. MILLS23 239 POETRY 310. Bessochi no ame %7j11 ~ ) (Rain at the Country Villa) 311. Fuyu no aikan i~d (~ (Winter Sorrow) 312. His-ch6 - (Pathetique) 313. Ibutsu (Memento) 314. Ishidatami no muk6 no ie n,~))Z.(The House Beyond the Flagstones) 315. Ishikiriba A 4t~ (The Stone Quarry) 316. Kano hanano no tsuyukesa t\0 e ) -C (The Dew, Heavy on that Field of Fall Flowers) 10-42: 10. 317. Kaze to kobushi 'U (Wind and Magnolias) 318. Kenchiku sonzai t'-(Architecture Existence) 319. Ko-fuku no tanjil;fj4A (The Bile of Happiness) 320. Machi no ushiro ni.... /4 ))i (Behind the Town...) 321. Magagoto %. r"' (Disaster) 322. Minatomachi no yoru to yiibe no uta dw-4)1~~~f (A Port Town at Night and Songs of E vening) 323. Nettai (Tropic) 324. Nichirin raisan (Sun Worship) 325. Omikotono ri (August Imperial Edict) 10-42:4. 326. Shijin no tabi ~All c')<k (Travels of a Poet) 9-50:7. 327. Tsurezure no sammanka -i-4-'~~} itatdSongs of Idleness) 328. Tsuru 0 (C rane s) 329. Watashi no nozomi wa oru (My Wish Weaves) 10-42:1. 330. Yotsugedori;k 6r(The First Bird of Night) 9-48:11. ANTHOLOGIES GENERAL COLLECTIONS 331. Chohen kakioroshi s6sho v. 4, 73a-1954 #18. 332. Ch~hen sho-setsu zenshii v. 17, 7 3a-92 333. Ch5hen sho-setsu zenshii v. 31, 50-1961. 334. Gendai bungaku 27-1957. 335. Gendai bungaku taikei L v. 58, 13-1963 #7,9,24, 27,36,48, 52, 79, 93, 133, 145,152, 158, 173.

Page  240 240 MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 336. Gendai chohen shosetsu zenshu fi4 J + v.5, 50-1958. 337. Gendai gikyoku senshu Ai\-;~. v.5, 47-1954. 338. Gendai Nihon bungaku zenshiu J, 4 j9y,k v. 83, 13-1958 #18,79,93,133,145 & 2 others; s.v.31, 13-1960. 339. Gendai Nihon meisakusen,A; d j,9Vi 113-1952 #1,7. 340. Gendai Nihon shosetsu taikei sAv/3 0j,% s.v.3, 47-1951. 341. Gendai no bungaku ~/3f6/' v.40, 47a-1964. 342. Gikyoku daihyo senshu j I)\'$4 - 4 v. 2 34-1954. 343. Nenkan Nihon bungaku g i - 9 13-1953. 344. Nihon bungaku zenshu ii j_/- v.68, 73a-1959. 345. Nihon gendai bungaku zenshu 3 LtAkJ/4X v.100, 50-1961#7,9,60,78,145. 346. Nihon gendai gikyoku zenshiu WV -Jli-'> v. 5, 73a-1953 #36. 347. Nihonnobungaku ~A? C v.69, 15a-1965 #4,7,9,32, 38. 348. Nihon seishun bungaku meisakusen v.3 jlf~, v.5, 26-1962 #18. 349. Sekai tampen bungaku zenshfu Aq 1 ^.L/~ v.17, 80-1962 #18. 350. Shin-bungaku zenshiu t ~, t v. 6, 47-1951. 351. Shin-Nihon bungaku zenshiu v i;{+ } v.33, 80-1962. 352. Shin-Nihon daihyosaku senshu d ~I^ (']. ~ v.2, 37-1949. 353. Shinsen gendai Nihon bungaku zenshiu if; ^,j^C~ e v.31, 13-1960 #1,2, 7, 38,156,158, & 12 others. 354. Showa bungaku zenshiu *v; 4kZ v.23, 40-1953 #1,7,133,158. 355. Showa bungaku zenshu sk^^Ja v. 8, 40-1962, 356. Showa meisakusen,;L ~7^^ v.5, 73a-1954 #106. 357. Warerano bungaku v.] 1) ~ v.5, 50-1965 #10, 22. MISHIMA YUKIO COLLECTIONS 358. Mishima Yukio. x, n _. 40-1942 -359. " " gikyoku zenshlu % 73a-1962. 360. " " jisenshu " ", 80-1964. 361. t " sakuhinshu,t, z i v 73a-1953. (v.1 #7,20; v.2#1,2; v.3#8; v. 4#91, 98, 133,158; v.5 short story coll.; v.6 drama and miscellaneous). 362., senshu" ", 73a-1957. (19 v. in all).

Page  241 DAVID O. MILLS 241 363. Mishima Yukio shu. 01 ~,L. 13-1960. 364. " " shu " t " 50-1961. 365. " " shu " " " 80-1962. 366. " " tampenshu " a" 4 i 83-1951. 367. " " tampenzenshu " 73a-1964. 368. "t t t t " " t t" " tt 50-1965. TRANSLATIONS Note: The name following the romanized title is that of the translator. 369. After the Banquet (Utage no ato), Donald Keene, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1963. (#21) 370. Confessions of a Mask (Kamen no kokuhaku), Meredith Weatherby, New York, New Directions, 1958. (#7) 371. "Death in Midsummer (Manatsu no shi)," Edward Seidensticker, Japan Quarterly, v. 3, no. 3, 1956. (#133) 372. Five Modern No Plays (Kindai nogakushu), Donald Keene, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957. (#38) 373. "Hanjo (Hanjo)," Donald Keene, Encounter, v. 8, no. 1, 1957. (#33) 374. " The Priest and His Love (Shigadera shonin no koi)," Ivan Morris, Modern Japanese Stories, Rutland, Vermont, Charles E. Tuttle, 1962. (#152) 375. "Revenge (Fukushi)," Grace Suzuki, Ukiyo, Orient Asia Graphic, Tokyo, 1954. (#83) 376. The Sailor Who Fell From Grace with the Sea (Gogo no eiko), John Nathan, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1965. (#4) 377. "Sotoba Komachi (Sotoba Komachi)," Donald Keene, Virginia Quarterly Review, Spring, 1957. (#52) 378. The Sound of Waves (Shiosai), Meredith Weatherby, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. (#18) 379. "Swaddling Clothes (Shimbunshi), Ivan Morris, Today's Japan, Jan/Feb, 1960. 380. The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkakuji), Ivan Morris, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1959. (#9) 381. "Thermos Bottles (Mahobin)," Edward Seidensticker, JapanQuarterly, v.9, no. 2, 1962. (#132) 382. "Three Million Yen (Hyakuman-en sembei)," Edward Seidensticker, Japan Quarterly, v. 9, no. 2, 1962. (#96) 383. The Three Primary Colors (Sangenshoku), Miles K. McElrath, Occasional Papers, No. 11, 1967. (#49)

Page  242 242 MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 384. 385. "Tropical Tree (Nettaiju)," Kenneth Strong, Japan Quarterly, v. 11, no. 2, 1964. (#44) Twilight Sunflower (Yoru no himawari), Shinozaki Shigeru and Virgil A. Warren, Hokuseido Shoten, Tokyo, 1958. (#59) ARTICLES PUBLISHED ONLY IN ENGLISH 386. "A Famous Japanese Judges the U.S. Giant," Donald Keene, Life, v. 47, no. 11 (Sept. 11), 1964. 387. "An Ideology for an Age of Languid Peace," Journal of Social and Political Ideas in Japan, v. 2, no. 2, 1963. 388. "Party of One," Donald Keene, Holiday, v. 30 (October), 1961. LIST OF PUBLISHERS AND PERIODICALS 1. 2. 3. 3a. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 12a. 13. 14. 15. 15a. 16. Akae Aoi Asahi Shimbun Asahi Shimbun-sha Bungaku Bungakkai Bungaku Kaigi Bungaku Kikan Bungaku Koza Bungei Bungei Bunka Bungei Oral Bungei Shunju Bungei Shunju Shinsha Chikuma Shobo Chisei Chiu Koron Chuo Koron-sha Daikabuki fis4 W -~ i~ pj ~~ &I 41 /~y ~k \~V~ ~'Zk~

Page  243 DAVID O. MILLS 243 17. Eiga no Tomo $gJ. t-) 18. Engekikai T / 19. Fujin. 20. Fujin Asahi j A 4 21. Fujin Bunko L,7C t 22. Fujin Gaho j - ~ t 23. Fujin Koron 24. Fusetsu ],, 25. Gakushuin Hojinkai Zasshi ~,' -^ _ f ", 26. Gakushii Kenkyusha f ir l - 27. Geibun Shoin f ~. f 28. Geijutsu Seikatsu k't - y' 29. Geijutsu Shinch5o -~,~,.q 30. Gekijo 31. Gekisaku \ i ^ 32. Genso - <, 33. Gunzo 5 34. Hakusuisha 6 jK t r35. Himawari-sha ' h 9) - 36. Ikeda Shoten;(_, $/ a 37. Jitsugyo no Nihon-sha v, i $t2 38. Jokyoku 0 g 39. Josei Kaizo,,r~ -t 40. Kadokawa Shoten ~ 1, 41. Kaizo 6 41a. Kaizosha C.L/ 42. Kaizo Bungei L - ' 43. Kamakura Bunko t i ~ eX 44. Kaname Shobo L - 8 45. Kanso A-, 46. Kansei, U_ 47. Kawade Shobo, JJ J J 47a. Kawade Shobo Shinsha i1 i, 5 t%

Page  244 244 MISHIMA YUKIO BIBLIOGRAPHY 47b. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. Kawade Bunsho Koza ) k (~ W^ J "Kichiemon Gekidan" Pamfuretto (Pamphlet) t f 9 J Y/7 0/ - Kindai Bungaku itL,' 34 Kodansha _ '^: Koe 7 Kokubungaku Kaishaku to Kansho I Z NA -q *% ), 53. Kumoi Shoten 54. Mainichi Shimbun 55. Meguro Shoten 56. Miraisha 57. Misuzu Shobo 58. Mita Bungaku 59. Murayama Shoten 60. Ningen 61. Nippon 62. Ongaku Geijutsu l-9 ^TX I Lf T, 1 %94 /' -- ^'1-J"X q? C x ^'~~< 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 73a. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. Oru (All) Yomimono -4-/u,^b4 Sakuhinsha ~ ~ - Sakurai Shoten 3 4-1 Sande (Sunday) Mainichi t ' Seibund.o Shink6sha,. *f:Sekai Sekai Bungaku AA JL ' Shichij6 Shoin A)L25 i Shima Shin-bungaku Shincho -;; Shincho sha Shingeki, Shinkosha _ Shinro Shosetsu Chuo Koron ')) L ~4 K/Z, I Shosetsu Koen v) /

Page  245 DAVID O. MILLS 245 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. Shosetsu Shincho Shueisha Shukan Asahi Soen Sogeisha Sogensha Sokoku Sukurin (Screen) Tabi Tancho Tembo Togensha Toky6 Shimbur Yomiuri Nihon a 7'- > "'LV IS A * TyAtkA- R^\z ) E!flS9 4-../ X rA David Otis Mills is a Ph. D. candidate at The University of Michigan where he received his Master's degree in Japanese Languages and Literatures in 1966. His overseas experience includes a year of study at the Inter-University Center in Tokyo.

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