Frontmatter
pp. N/A
Page I AN INTRODUCTION TO KAMBUN Sydney Crawcour Center for Japanese Studies The University of Michigan * Ann Arbor * 1965
Page II Copyright ~ 1965 by The University of Michigan Sales correspondence should be directed to Publications Distribution Service The University of Michigan 615 East University, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 Editorial correspondence should be directed to the Center for Japanese Studies, 108 Lane Hall, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104.
Preface
pp. iii
Page III PREFACE This manual is intended to provide an introduction to the kambun kundoku style for students whose primary interest is in Japanese studies. Secondarily, I hope that it will be of some help to students whose main field is classical Chinese and who wish to make use of Japanese editions of Chinese texts. At the same time I have tried to explain as far as possible why Japanese scholars render the Chinese in the way they do, since a proper understanding of the way in which Japanese scholars construe Chinese constructions can provide some useful hints for the grammatical analysis of classical Chinese. The Japanese renderings given in the examples follow current standard practice, as followed, for example, in Kokuyaku Kambun Taisei ( I I ~X, 3i K )k ). The reading of kambun became standardized only in the nineteenth century, and many variations may still be found. Japanese scholars of the Nara and early Heian periods, many of whom had studied in T'ang China, translated Chinese more or less freely, much as we now translate, for example, Japanese into English. From roughly the ninth century until about the end of the twelfth century, intercourse between Japan and China practically stopped. When the Gozan ( A- ^- ) Zen scholars came to Japan from China after this long interval, classical Chinese was no longer a living language, and the Japanese readings became extremely literal and mechanical. At this time were introduced the principles that as far as possible every character in the Chinese should be represented by something in the Japanese rendering; and that a given Chinese character should as far as possible always be read in the same way. The current standard style of reading kambun was evolved during the Tokugawa period, but contains elements from as far back as the Nara period. Thus a number of ancient Japanese words and constructions which have disappeared from ordinary Japanese survive in a kind of fossilized form in the kambun style. The kambun style has also contributed to the Japanese language many modes of expression which were not originally Japanese, but which were evolved specifically to render or imitate Chinese expressions. Since I am not a specialist in this field, I feel diffident about compiling a manual of this sort. I hope, however, that it will be of some value to teachers and students until a better work is available. I have relied very heavily on the work of Professor Akiyasu Todo of Tokyo University. Almost all of the examples used have been taken from those collected by him and Professor Kondo in Chflgoku Koten no Yomikata (Gakushn-hen) ( x] Si - Ad a t ) -- 'y, z ), published by Konan Shoin ( -\I g pt ), Tokyo, 1958, and now unfortunately out of print. For permission to do this and for much other help I am very grateful to Professor Todo. I have also received valuable assistance from Dr. Gerrit Mulder and Mr. Tamotsu Sat5 of the Australian National University, Mr. Morio Nishida of the Japanese National Museum, Ueno, and from Mr. Komatsu of Nisho Gakusha, Tokyo. I would like particularly to express my thanks to and admiration for Professor Leon Hurvitz of the University of Washington, Seattle. Without his careful reading of the preliminary edition and his many corrections and suggestions, this would have been a much sloppier job than it is. Thanks are also due to the Department of Economics, University of Michigan, for permitting me to work on this manual, when I should have been working in economics, and to the Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan, and its associate editor, Mr. John Weber, for undertaking the production of this work. The calligraphy was done by Mr. Hirofumi Ando. The Chinese title on the cover was done by Mr. Fang Chao-ying. Sydney Crawcour. Australian National University. Canberra, October, 1964. iii
Page V CONTENTS Preface................................................ iii INTRODUCTION I. Verbal and adjectival forms commonly used in kambun style............. ix 1. Verbal forms........... 2. Adjectival forms......... II Sl -()' II. Spelling ( i, ij Ht) and Kunten 1. Spelling............... 2. Kunten................ *..... ( il 1 S ) * * * * * *...............................ix........................... xii........................... xiv..................... xiv...xiv PART I - BASIC SENTENCE FORMS I. Topic + Simple Comment......... 1. Topic + action comment....... 2. Topic + descriptive comment.... 3. Topic + identity comment...... 4. Topic + comment of extent...... II. Verb + Supplement............. 1. Verb + object supplement....... 2. Verb + supplement indicating place 3. Verb of speech + person addressed 4. Verb with passive meaning + agent 5. Verb (adjective) + object of compar 6. Verb of speech + words spoken.. 7. Verb of change + result of change. 8. Verb + combination of supplements 9. Causative................. III. Comments without Topics - Existence 1. Comments without topics....... 2. Natural phenomena........... 3. Existence or absence....................................... 1............................... 2........................................... 2............................. 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~............................. 4............................. 5............................. 6......................................... 6............................. 7 ison.............................. 7................................. 7................................... 8............................. 9............................. 10 and Absence............................. 10............................ 10............................. 11............................. 11 v
Page VI vi IV. Qualifying Constructions........ 1. Qualifier + noun........... 2. Qualifier + verb........... 3. Qualification as to number............................... 0................. 13.................. 14................. 16................. 16................. 16................. 16..................17 V. Co-ordinate Words and Phrases.. 1. No conjunction............ 2. Conjunctions............................ PART II - TYPES OF STATEMENT VI. Types of Statement............................. 1. Types of statement............................ 2. Negatives.................................. 3. Possibility................................ 4. ] indicating permission or approval............. 5. Necessity.................................. 6. Degrees of likelihood......................... 7.;, J-, -, meaning "should," "ought to"........ 8. L — meaning "had better"....................... 9. "Easy to do," "difficult to do".................... 10. indicating preference........................ VII. Emphasis.................................... 1. Emphasizing a part of a sentence................. 2. Emphasizing a statement....................... 3. Emphasizing the relationship between statements....... 4. Exclamations................................ VIII. Commands and Requests......................... 1. Imperatives................................ 2. Requests.................................. IX. Questions.................................... 1. Questions requiring an answer "Yes" or "No"......... 2. Questions requiring a choice of alternatives.......... 3. Interrogative words........................... 4. Which, who, what?............................ 5. eji,*p fJ............................... 6. t j' "By what means?", "For what reason?"........ 7. W, -,t.I "Why?"......................... 8.,,,,,"Where?", "Whither?" "Whence?" 9. ', and its compounds........................ 10. J j. "W hen?"........................................................................................... 0........................... 0. 0 0~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0~ 0 0 0.. 0 0 ~~~~~~~~~ ~ 0 ~~~~~~~~~~ 0 0 0 0 0... 19 19 21 24 25 28 28 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 34 34 37 37 38 41 41 43 44 45 48 49 49 50 50 50
Page VII vii X. Rhetorical Questions.......................50 1. Rhetorical Questions...................................... 51 2. Yes/No form......................................... 52 3. Rhetorical questions involving an interrogative word................. 52 4. Rhetorical interrogatives................................... 55 PART III - COMPOUND SENTENCES XI. Compound Sentences........................................ 56 1. Compound sentences...................................... 56 2. Neutral relationship..................................... 57 3. Adverse relationship....................................... 59 4. Consequential relationship................................... 61 5. Additional relationship..................................... 63 XII. Qualifying Relationships....................................... 65 1. Temporal qualification..................................... 65 2. Conditional qualification.................................... 65 3. Concessive qualification....................................68 XIII. Summarizing Words and Phrases................................ 69 1. Topic + comment........................................ 69 2. Qualifier + verb......................................... 70 3. Consequential relationship................................... 70 4. Conditional relationship.................................... 71 Index of Chinese Characters..........................................73 Index of Japanese Readings...........................................
Introduction
pp. ix-xx
Page IX INTRODUCTION I. The kambun kundoku style. 1. Japanese seem originally to have read Chinese in the literary Japanese current at the time. Since then a particular style of literary Japanese has evolved specifically for rendering classical Chinese, and this style has in turn greatly influenced the literary language as a whole. In the Meiji period the official written language and the kambun kundoku style used for rendering Chinese were very close to each other. Since then, while written Japanese has changed, the kambun kundoku style has remained practically unchanged. Basically, the kambun kundoku style is a greatly simplified form of literary Japanese (bungo), and those who are interested in its grammatical analysis should consult standard works on the grammar of literary Japanese. It, however, includes a number of expressions which were not originally Japanese but which were evolved as literal renderings of Chinese. Many of these have now passed into the Japanese language, and the reader will find a number of them commented on in the text of this manual. 2. Verbal and adjectival forms commonly used in the kundoku style. i. Independent Japanese words are usually divided into uninflectible words —nouns and pronouns ( I ~ ), adverbs ( '1 W 1 ) and exclamations (, # - ' - i )- and inflectible words ( )f-, ). Inflectible words are verbs ( Oh - ) and adjectives ( ^/ A-~] ). Usually included as a separate category of inflectible words are a class sometimes called descriptive verbs ( i - 5 J ~] ). These classes of inflectible words are inflected by the addition of auxiliary verbs ( fJi t/ f, -3, - ~, t-, --- ', - t, ~ A L -~ ', t" etc.) or auxiliaries ( X],J - -~, - L t etc.), or combinations of the two, to certain stems of the word to produce various morphological forms. On top of this, Japanese makes a conceptual and usually a morphological distinction between final, continuative (inconclusive) and attributive uses of a verb, auxiliary verb, or adjective. Analytical descriptions of this process may be found in any standard grammar of literary Japanese and I shall not repeat them here. As, however, ix
Page X x only a limited number of the possible combinations formed in this way are in actual use in the kundoku style, the following tables may be useful for reference only. Indications of the function or "meaning" are a general guide only. More detailed explanations of the functions of some of these forms will be found in the text. ii. Verbs. Japanese grammarians distinguish six forms of verbal stem in literary JapaneseOk^t (final), i H (attributive), i )H (continuative), t (potential), L A1 (conditional) and ~/- (imperative). Verbs are classified according to the way in which they form these stems. a. The majority, like L (= to take), use four different vowel sounds following the root to form these stems, namely, the h,, 7 and - rows of the kana table ( As _ )j ). b. Some, e.g. L. Lj (= to praise), use only the 7 and. rows of the kana table in the syllable following the root ( F —:_ 4t ) ). c. Some, e.g. j <" (=to pass), use only the 0 and v rows of the kana table in the syllable following the root ( _ $ =-_ 3- ) ). d. A few, like A - (= to see), form all stems on the i row. In practice, the root may be thought of as acting as all stems (h- J -~ f- ). e. The irregular verb ~ (= to do, make) ( - I T tI-,t - ). This is found very frequently in the kundoku style, since verbs are formed rather freely by adding ~ to a word other than a Japanese verb, e.g. t - = to love; 1:t = to punish; i t = to respectfully see;;i = to desire. Where the word to which it is added ended in a nasal,j and its various forms are usually (but not always) modified by becoming voiced. This applies also to Chinese words which originally had a final nasal which no longer appears inthe Japanese readings, e.g. ~t" = to argue; l " = to grow, give rise to; i " = to value highly. Note, however, that T is not as a rule voiced after a Chinese compound, even where it ended in a nasal, presumably because compounds are less easily assimilated into Japanese. f. I ') (= to be) and its derivatives ( r '), 7, L= ),,, ') etc.) are conjugated like L (A QiL ) except that the final form is 9 ') and not $ ( 7 Gil;~-} F ). Note, however, that they nevertheless behave as though the final stem were T& (c.f. 5 -7 x' ).
Page XI Stem ( 0 - Colloquial form 4 ) Function hI Final Ascriptive1 4/ Attributive a. q; 0 )-,, ~6 b. ~-F 13s A l3 ~ ' ' I a - ite\. \ I c. -4 k -, P-.V-:*;6 d. _- K e. d. A a-4 6 r \L -4. <& -^f. <; ^ -4 -~/tL, L L^-tIj I 0 *.t' A Al Continuative Past Perfect Perfect continuative3 * 0 y. )~_. * t. b,t t b t- 13' if. (9, I I ~.~ ~* If~b- L ~ b, v t_ 9. Y ~ < t. - 'JL -4. ~ p"-r 9'4 1tc Potential Hypothetical Passive Causative Negative (a' *~t' la. - ' ~. ~b* ", I Z, %. 11) J.c, tN 4, Ibe AG - - L-t -t: - bV -tt ~, I. t 1t' Y. -s ~ Conditional Concessive ~. ~:. Ia * t 't-_ (3.' ^ 4. ^ -1 X t;~ d# *-it-I "1{ 4. K 't Imperative Second perfect.f * t - g * J.-ot 1. In the kambun kundoku style ' b ascribes a state or quality to someone or something ("he must be -", "he is fit to be -"). 2. AX is frequently found in place of '. 3. Continuative form of perfect auxiliary verb ~ o. 4. The form T-*-'-iat;will also be found. x >4*
Page XII xii iii. Auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs may in turn be inflected. Those regularly used in kundoku behave as follows: & 5 (passive),., and % U -, behave like (I A- ( T - =t & ' )., {) behaves like 8') ( Tj-t, see f. above). — 4 has the attributive form, - U. ) (second perfect) has the attributive form ~ — -tL (/ —) has no other forms in use. — '[ 1 behaves like an adjective (e.g. t t'L ). ~" has the continuative form - ", perfect continuative -"L Z, and hypothetical form -~ "Ah (L (= ~ ~"- l" ). All other forms of the negative are formed from a negative auxiliary verb t ') which behaves like 9 ' ( ~7 LTd X-e }', see f. above). iv. Adjectives. Adjectives inflect similarly to verbs. Some parts behave similarly to ) p ( v T Y -MfA ) and appear to have been formed by the addition of appropriate forms of ') to the continuative ( -, ) stem (9)] t ), the final 7 sound of the stem having been elided. In the following table of adjectival forms commonly found in the kundoku style I have arranged these < ') type forms in the right hand column under the stems of t ).1 Note that when the root ends in L (e.g. 5 L/, - - < l ), this syllable is not reduplicated. This affects only the final form, which thus consists simply of the root. 2 1. Note that I have put A U in its normal place under the final stem (,,ttA — ) which I thus take to be 7 Y although the actual final form is > ). (See page x.) 2. Japanese grammarians do not admit an adjectival root ending in. In such cases they end the root on the previous syllable and include the l in the inflection throughout (so called --- U < ).
Page XIII xiii Colloquial Form Stem ( f ) Function k ^i Final Ascriptive 4 a* Attributive;tE wf Continuative Past Perfect continuative kT I\ L' rA!) i forms 1tk in - Lo t": b I - b I b L to. * * Pt ) i- b N9,, ~ t( b\ - ( to I. <, L - ) Potential Hypothetical Causative Negative Conditional Concessive (Imperative)l I b( f"-, -b) - -bl = -- e%., t, ft -bN- < - ( /,~ ) I 1 tk *J b L ft t, 4". b\ ^ I t-;~ -t N - 1- n I- I I' -t- -b % 1- (- nit - Y-" ( 4-) tt 1 - lb-% -it) 1.Although adjectives as such have no imperative stem (:- P ~), the adjective Oi, (= non-existent) has an imperative form,'b- formed with a ). This v't form is regularly used in prohibitions (see below, page 38). v. Descriptive verbs ( ~,- if ] ). This class of words, of which o 3 5;' It ') (= bright), ' - '-)f (= benevors'i r-'j lent), I t t ') (= upstanding) are examples, are sometimes described as a (dependent) noun + -t 9 or Tf 9. Many grammarians, however, refrain from splitting them in this way and describe them as descriptive verbs. Either way, they behave like d ') ( 7 iT 4- t- ) with the single exception that the continuative form of a descriptive verb ending in - t; 1) is -- r, and of one in -- k 9 is - -. This seems to be an indication that 7l 9 and ' l) in these descriptive verbs are actually contractions of - + )' 9 and b- + ^ respectively.
Page XIV xiv j' f II. Spelling ( -i $tJ i-) and Kunten (\J,. ). 1. Spelling Although Japanese now uses a system of kana spelling which is almost entirely phonetic, an older system dating from the Heian period is still used in the kambun style. Since modern Japanese dictionaries employ the phonetic spelling system, the old spelling must be converted to the modern phonetic system in order to find a word in the dictionary. A conversion table will be found in most Japanese dictionaries. 2. Kunten ( )},I ). The Japanese use a system of marking Chinese texts to indicate the way in which it should be rendered in Japanese. Indications of this sort have been used from at least the early Heian period. The system currently in use was standardized by the Japanese Ministry of Education in 1912. These markings have not been employed in the present work. Since the Japanese reading is given in full, these indications are unnecessary. Many Japanese editions of Chinese works, however, employ this system of marking instead of writing out the Japanese rendering in full. Three types of indications are used -- punctuation, indications of the Japanese order and indications of the appropriate Japanese endings. < k i I L i. Punctuation ( J, Xy ). The following punctuation marks are used. < IA., a. Full stop (, B ). Placed at lower right of preceding character. b. Comma (, B ). Placed at lower right of preceding character. c. Separator ( 'it '] J ). Placed between characters to separate items in a list. d. L oY Quotation marks and double quotation marks. Punctuation is applied to the Chinese as Chinese without reference to the order in which the words may appear in the Japanese rendering.
Page XV XV Examples: rt " f i 4 L Lt AL L~ 'it I. i I? Eu E3 it~ )~ I. - '* a od '3 # ^UI 41.,' L A; T L/j,-l L o tat ~w' v _ <?/~l 1- 1 t I UA vt.. b. -1 t4 41 r a-. ' o* 4'I Ia ft %'i l, 1As, AJ _ I) /L, ir k k ht I. 'K A b\" t t,O % L c7 L/ ^1)..J M*) L' V. t&f -z et I i ^7 (t IN/ jft i2 ^.D I izI 9 j F) *- I. To,) 0) 41 I 0> x -E* A- l- O ET o )o /j A I. c 4t Al. F g L A *' X Itk ( X 1) ' I' ). ii. Indications of Japanese word order. These marks are placed at the lower left of the character to which they apply. If the character marked is to be rendered in two parts which are not consecutive in the Japanese, the marking indicates the position of the second part. (Cf. p.19 i, Examples b and c). _ a3-, o- T e.g. T o 'T a. Placed at the lower left of a character, this indicates that this character and the following ones are to be read in the reverse of the Chinese order.
Page XVI xvi Examples: 1:. T V ^To - LI 0a. <h /k 0-k~ This mark may be below). Examples: used in conjunction with -.=-, -. or h.'f markings (see 9 4, _q ki) -- 1k -VtfT of b. —. -.-.w etc. These numerals are used to indicate ters. inversions involving more than two charac Examples: d + r < }ha;. r r ~Ai Where the Japanese readings returns to a compound, the indication is placed between the two characters forming the compound, as in the following example. -, 0 o ~'' A W h r h a a e e r a i gs r t r s t o p u d the in i ato is pa ce bet ee th w h r c e s f r in h o p u d s i t e f lo i g e a p e
Page XVII xvii Since this may be confusing for the beginner, elementary texts often indicate that the two characters are in fact a compound by placing a linking line between them, thus: c. -~ 3c. When only two are requiredtj_ are used. These are used to indicate that the Japanese reading requires that the reader return to an earlier character in the Chinese text, passing an inversion marked by - _- etc. on the way. Examples: c. b a. iL t * v r -r l X t X ' t IP Notice the use of the combination indicating "Read the following character before the one to which this mark is affixed and then return from -- to T." d. Of Z tV etc. These are used to indicate that the Japanese reading requires a return to an earlier character in the Chinese text, passing on the way an inversion marked by J- T. They are also used in place of — tP where more than three marks are required.
Page XVIII xviii Examples: - ( 1 U - 1c. -, -/ r s a 47 L b e. If any further categories are required, the marks TAk are is very seldom necessary, but the following example requires available for indicating the Japanese order. ~ ( " X., l ~ i.:. ^^ (r ^ - /h ia E-]. X - AC ^j~~ "p'` -Se ~c~ ~ IY ' I Sd 4r ^ K- \.! W ^ ^ n -7 o ' - a ^ " ^., ^;. ^^ ~ F fl I] employed. This all the markings A PkJ Z f5t-. The student may take some slight comfort from the fact that this is as complicated as these markings can get. t^ D" I iii. Indications of the Japanese endings. (-,,;r ). Some editions add to the above punctuation and order markings indications of the Japanese endings. If this is done the Japanese rendering is fully indicated. The endings are written in katakana at the lower right of the appropriate character. If a character is rendered in two parts which are not consecutive, the second ending is written at the left of the character. The general rule is that all kana
Page XIX xix which appear between the characters when the Japanese text is written out in full is included. The example in p. xviii, e above, for example would appear as follows: a t X, ij H, 2^I,,, ' ~1, _ ~ '-~ I "- _ A'A F e / -7 S t Notice that the general rule that what appears in kana between the characters in the written out Japanese version is put beside the characters as soegana is a general rule only. For example, where a negative (e.g. T or $ ) is to be read simply as ", no indication is supplied. Where a negative is read other than ", (e.g. ttlt(" ), the negative stem ~" is omitted. The causative A., although rendered in two non-consecutive parts (E..... L t ), is indicated by putting 7 y T against the character to which it is attached and putting L (not >a ) on the right of 4t. In the above example (l 3 hk/ '" has been indicated in hiragana, meaning that it is not strictly required, but has been added as a favor to help the reader with this somewhat unusual reading. The precise rules are somewhat complicated and may seem rather arbitrary. They need not, however, concern the student, who is unlikely to be required to affix soegana for himself.
Basic Sentence Forms
pp. 1
Page 1 Part I BASIC SENTENCE FORMS Most Chinese simple sentences can conveniently be divided into two parts. One introduces the topic on which the sentence has something to say. The other says something about the topic. We shall call the former the "topic" and the latter the "comment." Remember that the two stand in no more precise relationship than that the comment says something about the topic. It is, therefore, quite natural that, if the topic on which the sentence has something to say is obvious, the topic need not be stated.
Topic + Simple Comment
pp. 1-5
Page 1 I. Topic + Simple Comment In Chinese the same word can often fill various roles, depending on the way in which it is used. A hard and fast classification into word classes is therefore not entirely appropriate. In any particular case, the role in which a Chinese word is being used is usually recognizable from the word order. In Japanese, however, the role in whicha word is being used is generally recognizable from the form of the word itself. It is, therefore, practicable to speak of word classes in Japanese. In what follows, familiar terms for word classes are used in reference to the Japanese translation rather than to the Chinese. 1. Topic + action comment: Japanese form: Topic - verb 1. a. L A r o = < The flower opens. b. ^t ite = ALi leaves. c. -' 3 o. s- ". The horse runs. d. i- - o to The king goes east. ii. Japanese makes it quite clear that the comment is an action by using a Japanese verb form (e.g. ^ <,' L ), or by creating a verbal expression (e.g. by the 1
Page 2 2 f' ta 'l/i addition of; i A, t 4 ). Here are some further examples of the way verbal expressions are formed in Japanese. ~a.: 3hge k ( i tA= E. v< 19 1h a. r/E.t o ~~)~ t f /ZX ^^ The superior man puts the kitchen at a distance. b.,- 7] ( e ) — i^ ^ ) <r. A king makes his joys the same as those of the people. c. f ets. (~'tt)- X~ t t:_ Not to consider a thousand ii (too) far. d. t&~o ("l1n )= ) i T 4. To make it into a pillow. e. A ' o Z ~5 i^^ To act on one's own behalf. f. s ''= ' to To come from Lu. 2. Topic + descriptive comment. Japanese form: Topic - adjectival expression. i. a. ~ o c U 0 oThe color is white. b. I ^o X ^ t- A 7 1 The moon is bright. c. 4'5t~o t4~^ Sm ). He is benevolent. Example a shows a Japanese adjective, L3 l. Example b shows a Japanese descriptive verb, 7)? t'). Example c shows a similar descriptive verb formed from Chinese word, '4 1 ii. Japanese sometimes, as in the following example, separates the topic from the comment by (~. This serves to draw attention to the topic. X 3, a. i 0) rL ' io l>. Its flowers are white. 3. Topic + identity comment. Japanese form: Topic -; - noun (4, t) 9, etc.) i. a. =;Ka) A i )1*;(t 9). His uncle was Hsiang Liang. In this construction Japanese normally inserts (t and draws attention to the topic, since the sentence is answering or anticipating a question specifically about the 1. See p. xiii.
Page 3 3 topic, e.g. "Who was his uncle?" When Chinese does much the same thing by inserting -, Japanese sometimes renders it more explicitly as lt.1 b. f —. ) -I r -lI t ')o The "second father" was Fan Ts~ng. c. I j 5T-to(C'A)a-a l-]T/t SD Hsiang Chi was a man of Hsia- Hsiang. If Japanese renders X as.1l, as in example b, this indicates that the following comment is not merely identical with the topic, but is in fact a definition of it. It assumes that the word has already appeared and now requires explanation. Example c is the first sentence of a book and Hsiang Chi has therefore not previously been mentioned. ii. In these "Topic + identity comment" constructions, as indeed in all "Topic + comment" constructions, normal Japanese requires a verb (or conjugable adjective).2 In the above examples ') is added to supply this need and is more or less equivalent to the English copula, "is." Notice that ) can hardly be said to be the Japanese rendering of C, since Japanese requires it whether A appears in the Chinese or not. In rendering Chinese expressions of identity or extent (see following paragraph) the traditional Japanese reading tends to leave out ') where Chinese has no tI. On the other hand, where the Japanese sentence is already complete without C '), the Chinese tS is sometimes not read at all. Some evidence that the Japanese do not, strictly speaking, regard this f;T) as the reading of -t is supplied by the fact that when indications ( 'I ) 1. - l; may be regarded as an attenuated form of t.L o W l (t (see p. 43, ii). 2. There are a few exceptions to this rule. Instances of ellipsis can be found in Japanese usually in aphorisms or slogans. Examples are: "i 1 t~ 1. "In travelling a companion; in life sympathy" l Li2J +4LLtf4 't. "Standing she is like a herbaceous peony; sitting she is like a tree peony."
Page 4 4 of Japanese reading are marked on a Chinese text (instead of writing out the Japanese reading in full), r ') may be marked beside the character which is read immediately before it, and tL given no reading at all. e.g. -XTo sum up, although Japanese scholars, especially the Zen (. 1 ) scholars of the Kamakura period, have to some extent associated;) 9 with,there is no evidence that they regarded the Chinese S as fulfilling the function of a copula. 4. Topic + comment of extent. Japanese form: Topic in noun form - supplement (- 9 ') ). a. t -o = zT - L 3 0 = The waiting was long. tv ~.% L;Z b. rT71 ( d.)) = The height was ten thousand ells. c. ^^XQ o' ^.9t; t~.(A) = The sitting down was for a moment. Whatever the usual function of the word appearing in the position of topic, Japanese makes it clear that it here has a nominal function by forming a nominal expression, usually by the use of v L "thing," "the fact of its being -—." The word ' in examples b and c is optional in these expressions and in fact is usually omitted. (See page 3.)
Verb + Supplement
pp. 4-10
Page 4 II. Verb + Supplement. Very many comments consist of a verb (or something functioning as a verb) followed by a word or group of words to which it in some way relates. What follows the verb in this way we shall call a "supplement." In Chinese, the way in which verb and supplement are related is sometimes indicated by the use of such indicator words as Y^,
Page 5 5, or t before the supplement. Very often, however, there is no such indicator. The relationship may be that of an action and its object; a movement and its destination or origin; an action and the place or time of the action; a communication and the person to whom the communication is made; a change and its result, and so on. Whether an indicator is used in the Chinese, and if so which indicator, depends partly on the Chinese verb and is partly a matter of style; but there is no simple explanation. In Japanese, the supplement precedes the verb, and the type of verb/supplement relationship is indicated by indicators J, -z, ) 9, or t following the supplement. Japanese requires the use of these indicators, and their use is quite independent of whether words like i', T, etc. appear in the Chinese or not. Nothing extra is, therefore, required to render these Chinese indicators when they do appear, and they are not specifically read at all. A verb + supplement thus appears in Japanese in the form "Supplement - indicator - verb." Since basically only four Japanese indicators are available to cope with a larger number of relationships between verb and supplement, the indication is not always exact, but it is always helpful. 1. Verb + "object" supplement. Japanese form: Supplement - - verb. Although in Chinese there seems to be no basis for considering 4 k any more "transitive" than ti '', Japanese verbs which can be used in the form "supplement - _ - verb" may be thought of as being transitive and the supplement as being equivalent to a direct object. i. a. s3!5-i' (A'-")=t-)- E i Your majesty likes fighting. '< 1< L b. o = To sell dog meat. c. t_.-. = t i -. ~. To raise sheep. L.; d. t V, = -* t ' o To write poetry. e.,- =/,. To love people.
Page 6 6 ii. The supplement may itself consist of a verb + supplement. a. t e L o ('~ t ) L i t: _ /vIa o He hoped to see Confucius. b. 43 { ko ( e'-)-= 4' L. i t L'o To enjoy killing people. J and are made into nominal expressions by the addition of _.. Notice &'~ G potential (future) form of, because the hope was for the future. 2. Verb + supplement indicating place. i. Verb of movement + supplement indicating destination. Japanese form: Supplement - c - verb. 5To go t a. i If-? = {* l_ —. 4 <aTo go tb. + t = t ~. To go u ~< *e7 iv c. A-t.=/& i ( t' j 5 To tran, d. L /t - To go i: ii. Verb of movement + supplement indicating origin. Japanese form: Supplement - verb. a. ' NA - 0 = 7 ot ) J A -' To comr iii. Verb + supplement indicating place of action or state. Japanese form: Supplement- 1- - verb. a. -. (_ ) - - I to To sit i ~b. ct (t Xt) L )(T To be i c. ^ t/ o (K i )-a T5 To rise o Lu.p to the hall. sfer to Loyang. nto a tiger's cave. e out of the water. in the hall. n Pa-shang. up within Ta-TsO. 3. Verb of speech + person addressed. a. Ad z.(^ ^F) - KZ2O b. Age 9 t (=B.( ) = bi - ral -, c. M - Notice that if pi,, (Example a) had been taken the Japanese would have been j, ~. Japanese form: Supplement - K - verb. To talk to someone. To enquire of Yu Jo. To report to the king. to mean "to talk about someone,"
Page 7 7 4. Verb with passive meaning ( +-, ) + agent Japanese form: Supplement-l- passive verb form. i. a., A _. (I - -) -t.=0, )*t. To be ruled by other people. b. f' J k.. ( -3o -)t X1k-'i o To be controlled by other people. The Japanese verb is in the passive form. as o i " is the passive form of, t - ' < 6 a is the passive form of t "to do," the addition of which is the standard way to make a Japanese verb out of a Chinese word. ii. Since the Japanese verb appears in a passive form whenever the meaning requires it, nothing further is required to render an explicitly passive Chinese construction involving A, k, A, etc. Thus the two following examples are read in exactly the same way in Japanese. a. \If J ^-1 Aln. To be reviled by people. b. *. o = l I To be reviled by people. The Chinese construction in Example b must have originally been: verb ( t ) + supplement (A. ). The Japanese, however, regard;L, I,,, etc. as having in these constructions lost their original force as main verbs and become mere passive indicators. 5. Verb (adjective) (+t e ) + object of comparison. Japanese form: Supplement - Jt ) - verb (adjective). a. X < A (A 'M) =- I.t1 to Weightier than T'ai Shan. b. 4 Af. (-o -~ )- 9 p() FL. Even bluer than indigo. (t meaning "even," is optional). 6. Verb of speech + words spoken or quoted. i. Verb of speech + words spoken. Japanese form: Supplement - L - verb. a. 4 7^f t&' (tX;t)5iX ' t p-C To shout hooray. b. I E. (_ -_t)= — )''. To be called Huang Ti.
Page 8 8 ii. Verb of speech + quoted words. Japanese form: verb - supplement -. a. l17, (< =)- < = ^ Ls. He said, "I agree.".,, o.t;. b. g M -FI a c ~Ao^ffifBlri L,') L Liang said, "He is older than I." 4,.7- t ' L LI C..)t t( X ^ ( ) q rX 9, o I think he is an emissary from "Second Father." This construction, known by Japanese grammarians as t- K t i, is used when the Chinese verb of speech is translated by one of a group of Japanese verbal nouns of which o ti <,, 5 ^ A' <, are good examples. Literally, V (i < means "that which he said was as follows" and these forms are used only to introduce something in quotation marks, real or imaginary. The final, which indicates "end of quote," may sometimes be omitted, especially in longish passages of conversation. In Example c, X<, * which seems originally to have meant "to take and make" (Cf. page 9, section ii), is taken by the Japanese to have crystallized into a compound equivalent in function to E. 7. Verb of change + result of change. Japanese form: Supplement -. - verb. i. Intransitive verb. a. 4 F +. (^^t' A ^. t To become a court scholar. Notice the following renderings of various uses of b. a f: ) (. ) =. We are the fish or meat. to ') (= t+ ) )' ) indicates a state reached rather than a process. c(. ( s) was ht b st o. (i. a t ai a a (Kao Tsu) was hit by a stray arrow. (Lit. became what a stray arrow hit.) This conventional rendering of the Chinese passive construction - -- --- is simply a literal translation of the Chinese and is not originally a Japanese construction. L5 meaning "place" is the normal rendering of /f in its spatial sense.
Page 9 9 ~-i A t~k ~ 3) i to d. 7 ALS h pk -- fk tt t. (tom- 4&)=s1f l ) f ki V-T WXSa Kao Tsu was by nature high of nose and dragon-faced. kiAin the sense of "personality" is read.4Z 9'. Notice that here: 9 does not fill the role of main verb in the Japanese sentence. In this example the main verb is omitted. If it were expressed the sentence would end t -t - 1) (See note, page 3.) ii. Transitive a. W-} T- fV3 ('-t )== t E - to^'a To enfeoff him and make him King of Tai. is a transitive form meaning "to make." b. A X,. )(i '-A-) 5 i t T _mt ) To consider the king stingy. This is a literal translation, meaning "taking the king, to make him stingy." The Japanese.. t T.... E can hardly have originally meant "to consider." It has, however, acquired this special meaning through its use as the conventional translation of the Chinese phrase. Many such un-japanese expressions derived from the Chinese in this way later passed into common Japanese usage. Cf. II, 7, i, c (page 8). For;A A see II, 6, ii, c (page 8). 8. Verb + combination of supplements. Japanese form: indirect object - direct object- - -verb i.< r^ M A < in i Hou Chi (the God of Agriculture) taught the people agriculture. b. A$ T]ito (Ot IL) The Ch'in army surrounded the King of Chao in Chu Lu. C. % t -X, a4 h bI'A c.. (t. 4)= ~:F-_ Chang Liang sent a letter to the King of Han. d. I K 9 -. (A'. * B ) -$ a. i at He attacked King Yu Hsien at T'ien-shan. Japanese normally renders the supplements in the order in which they occur in Chinese.
Page 10 10 9. Causative. a. 4 ` T - / +L " 4T t-'Lo To order someone to go. The Japanese version is literally "to order someone and make him go," taking T as a causative. Notice that the Japanesereading is not "to order someone a going." b. 4 (:/) I lQ_,o =Q- b ~ r t e To cause someone to kill. Although I 0 Z is a kind of formal acknowledgement that / is the object of 3it or its equivalents, these are regarded as though they had lost most of their verbal force and become simply causative indicators.
Comments without Topics--Existence and Absence
pp. 10-12
Page 10 III. Comments Without Topics -- Existence and Absence. 1. As we have already seen, the relation between topic and comment is no more specific than that the topic introduces a subject or topic on which the comment has something to say. We have also seen that a topic may not be necessary. There are, in fact, cases in which it would be hard to think of anything suitable to put in the place of the topic. This seems to be the case with such expressions as m 1f, L, ~ 7,~l. Where there is a topic it usually introduces a place or time. Such expressions as T A etc. appear to be in the form "verb + supplement." Japanese, however, cannot deal with them in the usual "supplement-indicator-verb" form since it has no indicator which regularly indicates this type of relationship. Japanese here uses no indicator at all. The result is "supplement-verb," a form indistinguishable from "topic-verb," and generally understood as the latter by Japanese. If such a Chinese sentence does have a topic (e.g. 3<T ) Japanese follows it with indicator K- but leaves it at the beginning of the sentence. The Chinese order of "topic-verb-supplement" thus becomes in Japanese "Chinese topic- AI -Chinese supplement-verb" and thus is indistinguishable from the Japanese form "Japanese supplement- K -Japanese topic-verb."l 1. I am aware that this description may be controversial. It is an attempt to explain descriptively what is done; not why it is done.
Page 11 11 2. Natural phenomena. b).3' a. A )L- ) T 30 tk ha.3. b. O T V.= K ) Q -5. c.,,;t God l. d. ` T) iT Rain falls. As to the sky (weather), rain falls. The wind gets up. In Honan, snow falls. 3. Existence or absence. 1. a. f it. " " b. c. ^^eA^^D'~~)=~-c>trd 0 d. 'A'".- 'S-^ ^ 1) Whenever the Chinese topic introduces a c/. e. r c < There is virtue. There are no people. In the army, there are no provisions on hand. In Lu there is a sage. location it is dealt with as in Example In the mountains the flowers open. ii. A and, with generalized meanings. o"'As <a 4,,h a. 4 a 4.(' —) ---4 ~ 4t'"'/" There was one called Yen Hui. When t follows a name as here, it may, when the sense demands, be translated as e o,'-t7) literally "a person (thing) called -—." b. -d k. O(t )= < 3 Not one man returned. c. X 5J a C ~' )- C =, h+ < X L A e Among the officials there is not one to make a report of it. 4 ~ K is analogous to PZ Iz(in Example 3, c, above. o ("fact" not "person") is more or less optional after p <C,. Cf. I 7, —. Either way the verb is in the attributive form. d. At- f. C+ j 3, j")= Y L L/7 by lk There was not an evening when I did not drink (it). A Lt may be inserted after X iZ without altering the meaning. The Japanese version is literally "As for evenings, there were no non-drinking ones."
Page 12 12 Notice that although the Chinese construction Ce -K- is practically identical with the English "Not one man returned," the Japanese reading seems to associate -- with the verb I. This is because Japanese has no way of associating it directly with —. iii. Japanese form: ----. 'I) This form usually means "Let there be -—." "Suppose for the sake of argument that there is -—." The Japanese rendering may not make this hypothetical sense explicit. It is nevertheless conventionally understood inthis sense.l a. 44'T. (.;) PT 3: L ' Suppose for the sake of argument that there is a beatuiful piece of jade. (Lit. "Here is a beautiful piece of jade.") Notice that although the Chinese, tX would not have this hypothetical force, the Japanese rendering would be identical with Example a. iv. * and,. used actively. When ~ means "to hold" or "possess" it is translated by the Japanese equivalents + c', f t - and the Japanese sentence takes the usual "topic-supplement- -verb" form. a. 0 F o Wen Wang possessed the Empire. When - means "to set at naught" it is translated by -. b..o (v) 3" ~, -. -.' He set the rites at naught and set righteousness at naught..-~~ meaning "irrespective of -— " may be thought of as an active use. Actually it is not taken this way in Japanese, but is read -L~. c...,.:., - (;, oT;,. ' a. < - Irrespective of rank, irrespective of age. 1. Example a gives the traditional rendering. It is, however, sometimes rendered more explicity as ff 4 X or T ".
Page 13 13 <d. K Irrespective of intelligence, all know this. Where'. --- means "There is neither --- nor -—," it is read ---, ri( ---, 7; L/, as in the following example. e.,. Uj, +.;- J(~4,_Li.)-,~i<>J! It is all the same to me. v. Words indicating extent or number can, in Chinese, perform as stative verbs in a form identical with q Xk. They cannot, however, do this in Japanese and they are rendered as adjectives. a. k o =.K u. People are numerous. b. 4 0(<o~tCN ^)=1^ th t) Those who do not lose are rare. c. ^^~Fkiln, T~,i-.~)I\,.% I Ai a k- O M Wt Although there is nothing that does not have a beginning, there are few things that have a good conclusion.
Qualifying Constructions
pp. 13-16
Page 13 IV. Qualifying Constructions. In general the Japanese word order is the same as the Chinese - the qualifier precedes what it qualifies. Japanese makes it clear when a word is being used as a qualifier by using an attributive or adverbial form, by translating with a word which can be used only as a qualifier ( iJ 'I ), by using an indicator ( O/, -,,L7Z etc.) or by some explanatory phrase. 1. Qualifier + noun. i. Attributive form + noun. a. i, 3. - t!, White horse. b.. = s Bright moon. L ~ r and ^3 4 e-adn are attributive forms of 5 b and 6 A - 9 respectively. ii. Use of e) Where a noun is qualified by another noun or by a longish phrase, qualifier and noun are usually linked in Japanese by A%, the genitive indicator. To indicate
Page 14 14 possessive genitive only, the alternative as is sometimes preferred to ). If the Chinese uses - then 0 is required in Japanese. a. -X1 4o()o _.)=fi. Hsiang Yu's soldiers. b. Xa q,.(t-_ ) - Af ~~ Hsiang Yu's uncle. c. Jt. (t, ' )- ~~ ~ The Ch'in army. d. A JF-, (Tt*, 7k )= XT < -. The gentry of the Empire. e. 4 J (,t.)=- 4 A Meritorious people. f. T- ~- -~- } o (i.)= 4 X r (_'"-~o The time when Heaven is destroying Ch'in. In Example f, i( 3"t is the attributive form. iii. Noun qualified by a verbal expression. a. tk' E o ( ~ L ) = ),3i'; Jef tp The jade ornament which he wore at his belt. ' o(< ir^.;:5 a d-K would be perfectly good and clear Japanese for "the jade ornament which he wore at his belt." The insertion of i 5 is purely an acknowledgement of the Chinese P and is not originally a Japanese expression. Cf. f y XD =^Xt^ t~o~ What one wants t D_~o i: < 'to Where one goes fr- P, =,3 d, JT What one says (-7, L5 t9 b. Ctfy ^X o. -f ~ pft *. The thing that one wants. Note the special reading of '',K. "The thing by reason (means) of which" one does something. This is regarded as having fossilized into a compound, rendered in Japanese by, v, A,, derived from 9, meaning "reason." c. ")+-4o/ F Ml,^ l i, That which is the means of nurturing the people. d. 'f),. SA 3, PfJ-', The reason for acting.
Page 15 15 2. Qualifier + verb. i. Translated by an adverbial form + verb. a. it ^o = r A To love broadly. b. / -A'o - 'j- 'o To think about in detail. 3"< and -[z'"y-l are adverbial forms of Zl> and -z"7'5,'7r ) respectively. ii. Translated by a word which can be used only as an adverb ()iJ ) ). a. -$ Ae ( ) t&)^ r X f l) t It is extremely urgent. l(l". j b. A t — o0 (- ~ ) -= ---.; - i. I pretty well know his intentions. c. iHCa ~i (.4) = ti - E ', Han frequently attacked the Hu. iii. Words usually used as nouns require some modification in Japanese when used as qualifiers. a. A0 ) ^ 2 e <tL Ky The common people came like children. Japanese makes it clear that {- qualifies ~ and that the construction is not,. ) ~ "children of the common people." This is done by adding '- <( "like." b. A t. (T )tA R X Sane-t He held the Empire as de facto ruler. -~^ E "as -—." c. Wt^^^-^^ 0)^ (i^) $l i~ X ^' 6 He cut them all down with a sword. 9g describes the way he cut and modifies ro t = "with." iv. Direction of action. Where 'fEJ;{ t~A - etc. qualify an action, Japanese makes this explicit by adding ca ) t "in the direction of." ea. ws a ut o retun in an e atey cti% L. He was about to return in an easterly direction.
Page 16 16 b. a),t Y= r He occupied territory in the west. If the Japanese had taken Example b to mean "He went west and occupied territory," it would have read Ir i t& JT. ' C. R~S~l~j. ~a a a ~cJ~ c~g.;Fc)I koj -^ iB6 s & I Heaven moves to the left and sun and moon move to the right. 3. Qualification as to number. i. Qualifying a noun. Usually translated directly. a. -A & - -/!. One man. b. = Several years. c. 7 /o ---4 /to, How many men? ii. Qualifying an action. To indicate the number of times an action is repeated, Japanese adds "times" to the Japanese numeral root for numbers up to tenl and to the Chinese style numeral for numbers above ten. 8 554- 3: (a_)= -e 6- tQ: — _ ho; i a. W M 7 — ~-m I reflect on myself three times a day. iii. 'J ~, -7'-, -, etc. indicating approximation. a. - P (a,.)- ') Some 30,000 horsemen. b. aec t ^_T E ) ast; k 4. Drinking maybe five or six tou.
Co-ordinate Words and Phrases
pp. 16-18
Page 16 V. Co-ordinate Words and Phrases. 1. No conjunction. i. A list. a. r e ag of p t, sne, dos a0nd pigs The rearing of poultry, swine, dogs, and pigs. I 0 t;; 2 -S - tt; 3 ~FC; 4 ot; 5 LA,;; 6 tr; 7;c 7-T; 8 -N7; 9!,z ); 1 0 L
Page 17 17 ii. Explanatory. a. 7fi p'1Q 3A (; ^ ) ^lZ ^ /E' FanTseng, a man of KUtsou. b. 4-~ A- o (~' ) 4-s " A — o Tzu Ying, the surrendered king of Ch'in. iii. Reduplication. a. ALW M' ~' 41-~^a (tJfz9 3 a a A Year after year, the flowers are similar. Sometimes the Chinese is understood as "Every -— " even though the word is not reduplicated. In such cases Japanese adds El -' l "each and every -—." Countries differ in government, families differ in customs. c. /-f A.( If ral a He presented copper cash to the tune of 100,000 per man. 2. Conjunctions. i. -S -, - -, meaning "and"; -~ -i-, — meaning "or." Words linked by the above conjunctions are regarded as nouns, and are always rendered by a Japanese noun form. ~~~~a.s; X,,oz.By 0(t )-X^, ~zt -. The Han army as well as the barons' soldiers. 'ld in this sense is not originally Japanese usage, but is derived from this Chinese use, because A as a verb meaning "to reach"-is read S'ot3, to reach." In the Heian period -— ~ as a conjunction was read - the Japanese word for "and." 3 Wealth and honor, these are what people desire. Wealth and honor, these are what people desire. Notice that - - - as a conjunction is rendered by L following both of the words joined. This distinguishes it from J - ~ the preposition meaning "with," which is rendered by - following the word or phrase preceded by ~~.
Page 18 18 E. g. ' 1 -— J ( '' King Huai, making a pact with the barons, said" --—." 41i r^. U3 ' 4 L, Z( -,.3 ' C.l -t i<\t. (4. tt) == I ~ t rt* (I _-7ir f \ Sixty or seventy, or possibly fifty or sixty (li) square. ~~~~~~~~~d. ^ -^ X ^ ^ ^ f ~ t ^;t,4 74 i d. X6-t4, iL 3 t (d;tit)l 1;T lu tA 4t 4 t For those who lose husband or wife, the local official shall buy something and give it to them. ii. i~, v I ~ Words joined by these conjunctions are regarded as adjectives or verbs ( 8 ) and are always rendered as such. The word preceding -rJ or - takes a continuative form. The perfect continuative forms ( -i>' I< L7X, -, l, etc.) indicate state rather than tense. In example c a perfect form is not used because /' - indicates action and not state. 3~ r- r it" a. r: f V, ( aw —~e' 7' I) ~ Ad_ ~. a -';r a. ~,. Lo The master was warm but firm, had authority but was not fierce, inspired reverence but was easy to get on with. Here each of the pairs is taken as a separate sentence. X u and ~- 5'd9" are final forms. Since A\ is familiar as a noun rather than as a verb or adjective, it is made into a verbal expression by the addition of ^ ')9 "having." b. -. (J-. c ~- - -- L-~i~ r ~.) He is benevolent as well as wise. Here again d- l- u- (perfect continuative) and r ') 9 (final) are both verbal forms. e E eror ws te oe hnd a, but on the othr hd p d.The Emperor was on the one hand angry, but on the other hand pleased.
Types of Statement
pp. 19
Page 19 19 Part II TYPES OF STATEMENT
Types of Statement
pp. 19-32
Page 19 VI. Types of Statement. 1. Many statements involve some sort of subjective valuation - negation, possibility, prediction, permission, recommendation, and so on. These meanings are conveyed in Chinese by verb modifiers such as negative indicators like T or -, or auxiliaries like ~,t, 1T, ~-J,) -,"j laries like,t, 4, P,)X,ET,,,,etc. Many of these auxiliaries are also found as independent verbs. The Chinese combination of "modifier + verb" is rendered in Japanese in one of three ways. i. Unlike Chinese, Japanese can modify the meaning of a verb by changing the form of the verb itself or by suffixing an auxiliary to it [Type I]. a.. -f,, May say. Here - ' 1/ is an auxiliary verb indicating the" ascriptive" mood(See page 25,i). The number of Japanese verb forms used to translate Chinese is, however, inadequate to convey all the shades of meaning contained in the Chinese modifiers. To give somewhat more precision, Japanese adverbial expressions are often used in conjunction with particular verb forms. [Type Ia]. b. - - = U -, 3< 'o0 Must surely say. i V K means "indeed," "certainly." c. -x, L < 3 Ought to say, had better say. 3 C/< = "rightly," "better." ii. The Chinese "modifier + verb" may be rendered in Japanese as "adverb + verb." [Type II]. ' a. a' o = 't < > '^ Able to say (physically capable of saying). -< means "well," "effectively." b. L w e - Ai v ' Dare to say. j -VX means something like "daringly." It is now used only as the standard rendering of.
Page 20 20 iii. The Chinese "modifier + verb" may be taken as "verb + supplement." [Type III],-, t,?, etc., were originally main verbs followed by supplements in Chinese also, and although they have tended to become simply modifiers, they may still retain something of their verbal force. a. -, o - 3 ~ ~ Lo Worth saying. r6 - means "to be sufficient," "to be worthy." i.. is a verbal noun formed with the attributive of '3 "to say." ^ i b. 4-, ' = 7 3 r -a. Can say (have an opportunity of saying). i means "to get."?d'? - is a verbal noun. c.; at o=-K, 2 (_ L) tt Unable to say. h tz- il " is negative of an extinct form tz=,S. It means "is not able." By the use of the above three types of translations, standard Japanese renderings have been evolved for all the Chinese modifiers. The selection of a particular method in any given case may be partly accidental. Usually, however, it is influenced by the structure of the Japanese language at the time when Chinese was first read systematically —in the Nara and early Heian periods; by the extent to which the modifier is familiar in some other function, for example, as an independent verb; and by the application, at one period or another, of the principles that a given Chinese character should as far as possible always be represented by the same Japanese word, and that every Chinese character should be represented by something in the Japanese translation. Without an appreciation of some of the reasons why Japanese render these constructions in the way they do, it is easy to make unjustified inferences about the way in which they have understood the structure of the Chinese. In the following sections the Japanese readings of Chinese expressions indicating "mood," are explained under headings based on meaning. Each Japanese reading will be identified by references to Types I, Ia, II, or III above.
Page 21 21 2. Negatives i. 4 negating a verb or adjective. Japanese form: Negative form of verb or adjective. [Type I] rT i ') 9, a. t^$ p t 1t * )= 8tf lt Peach and plum trees do not speak. b.; c 5, (ja; ) =- t 7 T" Not to know the art. r= t'c. $ A -A' - ' Not high. t-', k -).... ~~~d. 4 - tz? F_11 ~ ~ ~ ~ L~ The populace do not starve and do not suffer from cold. ii. K "not yet." Japanese form: ' ---- negative form. (Type Ia] a. i^T-7 ( f e + J )-= f-)" = k tr; Not yet studied. b. DAB o ( (P - ) = k " E )p 1 Y Not yet know learning. Like English, Japanese has no single word for "not yet." m tt "still" is used in conjunction with a negative verb form to give, literally, "still not --—." J is often followed by M or 1. This combination is translated in Japanese as in the following examples. c. f - o=.t t 1*: / t< tK, 5 He has (had) never yet come. d. %at 807 7z *i < *_ I t1 There has never yet been. '-Z - seems to have meant "absolutely" in the Nara Period. It now survives only in translation or imitation of the Chinese E or. In ancient Chinese, Df-, -:,,~, etc. negating a "verb + pronoun supplement" involved inversion of pronoun supplement and verb. This is no problem in translation to Japanese, as this is the normal Japanese order. E.g.: e. f_ Z.oo (-C~- 7)= - t7 vT0 They do not know me. f.; t. (_ il) -- k i:at I have not yet heard this. iii. Negative adverbs. [Type Ia] Where a negative indicator is used in association with an adverbial expression, Chinese makes it clear by the position of the negative indicator whether what is
Page 22 22 negated is the verb only or "adverb + verb." Since the Japanese negative is incorporated in the verb form, it is often difficult to make this distinction clear in Japanese. A somewhat artificial distinction is made by the insertion of an extra word (often 1 ) when the negative applies to "adverb + verb." a., = - r He always does not come. (i.e. He never comes.) i i;,o = ^ t lZS ~ vtbo He does not always come. b. HI e o =,' ~"p "t Ao He certainly will (can) not know.; 1>t To7 = _ l)' f"7~~ a ~ X " tHe does not necessarily know. Since /'> I- implies a potential sense, the Japanese verb is in the negative potential form 5 ---"/. c. ~ e t/ o rX L- a" t ' Ot-to Again he did not get a rabbit. X:;,r~,[He had failed the first time also.] r 4t +t f-. = t t (I J - V to-: He did not get a rabbit a second time. [He had got one the first time.] iv. Double negatives. Japanese form: T~- t"d" ) bt^ ah * i > E 3E h ^ 9 z -- d I have never yet failed to obtain a meeting. This attempt at literal translation results in peculiar Japanese. $-X ^,~t@ 5- L ~T5". (cf. page 21, 2, i, Example b)., t is taken as modifying this whole phrase, giving T X, ^ 7 -. "There has never yet been a 'not to obtain a meeting." - 4 "la changes to X- t';lk " for the sake of euphony. This form should be distinguished from the negative hypothetical form rkUl` which is a contraction of ~'t-i" (not of I" t ). 6 h ~" = "There is not" changes to attributive form -5z"5 before 'I 9. b. ) = 1 hl c) -; '. I could not bear not to report. At first sight this appears to be similar to Example a. Actually, however,
Page 23 23 C~t, * tf'T is the reading of F ~~, not of:iCT (see below page 52, section 2, ii, Example c). The solution, such as it is, seems to have been arrived at by analogy with Example a, but the result will hardly bear analysis as Japanese; nor is it a very accurate translation of the Chinese. The difficulty arises because i =I- 7 -t+K" is rendered by Type II (adverb + verb) and Japanese adverbs have no negative form. Contrast the following (fictitious) example. c. f ' i-2 o' CStT' 9.." o He could not bear not to report. Here, although the Chinese is parallel with TJ ktL t, the standard rendering of 4/" — - /~I'Z~" is of Type III (verb + supplement) and does not involve a negative form for ' since /c' as a verb can be negatived directly. Thus there is no problem in finding a negative t~t:' for >FP.1 J Fi, T~~, and; tJ~ all read ' T" "cannot endure" are handled in the same way as?f /- -, [Type III]. See also T ~f — (page 26, ii) and I p - -—,' --- (page 26, iii) below. v. r ~ Japanese reading: - -^ - v ~ - Although a negative indicator, Ad is not a verb modifier. It is usedto negative a noun or to deny a statement. It is rendered in Japanese by a verb form V )' preceded by the indicator C. This -^-z ~t" is the negative of 7r ) (contraction of z + 9) ). &S:-" (attributive form <6 zS" ) thus means "is not." a. t^-(~^-&.(^*^~-)~=^ jr; It is not I; it is the year. b.t i s (not w at Ha hpes f o It is not what Han hopes for. C. 4tt_8t^t,0 c) (x 2 ^ t)= a s it:" ~ ') It is not that I wilfully held back [the truth is,....] 1. The obvious suggestion that -fIt- should be read 1tX''f t 9 t r9 (analogous to Example c), though probably acceptable inprinciple, has not been adopted by Japanese scholars.
Page 24 24 In this example the Japanese tries, rather feebly, to indicate the sense, "It is not the case that -—," "It is not true that -— " by the insertion of /( after t. The appearance of 4i in such a construction may be taken as an indication that this sense is intended. d. ^4^ ^t (a^ al ) =" (It ^ N`6J t?')z As for the walled town, it is not that it is not high. 3. Possibility. i. t -~ Japanese form. Positive 4< + verb [Type II]. Negative: verb noun + t^ l/T "(Type III]. a. O ('L ~ - ) = < He is capable of enjoying. a k means "well," "capably." b. ^^^.(^^X ^ t )! br He was incapable of taking his leave. [He had had too much to drink.] The fact that positive and negative are translated in different ways does not indicate that the Japanese imagined any structural difference in the Chinese Be ~ and F ~$t. It would appear that no positive form ( 7 ~.3 7 ) corresponding to the negative d t r " was in use in the Nara Period or later, and r Aro U $r T-t (~ L)t ~ (parallel to L A (z )lt; ") was therefore not possible. i <t Lj would seem to have been selected as the best available rendering. That it was nevertheless not considered entirely satisfactory may be indicated by the retention of - It-' t T as a more accurate rendering for the negative instead of " t< + negative verb."l. in Example b may be omitted, but 1 5 or a word in its position remains in the attributive form. ii. By - Japanese form: verb noun + ~ + j. [Type III] aHe got to m t the emissary of Han. He got to meet the emissary of Han. 1. In the modern Kansai dialect, J i ( < ) + verb is used in this sense in both affirmative and negative.
Page 25 25 b.e 51$t,. (a 1,-) =-_ t In the end he did not get a chance to return to Han. Although both i and 1 indicate possibility, tt indicates personal ("endogenous") possibility, while 41 indicates "to get an opportunity to -— " ("exogenous" possibility). This difference is brought out fairly clearly in Japanese. 4. f- indicating permission or approval. Japanese form: -~ m [Type I]. 1. a. fk0 G(AtF>) tA'Y. Fit to kill. b.; zlff ( ) Z t Not permissible to kill. The Master said of Kung Yeh Chang, "He is fit to have my daughter married to him." Notice that Example c doesnot mean "Kung Yeh Chang can marry his daughter to someone." This is an important difference between 'J and ~. ~, ~ o --- X-t <, o He can take [something]. - a' J- = -^ ~~ A ~ U AAs for him, he can be taken. d. it~ ]3 ~.;tqF ^^o IV #T1.,;? ".l (^yt * ^) KT (1() I Ia T) t, WJ3 J,-AXt t.T ers? '*< U-h 33 $7j 5 4 An empire or state can be pacified, an appointment and its associated income can be refused, cold steel can be trodden underfoot; but the Mean cannot be encompassed. e. itl 4 ^ at it4 t ) -tl;;t Tu gg i 5;6 ' jt The Way is not to be departed from even for a moment. pr76 f~ -~~~~~~~~e; 6k <E ~ deo 3 ~~-cssor sine th! f. 4 L ~ ^ f T-. ( Can it be permissible not to do one's best to make the splendid virtue of your predecessor shine forth!
Page 26 26 The auxiliary '" L originally implied conjecture. It is added to the final form of positive verbs (e.g. o -. '"b ) except for ) 9) and its derivatives, 9') t):, b, 9 and k- t j), which add it to their attributive forms (e.g. - " 'b ). When added to negative verbs it is attached to the attributive form (e.g. ~3" -" — <bL-). In the case of conjugable adjectives, it is attached to a form ending in - a-r, a contraction of < + <h (e.g. kt "to- Ha' b ). -- N' itself is conjugated like an adjective (see Introduction, page ix, section 2). In extension of its original basic meaning, it now (largely as a result of its use in translating Chinese expressions) covers a range of meanings including "will," "may," "should," and "must." It is normally added to an active verb form, but the resultant form is used to express either active or passive meaning without distinction.l ii. 2 KJ ~6 Japanese form: - ~t" 2' ' [Type I]. a." c + e t $ t. (C-~ 3=) - O Jr $, G t t^ 4 8' 9 Parents' ages must be known. This double negative form means literally "They may not 'not be known.'" Unlike itJrS (page 22, iv, Example b),Japanese here can get two negatives into the verb - one in the verb itself (-T zv' ) and one in the suffix < L N" o'e " ). iii. - ~ ___,z,_.. Japanese form: --- L L~ -—,, G < - c&". [Type I] a. L, GAdA'^u' There must be a prince every single day. The addition of L U Z makes an adverbial expression out of --, qualifying (cf. page 11, section 3, ii). The suffix - ' '- ~", although attached to the 1. Because of this flexibility the Japanese active verb + <' throws no light on the question of which voice we should use in English to translate the Chinese verb following 1J. In the Chinese itself the question is irrelevant, since the relationship between Chinese topic and comment does not involve the more specific English subject-verb relationship. In Examples c - e above I have used an English passive form. Since the basic force of as a rendering of T is to ascribe a state or quality (fitness, etc.) to the topic, I have calledit " ascriptive."
Page 27 27 verb (the only place where it can be attached) actually applies to the whole phrase, just as FfJ modifies the whole phrase -',,-$. This literal Japanese translation follows the structure of the Chinese very closely. iv. vJ or T' can stand as independent words in Chinese, for example in answer to a question. Since in these cases there is nothing to attach a suffix to, the auxiliary - <- / cannot be used to translate them. They are, therefore, given their Chinese style readings and followed by whatever is needed to complete the Japanese sentence - usually P ). a. W j 7 L 4-^t- t4 ) 7!1 Even if you die the same evening, that is all right. b. h tf B F (-I * rT) - *it - rA 7; L I The notables all say, "It is not permissible." v.;,A ~ Japanese form: t 7 --- - D"N a. t t X O ( )= t ii _ T 9 X X I A With a piece of land 100 ii square, one can be a king. A-d originally means "holding," "taking." This use meaning "by means of," "thereby" is not originally Japanese, but is a literal translation of J;. The Japanese here is literally, "A piece of land being 100 li square, holding (it) one may be a king." ~-, more familiar as a noun, is made into a Japanese "stative" verb form meaning "to be a king" by the addition of T ') (a contraction of L + 9 ). b. EN A,; f t t 0 ()I Xb' X L~. One may entrust a young orphan to him. In ancient China one ~ was a measure of length, about 9 1/4 inches. X,t therefore, means about four feet seven inches in height. In this example -\ refers vaguely to the man's good character, on account of which he is trustworthy. Note that the verb after J A'X has an active sense and can take an object. This is, roughly speaking, the distinction between JJ A, and.
Page 28 28 You may not stop learning. 5. Necessity. i. BP ~ Japanese form: Positive: -pt '9 < ___ ' '"L [Type Ia]. Negative: verbal noun t tn f 4[Type III]. a. < ( < It is essential to decide the matter. d^'6 &'t A A 5( (like d Ai<,,)>, 6 <, etc.) is a verbal noun form. It therefore has no negative form (cf.iTC? page 21, section 2, iii).i - is, therefore, translated as a verb in a negative form. b.; ( );1<-t v t It is not necessary to plague the general again. i~ t f t is the negative of,3= "to use," "to accept." As the translation of A, - it is understood to mean "it is not necessary." Ch'. ian flutes, — t4po (why mu t y o u wkai th wi3owf=, tree9) s. Ch'iang flutes, why must you wail the willow tree (song). 4t ' t- is a potential form. This shade of meaning would not be expressible if0 were translated as an adverb ( F<'> ~ ). This is not a very good example since both the Chinese and its Japanese rendering claim a good deal of poetic licence. 6. Degrees of likelihood. i. A - m,_-.- "Is about to -—." Japanese form: ---- potential verb form+ L. [T a. it-^r 4 X ( Xe)=i I= f = h _. He was about to enter the gate. b. jr +t ^^ to(Gus^^) =t94f- this td3 tb a 7^0 I did not know that I was getting old. c. sin -wt to-4 v e atv Hsiang Yu was about to go east. 'ype Ia].
Page 29 29 rfsu %T < ofA! kq z - d. tL ()?. - i; r-S- At I at -L, pJ tV r T;t Your family will all be taken prisoner. e. JTi fi —=T. =it z-'~-~ or; AL o Almost 50 i. Although Example e is read in the same way as the others (in line with the principle that the same character should wherever possible be read in the same way) the meaning is different (although obviously related). Notice the reading of the following similar expression, with the same meaning. — t-; d. - -- - lt t -. Almost 50 li. A/ /xt is a contraction of 9 I ') T meaning much the same as A/t. ~ii. ~A~ ~ Japanese form: potential verb form + L I( f [Type III]. Although this expression originally means "to want to," it is used from the T'ang period on in much the same sense as*) and L. a. A J L;. e cfM L)/ ) tk -fo Dawn is about to break. In the Heian period this would have read AX l tk 4T, a more accurate translation. Once again the principle of "one character, one reading" is responsible for the current usage. iii. ~ t~; L - Japanese form: ^' l~ —t" ' UClt" l t ~I This does not fit any of the three normal types. -t-b kl*U" is a conditional clause meaning "if a little should happen." a. t e f i. It might easily cause a national calamity. b. Me tL by to (t t ) -^sw -t bh r,^ ~ S.LA You may easily incur punishment.:ci~ the reading of $JL (as well as of A\ ~F and several other Chinese words) originally means "at that moment." iv. i, - Japanese form: br5-" ----- potential verb form [Type Ia]..3W: u <s a y w c a b a. a. t At t 'S ff ( t o e I ^ t tA Wu Hsin Chun's army will certainly be beaten.
Page 30 30 b. A 7; AP e ( o J) = /C b i ' _ t~ People will certainly know it. r 7 t ' is an adverb meaning "undoubted," "certainly." is also found as an independent or free verb. It is then read in Chinese style 7- with the suffix — '), the perfect form of the verbal suffix -. C. F 1 y'.(C o )= 9^^ ]^^ ^ ^ That we will beat the Ch'in army is already certain. 7. ~ 7,-,' -, meaning "must surely." Japanese form: l_..-' [Type Ia]. a. n (1=l < <. L -d A, This is surely how it must be. A t sat v - > b. =jl t 7T p (C A r ft)- t v o 5 \o /. You should know about things in my home town. [Since you come from there.] C. 11 Oz-VI J-:: <n 4&lot lc Lt 3 's L0 Such being the case, the sign of the mandate of heaven must be here. [It cannot be otherwise.]: (z means "correctly," "duly." 8. - meaning "should," "ought to." Japanese form:otsl,__ Be" [Type Ia]. a. ta <= U=t 1<+ 3 LN You ought to know. b. / _-9- L. X, >=-,z - ' " You had better not enter. Since the adverb oL5 CU< cannot be negatived, the negative is incorporated in the verb form a "; '5 "", negative of,K A' L. c. V*uS v _4^ (X t4- <^ J n. Things had better be according to the old system; you should not change things around. can also stand as an independent verb, e.g.:
Page 31 31 d. f -Xr:, How natural! PS ra L) is a descriptive verb meaning "it is natural." For t, see below, page 35, section 4. 9. Expressions meaning "easy to do," "difficult to do," "adequate for," require some ingenuity in Japanese. a. (4srb ' v 9 * The young age easily, but learning is difficult to acquire. Japanese makes compound adjectives by tacking the adjectives Nl'V "easy" and ftc L, "difficult" onto the continuative forms of/ and. As for this heart, it is sufficient whereby to be a king. z...._ here means to "be adequate for." cfQ.^\ revu tt c. 0 -A,3C ^ t- (ar -) Am_ l-1At, ^ ^ The sword comes to grips with (only) one man (at a time); it is not worth learning. k tP In Example c _... &. means "to be worth." lz -5 follows the attributive form of a verb. 10. -j indicating preference. Japanese form: '.... + potential or imperative verb form. [Type Ia] a. Ffi + (*71L44 )-=IA f Lu.),^ Rites should be frugal rather than over lavish.,h'^ 59k is here a verbal noun. ) tI is the rendering of t bAoe afws moth i y4o l k-, b)u3 d o n o bm a otx bid. Become a fowl's mouth if you like, but do not become an ox's backside. LS L 5 seems to have originally meant "if anything," "if you have to choose."
Emphasis
pp. 32-37
Page 32 32 VII. Emphasis. 1. Emphasizing a part of a sentence. A part of a sentence, usually the topic or supplement, may be emphasized in Chinese by putting it at or near the beginning of the sentence, and often separating it from the main sentence structure. It may also be emphasized by following it with an emphatic particle. i. Emphasis by taking a part of the sentence out of the main sentence structure. a. Jt3 t jtz.t gI tii ^ 'pTb 9'b Confucius is my teacher. @,= Em st'>, -s o k be v^ -rtt Jt;>gt6: (-IM)-Al w t ( ) The reason why in ancient times people did not utter sayings was that they were ashamed of not living up to them. C. ( This is what is called a real man. d. 4- _ ) a ( )- - (-)-5 & ) It is to abandon virtue. In Example a, the Japanese reading treats the Chinese as though the topic were emphasized by taking it out of the sentence structure, where it is represented by the pronoun A. The Japanese readings of Examples b, c, and d treat the supplement in the same way. There:- is treated as the appropriate pronoun. Notice that the Japanese indicators I and k follow the actual topic of supplement and that the pronoun has no such indicator attached to it. The 7 may even be omitted altogether, treating it as a kind of status indicator analogous to the Japanese & or, more accurately, c t or ".1 1. It would also be possible to take - in Examples b and d as a genitive indicator, the following verbs being intransitive (or passive) verbal nouns. The Japanese reading would then be: b. X At ~ ~ X (:.. d. >^ 69 at Ad ^9. (For active form with passive meaning see page 25, i). It may be significant that the Japanese have not usually taken it this way.
Page 33 33 ii. Emphasizing a part of a sentence by following it with an emphatic particle. ^~~~ -~I~~td lcJ t, 8- '-b I (l:) obi to ' Len h t a. MITIr: antoC ^) 4ra ) A ^' ' Hsiang Chi was a man of Hsia-hsiang. b. 9;t)=^^-^1'^^^) "Second Father" was Fan Tseng. c. ^pM ~ oCN-^-^ '9 r tA e. There was one called Yen Hui. The Japanese rendering of X varies to fit the context (see also page 2, section 3, i; and page 11, 3, ii). In some temporal expressions with which I is found regularly, it is regarded as forming a compound. It is then not regarded as emphatic and is not read at all, as in the following example: " A - He L-' d. 141 / Gi o ) =4\ A ^ it Now I have gone out without taking my leave. <@- - C^ t. e. )S3<S,) g );A, tC^,- ^)= g< tg-Z> k 35 That Hui, he heard one thing and thereby knew ten. [As soon as he heard the beginning, he knew the whole.] f. (cut t)-he i no moe Now, of course, he is no more. For t in the construction —.__-t, see page 70, section 1, iii. 2. Emphasizing a statement. Chinese gives emphasis to sentences by ending them with emphatic particles. These are used very freely. In the Analects and Mencius, for example, their use vividly conveys the effect of animated conversation. Although Japanese too is rich in such emphatic particles, they are not made use of in the standard renderings of classical Chinese. The Chinese final particles -t and, are normally not read at all; and J ej, a, etc. are all mechanically read B) y-. The result is often a very pale reflection of the Chinese.
Page 34 34 This is a final emphatic particle - not a copula. (See page 2, section 3, ii). It normally emphasizes a statement of what is (or is not) the case. It is not necessarily read, but Japanese often uses an emphatic construction —attributive verb form + C L) in an attempt to convey its emphatic connotation. ' < 4 LW T ~< *> L5 1r S Wx 4l-: l- At Ad z6 At r9.7 Making people submit by force is not making them submit with their hearts! Force is not enough! b. (kWi-(^ ~ -);) You really are a man of Ch'i! c. (.-) — a~ There is not much between natures, but acquired characteristics differ widely!:3- at1_ by lk tt o to When common people study the way, they are easy to handle! ii. -- k Not specifically read.::^ _t h~7 k a. Z_^/S,__y C^0 o ) =3- 0' ^ ^ )S h This spirit is sufficient for one to be a king! b. + B g t O t t * OA./ 1, k1):t)i 1 Lt 9 t: A L ) I'm tired today! I have been helping the seedlings to grow! c. DO~toL<o If on personal reflection I seemed upright, even if thousands of people were against me, I would go ahead! iii. -&; NS & 5 Z 2 A } NFT X ^ 55e ij -. All these related final emphatic particles re rendered na at rtin Japanese as "only. g is equivalent to irj E. O)v2 is preceded by an attributive form. 1. Also read ( t ^ttl" with the same meaning.
Page 35 35 a. J This is simply a continuation of the late Ch'in! b. JL^^rf ^X p Cti ^~^t) - Ai - tt # 6f:e5,, One can tell what it is that your Majesty wants so much! c. * G X1t t) ^ ) Han is easy to make an alliance with, sure enough!,s'< - 0 v One can certainly say that he loves learning! 3. Emphasizing the relationship between statements or parts of a statement. Such words as 'J, tF, and e0 when used between two Chinese statements or parts of a statement (e.g., between topic and comment) appear to emphasize the relationship rather than to act as conjunctions in the usual sense. (See also page 66, section 2, ii). Despite their different shades of meaning in Chinese, they are all uniformly, and somewhat unfortunately rendered in Japanese as ~l' which once meant "thereupon," "at that moment." -a )j ibt 78 ' 7 a. A,t-_ P t (ort. -) - _, /3 -5 ~ _ ~ l. The daughter of Duke Lu was none other than the Empress Liu. b. It ^? /t ^^5 (I^ ^ A B )- X XU g$ X s- ) -At This was actually my fault. e i j,tt * /t" t C. v?a kp ts (t' 7 )= i 3d Ai at iP ft"~ ss 9 Your old man is at the same time my old man. 4. Exclamations. Many forms of Chinese statements may be exclamations if spoken as such. A statement can also be made explicitly exclamatory by the use of exclamatory particles like I',.., and f. These may also have interrogative force. These exclamatory particles are represented in Japanese by the Japanese equivalent *' ', an exclamatory particle which in the classical language followed a noun form (4oT ). Where it follows a verb or adjective (fJ l ), this must be in the verbal (attributive) form.
Page 36 36 i. Very many Chinese exclamations emphasize an identity comment. Example h on page 35, section 2, ii above emphasizes the topic of an identity. To emphasize the comment the order is reversed, and the comment is followed by an exclamatory particle. ^_,, _A tB How natural! That the hundred families should call me stingy. b. X-?ii;&l~~~f- ~i.(~~.~FIB) =^^^^^p^Y it' rc How great was Yao as a ruler! (: I Cf. ~, page 9, section 7, i, above). c. ^ ^^^^^tSt & et:^^ 0,=F ( OX^) - /: to ^ t1eAlKHow difficult it is to get through this present world! d. * tM-P. (-;e'T) - -H ^i tt 2^- ^ > ^ That's a good one; that question. ii. Not all Chinese exclamations are in this form. A straightforward statement may be followed by an exclamatory particle. As usual t'r1 is preceded by an attributive (verbal noun) form. a. 'eH^C\t,r >, How small was Kuan Chung's capacity! Notice also the following: b. I-r-(o ~ F- ) = --- Ya-rto I give up! iii. An exclamation may be in interrogative form. (Cf. English "How terrible!") Common forms are -mey. Te fl prtie is rd -a in " means "why?", "how?" The final particle ~_ is read- mechanically although this does not appear to have been Japanese usage. Here, too, ' is preceded by an attributive (verbal noun) form required by -; h-t'. 1. Also read,,- rr. 2. Also read C,,,t.
Page 37 37 ts ^ -^,j How deeply you are considering! b. #ik IoJ o-j] ('t't )= (Tq A' K, < 1-7- li PT fi-h PXt Z ~ 3 You drew your sword and carved the meat. Weren't you brave! c. * ^^;t 4p;t ^ ^ **X) D- (M ^ L How numerous are the men of Ch'u! d. fJ $ -^t-o. (f-ft p ~ r) ==^r ^<-.o How mistaken you are! iv. The Chinese exclamations t,,b ^, -- -,,.,etc. are all uniformly rendered as h (j in Japanese. Since these Chinese exclamations cover a wide range of expression - surprise, admiration, disgust, grief, and so on - the Japanese rendering loses a good deal of the feeling of the Chinese. a. x ^ 3 ^ -- P-. O^ID ==w^^ ^- ) O u, F x t f Faugh! A poltroon is not worth discussing matters with. b. t tP f.C (* ~ij)-= < X 3 t^. it X ) 1 Ah woe is me! Heaven has destroyed me! Heaven has destroyed me! * u Wt t a k #'j C. -aP Pt t Pjt A +e ) Alas! Can one possibly imagine that the T'ai Mountain is not as good as Lin Fang! d. ^- ~ kjfk~-i^^ ^ 7i eC( t-7 ~ )=z;. F = " <;^ -)t d ^*. -p < 7 '... Ah! This is what a great man must be like!
Commands and Requests
pp. 37-41
Page 37 VIII. Commands and Requests. 1. Imperatives. i. No specific indication in Chinese. Japanese form: Imperative form. Ia. after in nt, e u,: If after acting you have any energy left, then use it to study literature.
Page 38 38 IV bj A-7 b b. A -j 9 i 4 ( te = t Your Majesty, do this yourself! c. Fx' A 0 ( f )k 1; Reply in detail by letter. d. )x l B) m Surrender immediately. ii. Prohibitions. Japanese form: --- attributive verb form + (z L);rk L As in commands, no special indication apart from the sense is required in Chinese. Most negative indicators can imply a prohibition if the sense demands it but - and t] almost always have this meaning. 7';Ot means "Let there not be" and the Japanese form is literally "Let there not be a ---- -ing," taking the Chinese negative as a main verb. a. l 2 7 ^ a. Cj At O /. ( o;,)" =" -S -tt I "6 -ax AfE '3'. % A tcrt t't4 That which you do not like yourself, do not do it to others. fl -3 f Having made a mistake, do not be afraid to correct it. c. C. -6 _6 to mSy. (by e y)- hev n L, Me} b.* Tb?(t)<t-o)Do not make friends of those who are not as good as yourself. d. LXtX; (^E )=-_ ti _< X Do not speak wildly. 2. Requests. i. "I should like to do something" and "I should like you to do something" are expressed in the same form in Chinese. In the latter case Chinese usually makes the sense clear by including a reference to the person requested, unless this is already quite clear. Japanese distinguishes the two by using a potential form
Page 39 39 for the verb expressing what one would like to do, but an imperative form for the verb expressing what one would like someone else to do (cf. English, "Please come in!"). ii. "I should like to -—." Japanese form:, a'l<t I --- potential verb form. Japanese form: ~pt "',, ~ --- potential verb form. a. /^U ~ C^ (A*. Nt) ok li ^ )^ S ~ E I should like to become an assistant master of ceremonies. b. 'g A,.-a -., 5^ ^< ht i n I should like to hear your ambition. C 7 l-Z -rt I should like not to boast of goodness nor to boast of my works. d. t pt thewr d n t rac)= te. I should like to put these words into practice. iii. "Please -—." "I should like you to -—." Japanese form:,a i';lO^ ------ imperative form. -rj 2, ------ imperative form. I beg your Majesty to cross quickly. b.^X^ - t. (ts)=t * X< 14f^^-;ttotI beg the General to consider this thoroughly. c. X-rt t (he -L)t-F fi ^^^. Your Majesty, please weigh this matter. In example c X is not the "subject" of i, but a sort of vocative. This construction is common.
Page 40 40 iv. ~- Japanese form: attributive (verbal noun) form + ~. A_. This is a polite form of request meaning "May I -—?", "I would like to -—." A is the potential form of 9 = "to get" and the Japanese construction is literally "Would that I might get a ---- -ing." 46 _ L7<' v a. A tI should like to serve him as an elder brother. b. 84++. ( 3 i a)-= rg; r^ ^ I should like to serve him with my life. v. -c Japanese form: d c<at ( v,"< kt."). --- & - ---- potential form. The Japanese form is literally "Would that I might somehow get (someone) to (do something)" (Example a), or "Would that I might somehow get (something) to (do something with) (Example b). The former requires the verb in the position of "to do something" to be in a potential causative form. a.7 *F o ti7 L/ I 3a I should like to get brave soldiers to defend on all sides. be +8t> + f,-L^;, O t x1._ ^ b.is ^-^ ^ ^ ^ ^ - ^^^g k ^iX t q; at-Fo Would that I could get a vast house with thousands of rooms to provide a great shelter for the wayfarers of the world and enjoy each other's happy faces. vi. ~ c (~S ) Japanese form: C " (= why) ---- attributive negative form. az- is equivalent to ~t. The Japanese preserves the Chinese form and puts the request in the form of a suggestion - "Why don't you --—." The interrogative A- " requires an attributive verb form. Wa. j don't y (-t tlsome meat has Why don't you eat some meat hash!
Page 41 41 ~b. If Two. (v- t~ )=^r A v< '4. Why don't you speak quickly! t_., WeC e to' ^^";: it' X C. AsX ) /- (A5~ S^k)=| R y''' t"s Why don't you each state your ambitions! d. +jL A' 4, _. e.:: T ) =- C-_ " V:" - r' e t z-'. Why don't you state this for me.
Questions
pp. 41-50
Page 41 IX. Questions. 1. Questions requiring an answer "Yes" or "No." Although almost any statement can require an answer, "Yes" or "No" if spoken in an inquiring tone, Chinese normally makes it clear that an answer of this sort is required by the use of final interrogative particles. 1 The common interrogative particles are f-,- (also written — ), Xt (also written ~1 ) and t-. When ' is preceded by -, the combination is often written with the single character ~ in classical Chinese. i. -t(+v$\t). Japanese: h preceded by attributive form. a. By, (N o- dXl t ^, Are ceremonies subordinate? ^/c3" -f4 4L; b.,;, '': -. (-,i T i P ) 4" $E+ ~ It z ~T t X t0,4 b Ts'u! Do you think that I study much and [just] remember it? Cc. t-A 't7 Ju nTes) it, Of) Are you not an old acquaintance of mine? ii.;-1( (X), ^_. Japanese: K preceded by final form.2 Although the rules of classical Japanese grammar require a final form before _T, an attributive form will sometimes be found in translations of Chinese. 1. Although used as interrogative particles their use is not limited to questions. (Compare page 32, 1; page 35, 4). They seem to be something like the English, "Huh?" or "Eh?" Some interrogative tone of voice was probably required to make it clear that an answer was expected. 2. -t may occasionally be found read as b and be preceded by an attributive form.
Page 42 42 In particular, adjectival attributive forms are generally used in preference to final forms before ". Thus tf ',, P % t ',.- ^',', etc. are generally preferred to -1:-L, y N,-'L, etc. The verb " = "to do" takes the attributive form I T' in preference to the final form. L/ ^"7 it L, Tzu Chang asked, "Can one know anything about ten dynasties ahead?" b. Are you not Yu Jang? C. zt_ l-^ A dL;t ah as as Would a benevolent man, even if he were told that there was a man in the well, go down after him?1 iii. -~ (= L —T) Japanese: '-I - attributive form -; or: i k - final form -. e ma str sa, "Is there [a pre nt for] it? z Lu a The master said, "Is there [a precedent for] it?" Tzu Lu answered, "There is." b., ff7 X —)- 3 4 Is there anything in the way of a single saying which would ruin a country? This section refers to - P in the final position. X may also be found as a fusion word in other positions where it may stand for E- + a preposition, probably ~ or. iv. The interrogative particle may be attached to a statement which already ends with one or more emphatic particles. In such cases the emphatic particles cannot as a rule be rendered at all in Japanese. a. A -,tk-)-o-^^$ 0-'~ Have you got [good] men? 1. I have followed the usual interpretation and taken c- as equivalent to.A 2. r~ ~j, is also read -f i (R." t lx with the same meaning.
Page 43 43 b. a'b 4LY;F^-^o N -oA)=^7 ^S^& ^^^5^ Should one let Chung Yu take part in government? 2. Questions requiring a choice of alternatives. i. Alternatives presented as separate questions. The second question may be introduced by a word such as *bf "or," (Japanese: 't t ) or / "or again," (Japanese: [ z ). a. ^^, (i;l )-X C -TgS', e > ) i\ Shall I tear it down or shall I leave it? For ~, see page 42, section 1, iii, above. b. $ t444 t (Q., ffil) ^-^ *. ^ a Did he ask for it or did they give it to him? 37i v f 5 b;d i~ At L " ^t- t fC k T^ it o 6 It+;b<',; 3 MtL~d.~IBRett {X;~e\;)ylt/3 'tA tt Ie a7r- da Was the house where Chung-tzu lives built by a Po I, or was it built by a bandit like Chih? d. 4*,.-9~ 9 - o -XL ),^ ^. i If a man combines debating skill and sincerity, is he a superior man; or is he only one who puts on an impressive appearance? ii. %-~, ', --,,,s "t --- or not." Japanese: final form __ v__ r;ta a. /i-^Vl ^o (t f, -) ->ft;.' zag<, Look! Is my tongue still there or not? b. 3 B e 7' + ~ ~ ~ ~. ( t' FE )= X ^ ^ A ^ _~ ~-~ $.-,77,7-,3,',.3 ~,-.rV. The king of Ch'in wants to exchange fifteen towns for my jewel. Should I give it to him or not? c. =Jat <jet~J~~~tz~~so OD$ o >A) ekt f< 7 ft" <^ f,3 If such were to become the case, would it perturb your mind or not? d. < dik a or t? Can you drink a cup or not? 1. This is one of several interpretations.
Page 44 44 3. Interrogative words. -- Who? Where? When? etc. i. The following are the commonly used interrogative words and their Japanese equivalents. >,= va_ K -'(occasionally -rftL ) Which? Who? (of two or more) _'B 7.- i~ k Who? IT,~ec — _I m What? v'] 3-t - ' A. ' How? Like what? At tJ,, - _ v to A,. How to do it? J -' = Le- t - -<H How? By what means? Why? Amr, = 7It7;(p t Why? 1, 4 t;- 7Jk- -t " Why? ^T, '*-, — '' - < Where? How many —? ~'-I <i-a<," How much? How many? ' T V- -Si'~i. ot, Ad - When? ii. Japanese interrogative words are frequently followed by the interrogative particle '. Where they are followed by the indicators c or:, the interrogative particle '\ follows the indicator. E.g. ' t \'. Classical Japanese grammar requires an attributive verb or adjective form after the particles (I,,8j!] ) t",?;h, t, and bN and their compounds such as -I'htL", v-' A</, etc. Strictly speaking, the same rule is extended to any interrogative pronoun or adjective. E.g. VL S. Al, Which are more numerous? qj ~ _ /,3,_3. What do you use? ^FJ a at} t e~a Why did you become my prisoner? In classical Chinese, when the supplement is an interrogative word, the normal verb —supplement order is usually reversed, as in English.
Page 45 45 4. Which, who, what? i. At = which? Japanese: i-"'k ( \ ). Occasionally f=2 ( B ). ~ta. W ^MK^,0- i~ ^^-ii^t 4:< e.-* tU Of the disciples, which do you consider to be most fond of studying? b-. 7". v, A; V b. 3.5 ( * Ve L 9 & k) =t Cee ) Of the various ways of rendering service, which do you consider the greatest? I consider rendering service to one's parents to be the greatest. C e. 4 M t $tt e ( i; ^ Afi )-5( o - i hi ^ ^ s Of you and Hui, which is superior? b v\ ^ L-A <' d. vf /,k,,-" ~.$ Which is more important, the proprieties or eating? L L-i7 e., $ 9, ( ho hiQ)- - At r la t-", Of Shih and Shang, which is superior? The perfect forms, - and X ~4 indicate state rather thantense. ii. AL, when followed by the verbs -J7 or t is rendered, --- K vO ILt(>C). This produces some strange Japanese which seems hard to justify as a rendering of the Chinese structure. 1st4' se( 1t e a. ^ffF ttN L^o (~ _ W i ttt, I:) = <_3 la )^,< ^>! XW, Which is better, to save early or to save late? * b. r>^ - b. ^T^^^fi oC^^^^(t)-^^^^^^ ^ ^l$r- 1>At ), Which is the greater, Han or I?!* <*s)J^ as c. 4t()oV) -L X- -k^ Is he older or younger than you? d. h tomptr ^- (te )= t te3 Ki n oE Cth As you see General Lien, how does he compare with the King of Ch'in?
Page 46 46 e. AX$I Lt4'. \ ^;~~tJl)9tlz~_,,~..~~. Which is better; to be praised to one's face, or not to be reviled behind one's back? f. %$K t:y t A, (t iL4 r K-) - e Ad4r 9i) Which is better; to kill this serf or to sell him? In Examples e and f, JJ^ is treated as a preposition and represented by otQ ) l9 (Cf. page 31, section 10, example a). X is neither necessary nor appropriate in Japanese. The reading 9 is mechanical. iii. iL = Who? Japanese: kA a..: l - t-)S ' a Who are you? Who made this plan for your majesty? c. +tiwL 'JAo(*~r) r4J. If you were to have the conduct of the three armies, with whose co-operation would you do it? ~d. ^^ A-~-^ ^ ^ ^. (^ *-il:)-^ ^^ x** J X If I were not to mourn for that man, for whom should I mourn? iv. 4f ( ) What? Japanese: c l_ /IJ meaning "what?" normally appears as an object supplement and is then read 7lzR. a. k, 21J E Xo ~,(~ > A_ l.J)-~ t' ~ l ~. gJ ~ ^ _ What should one do so that the people will submit? b. VZ kz r (iz )- 4-ii t ttl ~5o What would you set about doing first? I ~ f- r tr- < {X Once they are already prosperous, then what would you add to that? 1. The alternative rendering i --- S ot (same meaning) seems too mechanical.
Page 47 47 ~d.jiCit~Pi~~J;~_ 4L r< A -<t i}=t 3 Of these three things, what would you discard first? v. As the second half of an identity, - is read -A.'= (r + interrogative particle Y'. a. ^,.('B I; ^ a What is Spring? It is the beginning of the year. ]^ ti' rfi;9 b. M;)I At. X (** ffi0..A) t; t, What can it be - the thing which you call "distinguished?" Here the normal order is reversed to emphasize the questioner's bewilderment. vi. The following phrases involving tJ have acquired conventional readings - not always very felicitous. a. 4t7(4 )ltI What does that mean? *f -T, -. b. t Ao( ~ ) k - What kind of saying is this? rcKr ^7 -tt~^ S But f '- (oe, ) \. What do you mean by "vast nature? c. ( M o(Nfi)-T_ ^ 50 What does Tzu Hsia say? But ~~ is read in the usual way, ~'t' v b "What do you say?" The difference seems to be based on the fact that in Bitf, asks for a direct quote, whereas in }, it does not. d. -^l o (oto> ) X 4 34 t. What are you? L- 7 gr tAlb e. )49 J^.($ Go) I- tvT1 x What sort of person is the Duke of Chou? f. i sort o-f peoe.we Po I and Su Ch) f?. What sort of people were Po I and Shu Ch i?
Page 48 48 5. ~ _kQ -,I.* i. T~-k = of what sort? How about that? Japanese: v d'A a. - rffC T<I^ (> ~fT)^ /J V M r^ 3 lamT3 o How about those who are now engaged in government? b. LP B A ~ T-n(;R +~ —): Xt 4P, - u f — '.,, " ia, How would it be if one were to pierce your shield with your spear? iAI n -o^ 0 A,, E ^' 5 AL C. t~pi k la tX ) -S^, r^ 1 Fan K'uai said, "How is today's affair going?" w D Tact ^ i. vi d. By -^A-t 7 -%(** W ^ ^ ^i^^l r + p t3^; What sort of person should one call a gentleman? ii. -c 4 T I, fJ. aJapanese: ve t'ttk^,4t- "I etc. The Japanese rendering is a contraction of a,-.^,h, taking -Q (- ) as a causative verb = "to make (do) like -—." am -^^ ^ctfkgI)- t2> t_ etYI Le How should one go about doing this? *e 1, ^ '., What if he should take my jewel but not give me the towns? Since -(t (\-) is, in this construction, a causative verb, it may be followed by a direct object as a supplement. Although this object comes between -;r(,f) and -T, -i4 T is still read b'~. c. F-t't^^^a^-^TL c.X 8)='t!^ ^ ^"^^^^^^ When the year is a famine year and resources are insufficient, what should I do about it? ^V-t Len t~u"/r,t,,, d. T fr d inAt I; )- (a -,/C 6 -j ) I i:,,;I^ ^ I -I.<t,] If people do not have humanity, how can they observe the rites? e.i o (( v Yu! Yu. What shall I do about you?
Page 49 49 r.7 T- -OAF-r~cL~8~r~^.TM - _ ^ " f. caL ' t a ) ^. - _ _^ If you speak ill of people, what should you do about being disliked later? 6. /4iST) "by what means?", "for what reason?", "in what respect?" Japanese: az t '-e - The Japanese reading is rather mechanical. tJ is taken as the supplement of ]-, the usual order being reversed because tT is an interrogative word. a.^JL;y Xlt-o ();;A-P)- * E -X - r ^ w. With what should one repay kindness? Taut 4: K L-b V Y k~ - If someone were to recognize you [by giving you an official position], what would you do about it? 6')F -/F A9 - O.T^f 't bo In what respect do those who do not and those who cannot differ in form?; L 3;|L fa =, J; 'A d.;jv2*At$ P JttL^.(; okv)=3 - ^ t; e For what reason was K'ung Wen Tsu called "Wen"? e. J;AtP a.t t /T X ^ How do you know this? 7. JT, A,^7T "Why?" i. J ( ) = "Why?" "For what reason?" Japanese: tA~{" a. fl^ i(^ i ) = ^ P Master, why did you laugh at Yu? b. i ^ ^ The master said, "Why are you late?" Why do you not engage in government? d. ot los [T tl,:t)e?-^ Since he is of such a character, why does he not lose [his state]?
Page 50 50 When, as in example d, A or 4 is followed by the emphatic particle i, this particle cannot be rendered specifically in Japanese. ii. 4fT "Why?", "For what purpose?" Japanese: k4-Af/.\ " I. is derived from t = "to do." Although the Japanese reading of, in the meaning of "to do," "to make" has now become standardized as a; it was regularly read I in the Heian period. Notice that in this construction is not "on behalf of." a.,07 hit (its Aftv t) =-^^^ "' ^ ^^ ^di Why did you become my prisoner? b. tWhy do you make that statement, sir? 8., 4-, - - "Where?" "Whither?" "Whence?" Japanese: vK "< ' _ '.~ a. V: (;?,)= (-I ) Tt<. Where is the ox going? b. -Joel()~X),5^ ^ ' ^ Where is the Duke of P'ei? j71 hi'< l^ I^" CJ 7"'< 3 > The above examples may also be read, t+T-_r<t. 5^~ I - - 397 L" *" "< 3 8 c. t^EA 0- ( *Z-o T) t4 1;^ \A\, KS\*^A Where did Chung Ni study? d. X b7f.(S7- e) Xf l t 1 a Wherein do you excel, master? e. i o (; * ),t T Where have you come from? 9. J ' and its compounds. i.7 "How many?" Japanese: - <.., i' _.. " (2') From.~~ o f - oldT g(~oing~~~ H oto <war h o ny rt Au rn a. of old, going out to war, ho )=w many return? From of old, going out to war, how many return?
Page 51 51 b. k-tX oH.C~ ttk )- ^ ( )$ t g ). How many days is it since you came? ii. t/~ = "How much?", "How many?" Japanese: iv< ui"< d *,, -I Ac s k i a. k-r]7^J ( -;7)- ^ - I a < t rr. How much can someone like me command? b. ^^^-A^^^^^^^^^k-r, For how many years have you been receiving instruction? c.;Wt t t - ' t How many households of fishermen are there? 10. 4 - = "When?" Japanese: v i-e L) - a. J4_XEDf vTO)=< by >>"^^f ' Vh<'7l< k, k.^ Once people die and leave, when will they return?
Rhetorical Questions
pp. 51-55
Page 51 X. Rhetorical Questions. 1. Although some classical Chinese rhetorical questions are recognizable as such by the use of such specialized words as or o, many are identical in form with genuine questions which expect an answer. The distinction depends on the context. In rendering such rhetorical questions in Japanese, an attempt is made to make this distinction clear. This is done principally by the use of potential verb or adjective forms and of the interrogative particle -' in preference to '. Either a question requiring an answer "Yes" or "No" (page 41, section 1) or a specific question involving an interrogative word (page 44, section 3) may be a rhetorical question if the context requires it. 2. Yes/No form. i. Just as with genuine questions of this type, an interrogative final particle may or may not be used in Chinese. Where a particle of this type is used, it may be any of the particles mentioned in IX, 1. The particle -A is, however, used far
Page 52 52 more often in rhetorical questions than in genuine questions. Rhetorical questions of this type are very often in a negative form, although a negative form does not necessarily mean that the question is rhetorical. ~~~~~a.ir~o0, C(t tz c Can one converse with one who is not benevolent! b. Elk ^ (,iLf ~ )-3= A k d Can benevolence be far away! c. ^^ ^^ii ^'^M}- ^^^ ^^ ^ - -~*. Though I were to have my tax grain, would I get any to eat! d. (J' (l ~)-' ^ 7" Should it not be done with circumspection! ii. Although in "Yes/No" form, the following expressions may be taken as regularly indicating rhetorical questions..- a t a.;t/7iF- (o~ * )= 4 - t o' Is it not that you are mistaken? (i.e. You must be mistaken!) Here,. /. indicates a rhetorical question. b.,.' i. (-) F ~.d- ' o Is it not a delight! 7F /f\ generally indicates that the question is a rhetorical one. Notice, however, that /~~" does not have this force. c. wt^^^('^o (alqD O A I<)=X -^^ %'1iX Would I dare to disobey your command! Distinguish BO, which is always rhetorical, from G~o- (^ ' ~- -" ). Cf. page 22, section 2, iv, Example b. 3. Rhetorical questions involving an interrogative word. i. Most of the questions in IX, 3-10 may be rhetorical if the sense demands it. Again Japanese attempts to distinguish rhetorical questions by the use of potential verb or adjective forms. If an interrogative final particle is supplied in the
Page 53 53 Japanese -W is used, but this is very often omitted. Some interrogative pronouns, adverbs etc. are given a special reading to indicate that the question is a rhetorical one. ii. ALt (Cf. page 45, section 4, i). r52' tsi U c7 -a. VfJ) _? l c? If this is to be endured, what is not to be endured? iii. - (Cf. page 46, section 4, iii). a. t17 ( X g)= - 2 Who would know about it! b. 3 f^ AVt pt- rttT ( i ts)-^ "o ^ r^^? at -i ho t ' tc^ ~As regards my attitude to men, whom do I revile and whom do I praise! C. f<,^' tS+. pts fh (/t't)= UR S h^ o c.,_'.- r zr Were I ingloriously to anoint the grassy plain with my dead body, who would ever know of it! iv. 4T (Cf. page 46, 4, iv). a. x W + a^t Et(^ * )-n^ < A l ~ r^l^ If, upon examining one's inner self, there is nothing seriously wrong, what is there to worry about; what is there to fear! b. -6r P (pt.(+ 4 t)-X^ s V- * Does Heaven say anything! c. a sf. eior ma (to w'lt );-m E what s coase o t For a superior man to dwell amongst them; what is coarse about that! 4 T....c- read 4J... ' —K~ h regularly indicates a rhetorical question.
Page 54 54 v. -17 tJ, 44,K (Cf. page 47, 5, ii). When used in a rhetorical sense this is usually rendered as ^ \ k t = "How?", "How on earth!" This rendering does not bring out the causative force of -kt (,), but it makes it clear that the question is a rhetorical one. a. ~ ~Z ~L ~. _kq ~L/f~ ~ i.(~f~'~i~3-)~, u " ~"~ ~'W.-:40)t > & How can the obligations between ruler and minister be set aside! b. t iL-t+ -naJ-I.()^W =-tt i -r 3^ " (A< = If you cannot correct yourself, how can you correct others! Though you are in haste and cannot gallop on their account, how can you abandon them! vi. X -A (Cf. page 49, 6). a. At L.X e ^ (;. ~ttF )= <9);r&?^ < 1=_5 x^. In what respect should I be different from other men! b. -1:^4]^, ^T =^T^'.-, (^.A^)=0 ^ ^<. Hi/If l rs e A large carriage without a crossbar, or a small carriage without a swingletree; by what means can one drive them. vii., TXB A (Cf. page 47, section 7). / -I <ihA gk ^k b a. - t I W 4T& a (I- - -) —t%? 3< Y o v While you, master, are alive, how could I, Hui, die! What leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness! C. *^ Van < t S (T ^; e^ ^Ji ) _ ok 7 Af-t II Vk )Why should I begrudge one ox! 1. -.TEKa may here also be read -Wtt ~t"ET-, which is more explicitly rhetorical. In the reading given above, however, the rhetorical force is quite clear from the sense.
Page 55 55 d. fT X o (VT t- )- Jt"X} E k, ac7t. How can it be that no one understands you, master! viii. 7-J- -4~, (Cf. page 50, section 8). Japanese form: 'vi-< A --- potential form (+ W ). Although v]-'<, ^h"(i ~-' R ") is originally similar to the plain interrogative reading v'( v-,-, it is now used only to indicate a rhetorical question. Although v)->k means "where?", notice that v-"< At'" does not necessarily refer to a location. (Cf. English "Wherefore?", "Wherewithal?"). k ma l a) 2 ^"^-A -7%, a. rzl i ^ ()-$il i r;- t Why use an ox-knife to cut up a fowl! b. ^^ ^ ^ 0)^ ^ You changed a larger thing for a smaller. How should they know [the reason for] it! c.^a^^^^o (t X)-^ ) ot+fg'b3 < Why should I refuse a cup of wine! 4. Certain Chinese words are used to introduce a rhetorical question, but are not used to introduce a plain question. The two following are common words of this kind. (For other combinations with a specifically rhetorical force see page 52, section 2, ii.) i.L - Japanese form: ^ - ---- potential form. S introduces a rhetorical question expecting an (imaginary) negative answer. ) K is probably related to ~t "What?" a. vckL^ (^X0)-4^i; t ADO How could they dare to rebel! b. _4P-t)i A ( ~?" -ti^ How can this be the nature of water! ii. t ~ Japanese form: (T ( --— potential form. seems to carry the connotation, "Could one possibly -—?", "Could one ever --—!" The Japanese rendering ~ Lt[ originally seems to have meant
Compound Sentences
pp. 56
Page 56 56 "a point of time" (cf. page 62, section iv) and is based on the idea that H is here equivalent to t or]1. a.* A:'$ X A l';Jj L/ \ '4 Can one possibly imagine that the T'ae Mountain is not as good as Lin Fang! b. f > (^)Could anyone possibly consider this to be filial piety! Part III COMPOUND SENTENCES
Compound Sentences
pp. 56
Page 56 XI. Compound Sentences. 1. So far we have dealt with the internal structure of a single statement. In practice most communications consist not of unrelated statements, but of a series of connected statements. The connection may or may not be made explicit. Chinese tends to make the linkage between statements explicit less often than English does. Where English would link a number of statements into a compound (or complex) sentence by using conjunctions or forming subordinate clauses, classical Chinese often simply places them one after another, leaving it to the sense to make the connection clear. Chinese may also emphasize the relationship between two statements by the use of words like?fj, I 1, and so on. Japanese uses verb forms to indicate the relationship of statements to one another. It does this very freely, so that statements are explicitly linked together more than in English and far more than in classical Chinese. Thus, Japanese sometimes seems to make the relationship between statements clearer than Chinese does. The following are some examples of how Japanese uses verb forms in this way. a. 4J L.t f/rL. ( A e )= SXAr ifL The weather is cold, it is raining heavily and officers and men are freezing and starving. Here linkage is indicated by all verbs except the last being in the continuative form.
Page 57 57 b If you do not conflict with the agricultural seasons, there will be more food than people can eat. Linkage is indicated by a conditional verb form. EJ t Ot e3 ^ \ I rx * Although I could talk of the ceremonies of the Hsia dynasty, Chi is not sufficient evidence of them. The type of linkage is indicated by the use of a concessive verb form. d. '5 tti/t-;t at < tt (*@4 ) TSU-s by ^'^ ^ To make the people do their best in respect and loyalty, how should I do it? The connection is indicated by a future verb form "in order to." Since Japanese links statements by the use of verb forms rather than conjunctions, it is not rich in words which perform this function. Nara and Heian Japanese do not seem to have had independent conjunctions ( -N ~]) at all, although there were "conjunctive auxiliaries" ( W- Bn jJ ). In those early days Chinese words like hi seem to have been omitted in translation and they are still sometimes omitted. Later, the principle that each character should be read led to their being represented as a rule by adverbial expressions, such as derivatives of lbh' "thus" ( Lt\ l/t(, L bt, u,'t", etc.) and tg (s "thereupon." Since the relationship between statements is already indicated in Japanese by the form of the verb (or verbal adjective), these expressions often seem superfluous. In general, the Japanese rendering of conjunctions is not very satisfactory and is not a good indication of their functions in Chinese. The following sections describe the way Japanese expresses these relationships, and are divided according to the type of relationship (e.g. co-ordinate, conditional, concessive, etc.).
Page 58 58 2. Neutral relationship. By "neutral" relationship is meant the relationship between statements simply added together as in "East is east and west is west." i. No Chinese conjunctions. Japanese continuative forms. bu i r= Ps i L, oYf 9 a. W Aftu <$.:( Am t.Af Ax <* <- -.A 'A t The year is a famine year, the people are poor, the troops are eating wild roots, and the army has no provisions on hand. ' U' L 9)t ^# bf c. ^ " t b. i an X tst ^ A.C^to~ ~X) >11titt" K ^S\1, an Fathers and sons do not see one another; elder brothers and younger brothers, wives and children are scattered. f. ^^^ -^ ^^^-^^> ej <L )- _ -_e -tA bh The general fought in Hopei while his humble servant fought in Honan. The use of the perfect continuative - - form indicates a somewhat closer connection between the expressions so linked than does the looser plain continuative. The - ( form is appropriate when the first action logically precedes the second. In practice, however, it is hard to make a hard and fast distinction between the plain continuative and the perfect - t form. Sometimes the latter will be used simply to break the monotony of a long run of plain continuatives or because the plain continuative form somehow sounds awkward. The following examples illustrate something of the difference between the two. d. f th en dr ewi s wo avnd^ ctZ, o(f the en or'1 thr a. Chi then drew his sword and cut off the governor's head. Drawing the sword must logically have been completed before he cut off the head.
Page 59 59 ki -' - It /1 t7 /tA ~ vE> & s a Liang thereupon went out and warned Chi to take his sword, stand outside and wait. Liang could not warn Chi until he had gone outside. Chi was to first take his sword, then stand outside and when he was already standing outside, wait. The connection between warning Chi and what he warned him to do is of a rather different kind. ii. -in Japanese form: perfect continuative ( ~L form). iii. -l- Japanese form: participle The neutral connecting word jft can be used to point up a range of relationships. It is rendered in various ways depending on the kind of relationship which it emphasizes. (See below, page 59, section 3; page 61, section 4.) When it indicates a non-specific relationship as English "and" does, it is normally omitted in translation, but the function of fij in emphasizing the connection between two statements is represented by putting the verb of the preceding statement in a perfect continuative rather than the looser plain continuative form. a. Lt eir ar n (ru n tal i te i e They throw away their armor and run, trailing their weapons behind them. b. T-tfln^-c^ ) He bends his elbow and uses it as a pillow. 3. Adverse relationship. By "adverse" relationship is meant the type of relationship indicated in English by "but" or "however." The Japanese way of showing this is to use a concessive verb form (See page 57, Example c).
Page 60 60 i. ~-jfn~; - Japanese form: L'tt = "even so," "nevertheless." ^ any ca \ Your majesty has the position of the former sages, but does not have the reputation of the former sages. The tendency nowadays is to render the verb before i in a concessive form, e.g. V;_ Z ]C 'i,,, k The Itx' then becomes redundant and is usually omitted. Sometimes as in the following example, a final form is used, breaking the sentence into two. b n< ^ ^ a; b. ^^t3Wi.ffn^^^^^c^^t (td)Xt-^ fb ^8le l~j~,<r- ^ tA/ l^;' u'?~ (J( tA Chih Pai has perished and has no posterity; nevertheless his minister wants to take revenge. ii. ~,~ — -- Japanese form: L>-@btx' t = "Although it is so," "nevertheless." 4^j Sta a+3 t<v Eve~ ^ > a. t^all t9 &tlS )o ^ Loyalty is loyalty; but it is not courtesy. iii. 1,, ' ]j Japanese form: L'r &'"5 L2t( = "nevertheless." happened that th e ruler was not are king. His people will be neither starving nor cold, and in such a case it has never happened that the ruler was not a real king. b.. /]~ ab r b. it at ^, $>AA. 'frn+xts s 6 4t-^p(^ v-;T ) = tr (b -r t Ad k;, r t< La- t-b i^ vb? *9 vL z * 1 #. a I-R E;' t I \ i 8 l) i 1 ^im t * r;" ll }; *i'' ir-; 5 9 " Pleasure and sorrows are on an empire-wide basis, and in such a case it has never happened that the ruler was not a real king. As in the above examples bLt) L^'j L( is usually preceded by a continuative form. >;;ji may also be read i< c -< z ) L "such being the case."
Page 61 61 4. Consequential relationship. By "consequential" relationship is meant the kind of sequence indicated in English by such expressions as "and then," "and so." i. - r - Japanese form: C/j' L t "such being the case," "thus," preceded by continuative form.,n; t,,, L- Al. -b; L. G, a.-,t 7 n 7 i i A^(^ if l o R )- E 6^^,jit Ad Han possessed the greater part of the empire, and so the barons attached themselves to him. b. /i I IX^ o(X t~ )- - lax < i-E ja i<. His labors were grievous and so his merit is high. C. -< High and low scramble for profit and so the country is in danger. ii., i.. {,-, — fin I -. Japanese form: L/r- oe "after this," "after so doing," preceded by a continuative form. a. 4tttt-^%^^t ~B ^^^-^^to~..(^.^^)-^- ^S: 0ikj 'tP S 1$*' ~.'. 6 st. K, > a. 14-N I ye Z4L It is only after weighing that we know the weight, it is only after measuring that one knows the length. Japanese does not have a verbal distinction between weighing and measuring and so both q and I come out as Itl', to weigh or measure. This sort of thing is not too infrequent and sometimes rather spoils the point of the Chinese. b. g < < EF t;;.; t + v o 71,r Ftfli r-L' At 7 tw.c) = 1W1 4i Only after the people of the country have all said that he is wise, consider him; and only after seeing that he is wise, employ him., was omitted in this translation, but it could have been read, - "in him." o rd Te dfferee in mr ani i 1. Also read X-F L i'j JiE 'f(if&j) US Ul. The difference in meaning is slight.
Page 62 62 + lk/ ^ IAI, ZA; fe. 0L c. t ff l7 tt o( E) God a- lade it t it' A It is only when one is a wise man that one enjoys these things. IW Jt is sometimes read Ub') LZ.e iii. --. Japanese form: o' 9 (-tC ) preceded by continuative form. The reading ]) T is derived from ot, the reading of 1 as a verb meaning "to depend on," "to follow from." As a conjunction, however, '1 usually means "and then," "and so," or sometimes not much more than "and." a. D'itU kS6 1 k-.(zt^ )- 4^& Z; t7;^ X Ia h <'O L a The Duke of P'ei got up to go to the latrine and then beckoned Fan K'uai to come out. iv. ~- ' ~ X ~X1']. Japanese form: Pt (~ "thereupon." The Japanese word Ok l; originally meant a "point of time," "at that moment." It was probably first used to translate p, but is now used also for /, I, and lJ. These words carry a variety of connotations in Chinese which is not adequately represented by the standard rendering r;[ t L. These connotations are expressed by the Japanese verb form (hypothetical or concessive) and ft L(;t# is really redunant in Japanese. The two statements linked may be found separated in Japanese by the former ending in a final verb form. tA A; f LA<,t,a.. 73 k>? ft ( ~ ) Vt tMiX e,f e t r. A 3~ He went to the left and thereupon fell into the Ta-tse marshes. ji Lt(- ' literally means, "when he went to the left." b.^ ^ - 7X ( ~f-)- r t-1i Ok t i The king of Han had someone inquire about him secretly, and it thereupon turned out to have been King Hsiang. cThe Emp r. -thout t it ws so ad his misn sta g t here The Emperor thought that it was so and his misunderstanding was thereupon cleared up.
Page 63 63 d. -'> + E X ~y LaL A7 ^3 eGE r 1, )9! Em i g A- The youths of Tung-yang —wished to appoint a leader. They had no one suited to their needs and so they asked Ch'en Ying. 5. Additional relationship. By "additional" relationship is meant the sort of reinforcing of one statement by another indicated in English by such expressions as "not only-but also," "and furthermore," "and what is more," and so on. i. "Not only —but also." As in English the first statement is introduced in Chinese by an expression meaning "not only." Common expressions of this type with their Japanese renderings are as follows: ( 37 S^= t t-<- _ --- e a t e f C ^ A 9 -- -- 9 ) 9 ( 7, Again as in English, the second statement includes an expression meaning "but also" such as the following. 1,P - he T a. X t tto( -1 b oT i It not only does no good, but is even harmful to it. Notice that t- requires the two Japanese words I7 rt "just" and ~) m "only." In this example Fi is not read at all. \J lW L - -I ^ 4 ^ " 9. AR,OK^ * V #. V~~~~ /4'_:>-,- ~ ~ ~ ~ Pt r~ 1 It is not only the wise who have this spirit; all people have it.
Page 64 64 e /t — X ( Those who established great projects of old not only had surpassing genius but also invariably had an enduring and unshakeable resolve. ii. An intensified kind of additional relationship can be expressed by the use of a rhetorical question introduced by Z read ~v ahI t "Shall I mention." When it appears in the form fj i) it is read L'b ~ ElAh /'. In the standard Japanese translation the "object" supplement of /Z follows v': k '' (reversing the usual Japanese order) and is followed by the appropriate indicator f. The rhetorical question introduced by -Z is usually concluded with 'k or ~, read in Japanese as \. Japanese often introduces t or T5 = "even" in the sentence preceding. i. a. iX. <,,J^ + st <;tt at H^. (97. TV -t-4;lt —t)- 7 i^ r This verse even others may not hear [unmoved]. Need I speak of my own feelings! I have never heard of anyone setting others straight by warping himself —to say nothing of anyone setting the Empire straight by shaming himself! V. ^^^l5lLzff Ssx ( t3.@;L. ' -l '4. ~= " h ') ~^ -—...~-.q --.. If the Duke of Chou was not completely benevolent and wise, how much less can your majesty be expected to be so!
Qualifying Relationships
pp. 65-69
Page 65 65 XII. Qualifying relationships. Although it is hard to draw a distinction in Chinese between co-ordinate and sub-ordinate relationships, some statements qualify others rather than simply add to them.1 The qualification may be temporal, conditional, or concessive. The type of qualification is usually clear, but it may be pointed up by the use of a particular word. 1. Temporal qualification. i. No indicator. Japanese supplies an indicator. lxk;,Vt i iS. k a.tt g < t V, Fan Tseng went, but had not yet reached P'tng-Ch'eng when an ulcer broke out on his back and he died. Here Japanese supplies a "time." Preceded by an attributive form it means "at the time when ---." Some schools did not supply this, but broke the sentence into two. (E.g. Y_ 6 "..) Such readings are inaccurate but may still be found. ii. j or similar temporal indicator. Japanese form: ~ ~ (or appropriate equivalent) preceded by attributive form.,;t Jo A4 of E aA IA js kt,.. a. ^^^^ ^ ^N- oC^^X)-^ ^^^^ When the Duke of P'ei was east of the mountains, he was covetous of wealth and goods. b. )tt i C ( Xtf )- i rl )X ~Eao At this time Chao Hsieh was a king. Notice L *) (not SI- t "became a king") because he already was a king. 2. Conditional qualification. i. No Chinese indicator. Japanese form: conditional or hypothetical form. a. 4,tp ' o ( A)=^ AC tldy t If now you let him go and do not take him, later you will certainly regret it. 1. Some may like to think of the qualifying clause as a complete topic (Cf. page 69, section 1, below) about which the following (or "comment") statement has something to say.
Page 66 66 If it is not like this, the emperor is not revered and the mausolea of the ancestors are not at rest. C.c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ <; {\. / If you do not conflict with the agricultural seasons, there will be more food than people can eat. In the above examples the negatives P and; are sufficient indication of the conditional sense in the Chinese. ii. Chinese may point up the relationship by the use of such words as 'J ( J:15 ) "then" ortf ( 7 z- ) "thus." Such words are not really necessary in Japanese, since the conditional or hypothetical verb form makes the relationship clear. They are nevertheless translated more or less mechanically on the principle that every character should be read. ~'I') 5 o If people die then you say, "It is not I; it is the year!" the qualifying clause. Both -^ L and 01'L L<)- mean "possibly." a. - %4( 4a 9 All If you majesty does not blame their going off toyear, the people of deathe world will come. iii. The conditional nature of the relationship may be still further emphasized by the ing guilty, then why were you choosey as to whether they were oxen or sheep ) in t(for h " see page 54 se ction 3, vii, amean possibly. a. p rf i nt^iVJ I^ tr P'J^^ 2$ B tjiCP)f;^ i s i ^^^ If your majesty was pained at their going off to the place of death without being guilty, then why were you choosey as to whether they were oxen or sheep? (for ^ A^t see page 54 section 3, vii, above).
Page 67 67 b. f^^ ^4 4~~t~~, 'JT) ^.t (< -' ~ ) - c If there existed someone who did not delight in killing people, then the people of the world would look to him with outstretched necks. p iF X J pi ) ggtfe (r + ) -3j L~ St (^^^<~ f vt 4 A I a ^h If we cannot, the barons will take our followers prisoner and go east. t ttd. t 2; 6 > G If they do not have steadfast hearts there just is not anything that they will not do in the way of unbridled license. e. ^ x; X 4g L-,(to / ^b^^.;- 3 A Even if I should become rich and high ranking, I will not forget you. iv. The causative indicator t may be used in a conditional sense analogous to the English "Let A equal B; then ---." An attempt may be made to preserve this construction in Japanese (Example a); or it may be rendered more freely in a form similar to example b, above. a. 3tILF L'~ j, '& ( "'~ ) = "l Should you become wealthy, I will become your steward. b. Ad H i S t3 f(T], GEM A fit ' H) AA`^ O 4 L, < 6 4 k (, cr y, C I/ e < e < A ul i < 'I Af k,? Suppose that your dog were to go out white and come back black; how could you fail to think it strange? (For A: see page 55, section 4, ii, above). v. Am~ ~ Although basically an emphatic negative rather than a specifically conditionalword, 40^ usually indicates a negative condition. When the meaning is "If it were not
Page 68 68 for ---," "But for ---," it is read 7 9- t lt" 1 = "If there had not been ---" (Example a). If the meaning is "Even if there had not been ---," it is read -t 4, = "Even without ---" (Example b). <*4 an /K') Zih t ^ L-9 Jr tAt- ) If it had not been for Kuan Chung we would be wearing our hair unbound and fastening our clothes on the left [like barbarians]. r/ st') g ak -hk i**' b. ^ ^tt+-+ - ^ ^.. C^^^^) (o^z?^-^*^t,%ti;-. Even if you had not said anything, I would still be suspicious of him. vi. ~ ~} ~ Japanese form: '- c 5 a " 5 t; This expression meaning "If it were not ---," "Unless it be ---" is rendered literally in Japanese. The result is hardly Japanese but has become conventional. 7- J L h ^ a a. 7 # pL4u L o g t - l Unless it be Wang Tzu-chin, who could always be beautiful and good? 3. Concessive qualification. i. A concessive meaning may be clear without any specifically concessive word. The relationship is made clear in Japanese by the use of a concessive verb form (e.g. page 32, section 1, Example c). Frequently, however, Chinese does use a specifically concessive word such as At- - "Although ---" or t" "Even supposing ---." These are rendered in Japanese as follows. ii. L ~ Japanese form: /. t- A et "Though one may say that ---." a. a )= < - haiscut d itE ' e lf v a th o r. Although Yen Yuan was a deeply learned man, by hitching his wagon to a star his conduct displayed itself all the more. The sign R means "Repeat the previous character." 1. Sometimes contracted to t'-t, L ".W
Page 69 69 b. t., A ^- lteBm, J^ ^. (.?X )=A B, g Hi '^, X Al.i at ^ ' t #- 16 L o Although you are in a hurry and cannot gallop because of them, how can you abandon them! 4t f- t.k k_ 9 At,, c. -,Cv^ ~)t) -A Or T < iv r,, Although I, Hsiang-ju, may be dull-witted, am I the one to be afraid of General Lien. iii. A_- Japanese form: t _ V... t "Even supposing that ---." X~i~isi~rA.a. f ^^X. tA fliM~Hi JEs ^^ x-)) %A ^ i A Even supposing that the elders of Chiang-tung were to make me a king out of pity, how could I face them?
Summarizing Words and Phrases
pp. 69-72
Page 69 XIII. Summarizing Words and Phrases. The connection between statements may be made by using a word or phrase (usually demonstrative) to summarize a preceding statement and indicate its relationship to another statement. These summarizing words are often used where the statement to be related is long and involved. Many kinds of relationship can be indicated in this way. In Japanese the statement to be linked is usually rendered in the form of an independent statement and the summarizing words are translated literally. The result is something hardly Japanese. 1. Topic + comment. `*di., 9 _ Japanese form: 'Z. <^ ^' ^< t> ^ ist b 3 ^ g L < ^ e <>e ^) Its 4 q 1^4 e In the kitchen there is fat meat, in the stables there are fat horses, [but] your people have the look of hunger and on the moors there are those who have died of famine. This is leading on beasts to devour men.
Page 70 70 b. 915c-^- t^^^f. m, mot -^. When grain and fish and turtles are more than can be eaten, and when there is more timber than can be used, this enables the people to nourish the living and bury the dead without regrets. In Example b the "topic" statement is translated as a noun clause instead of as the more usual independent sentence as in Example a. ii.. --- ---...'. Japanese form: a... -.... attributive verb form +. This construction forms a sort of noun clause which may be the topic of a sentence. a.,.(Ue*^)l e i: S^ ^ The turning of the people to benevolence is just like the way water moves downward. b t s ~,, AS o v _ v' -t,<hA~tbf ^^lt<^Xb. YXAi^^ tif f^X^'T o When birds are about to die, their singing is pitiful; when people are about to die, their sayings are good. 2. Qualifier + verb. i. ~'X/~ ~;Y<<j~ Japanese form: Zt ~&aZ a. li4t7-^^ * ( Xto )-V i&^^ ^;;t T i+ 6. By this means he knew their abilities. b. _X t>~~ Xt ~. - c. X~, i*~ r ~ f.t&, On account of this Hsiang Liang considered Hsiang Chi to be out of the ordinary. 3. Consequential relationship. i. - '? tLIJ ~. Japanese form: i t 3 "For this reason." These are read - Et j to distinguish from A L, < f read Z t -t. (See 2, i, above.)
Page 71 71 he cannot bear to eat their flesh. For this reason the superior man puts the Having seen them alive he cannot bear their dying; having heard their voices kitchen at a distance. ii. 1i ~ Japanese form: - T "As a result." a. /-^^-^^^^^^S^^4^^^ (P- )= ( -- Kung Ao led his troops to attack Nan Chun and his meritorious deeds were many. Therefore he created Ao King of Lin Chiang. iii.,.. ~J Japanese form: - &j "For this reason." a. ^^/S-Xft^^^^t^^^,^^ ^^^^0'^)-^^ aow w h ii tht indness i sfficin toexten t o Od n7 beas ts <ut g l -7 t K L Z^Z7 h Actually I could not bear the way they were trembling like innocent people on the way to the place of death. For this reason I changed them for sheep. iv. n o Japanese form: L(Cz vs>s "Thereupon." a. X1A p; X (~ )= < L rC4 X X;J ^j ^ ff t^zL $ F 9 - tt9 His attendants all wept, and none of them could look up at him. Thereupon King Hsiang mounted his horse and rode off. 4. Conditional relationship. i.z ^.> R'J. Japanese form: UL-(1V I "If such is the case, then ---." ~~a. A^^X^^^^^^^^^~~~ssJ, — 7-, > ';e T LI #N L ^ t-f WM C "I5(* k- -. v' L. ib X OF X[- I - M!W C ~ g 4 ' ' lt S i t b 4"6 h"4 f')J Now why is it that kindness is sufficient to extend to birds and beasts, but merits not enough to get as far as the hundred families? If such is the case, then ----- the reason why the hundred families are not protected is that you do not use your kindness.
Page 72 72 ii. '~ ^ ~ l, } ~, W'J Japanese form: l A-A"A;v (;" a. X, -^ /^ ^?J ^ f ^^ -g ^. ^ ^ |^ J X _ _t; (.' 0fX #jt-L;. j, C ^ tr 1j _p t t tb' t It was the Duke of P'ei's Left Master of the Horse, Ts'ao Wu-shang, who said this. Otherwise, how could I, Chi, have come to such a conclusion! b. 1& 9 M.5, -, X ^i l. Othews yT ou fors ar Al Strike Duke P ei in his seat and kill him. Otherwise your followers are all going to be taken prisoner.
Index of Chinese Characters
pp. 73-75
Page 73 INDEX OF CHINESE CHARACTERS (Page numbers underlined include explanatory material) 1 Stroke 36. 2 Strokes 28. 22. 23. 52. 22. 26 72. 63. 31. 38. 35. 36. 38. 67. Ji X.5 35. 59. 62. 63. 71. 47. 63. '.fg(,(V.;01) 4-j, it (a) ^^*ttt ~ B fE SfTJ -1: —fifth N ITP/O -* Al^p +Iq AZ* If Ix -Fqp A.'Mv T, 44 7;1f? ofr>> 3 Strokes 14. 16. 17. 25. 26. 27. 28. 30. 32. 35. 36. 37. 39. 43. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 54. 55. 60. 64. 66. 67. 68. 33. 36. 53. 70. 33. 36. 37. 41. 42. 47. 49. 50. 55. 64. 3. 34., etc. 71. 17. 33. 34. 35. 67 5 4 Strokes 2. 12. 13. 18. 19. 21. 22 23. 24. 25. 26. 28. 30. 32. 34. 38. 48. 49. 52. 53. 54. 57. 58. 60. 64. 66. 67. 71. 72. 43 25. 26. 27. 53. 54. 57. 64. 66. 69. 70. 26. 52 38. 56. 63 31. 37. 48. 57 30. 72. 63. 63. 20. 24. 49. 54. 67. 22 22. 25. 63. 64. jL RJ. Ji. bf ( Ua7 P ) "J <, ) -*,*,p ^M-b~ -^~C~ 5 Strokes 28. 72. 18. 63 18. 5. 25. 31. 35. 43. 47. 50. 10. 11. 27. 28. 37. 38. 43. 55. 57. 60. 71. 8. 56. 62. 9. 41. 16. 19. 25. 26. 43. 48. 52. 27. 28. 54. 65. 36. 41 42. 52. 56. 64. 31. 33. 34. 48. 53. 54. 64. 69. 70. 27. 35. 42. 53. 69. 65 60. 64. 65. 22. 30. 64. 19. 21. 33. 21. 21. 22. fan ( C L ) - a-(so< ) an l- Bl ) A - i 1,. 6 Strokes 61. 30 43. 52. 63. 68. 62. 71. 30. 37. 43. 49. 51. 61 17. 44. 48. 54. 48. 49. 53. 54. 57 49. 66. 67. 44. 50. 55. 50 40 73
Page 74 74 ^ 7;Ff ~ At 10. 11. 12. 13. 15. 21. 33. 37. 42. 46. 52. 53. 60. 61. 63. 64. 67. 69. 42 12. 30. 32. 35. 37. 44. 46. 50. 62. 64. 65. 66. 69. 70. 72. 18. 27. 34. 41. 42. 46. 48. 50. 52. 56. 57. 59. 60. 61. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 72. 63. 63. 64. 33. 34. 61. 62. 34. 35. 42 2. 50. 68. git Pfir rfWi Y ~fiff - <ii]A 4OfJtl W 11 iff Pi {ru#l {^j1^ II-fU MAI XB, JIh4ti M- 4t-tjW 4-II:. 35. 62. 66. 67. 71. 44. 48. 54. 69. 19. 30. 31. 36. 43. 64. 14. 16. 17. 23. 35. 38. 43. 47. 14. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 12. 36. 38. 46. 47. 53. 54. 64. 65. 71. 72. 71 31. 34. 35. 23. 24. 34. 42. 46. 60. 66. 63. 63. 63. 63. 63. 29. 9 Strokes 7 Strokes 64. 13 36. 37. 44. 46. 50. 53. 54. 66. 47 50. 40. 41. 44. 49. 54. 72. 44. 48 36. 37 44. 51. 44. 47. 49. 50. 28 47 43 72 -13 43 13. 30. 31. 33. 39. 46. 48. 51. 7. 71. 20. 31. 34. 55. 4. 42 47. 49. 69. 71. 33. 34. 35. 37. 38. 43. 46. 56. 60. 62. 66. 35. 36. 47. 49. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 63. 67. 69. 62. 71. 3. 4. 25. 32. 33. 47. 71 17. 31. 32. 34. 37. 43. 46. 47. 49. 52. 53. 56. 63. 69. 70. 70. 71. 70. 44. 54 17. 34. 58. 67. 54. 55 34. 36. 67. 71. * (t' L) ~ -. *1~. 15 13. 67. 41. 71 66 17. 66. 15. 27. 29. 61. 63. 71. 72. 42. 18. 67. Xt0% 8 Strokes 10, 43. 57. 62. 67. 70. 38 2. 15. 18. 31. 42. 46. 54. 55. 60. 66. 68. 70. 71. 10 Strokes 40 37 63 44. 46. 49. 50. 54. 40. 41
Page 75 75 t q~ ) (1 A - A%, ~ MIL, i~ 1% As 7. 19. 24. 25. 43. 51. 57. 67. 68. 71. 51. 55. 67 11 Strokes 29. 29. 44. 45. 53. 45. 46. 22 19. 20. 24. 25. 40. 37. 44. 50. 55 9. 6. 15. 29. 60. 63. 46 42. 44. 46. 50. 55. 61. 66. 71. 19. 28. 29. 46. 70. 15. 15. 25 11. 21. 55. 71. 16 13 Strokes Ift ^1 a loltf ( ) lo 2 As 37. 37. 37. 68. 19. 58. 69. 30. 37. 49. 41. 43. 52. 2. 17. 45. 49. 70. 14 Strokes 31. 21. 71. 15 Strokes 41. 42. 43. 52. 39. 43. 63. 8. 44. 46. 53. 68. 16 Strokes 12 Strokes 71 -Wk& ei'u.%~ ft H-IT a_ % Al~ ~a.(tt g ) %^f, A-oil.,, - ARMA ~ X ILL-$6vc ~ *-(1 9 ) 44. 50. 51. 16. 50. 51. 44. 51. 22. 28. 53. 19. 28. 70 21. 51. 55. 56. 19. 23. 54. 55. 23. 52. 12. 39. 47. 48. 66. 11. 12. 13. 26. 27. 39. 43. 46. 54. 58. 60. 63. 66. 67. 70. 71. 52. 62. 60. 60. 30. 71. 61 2. 7. 44. 46. 71. 8. 29. 72. 37. 46. 52. 31. 46. 37. 69. 71. 17 Strokes 30 68. 69. 34. 42. 52. 54. 68. 69. 13. 18 Strokes 41. 31. 36. 19 Strokes 13. 39.
Index of Japanese Readings
pp. 76-78
Page 76 INDEX OF JAPANESE READINGS. (Page numbersunderlined include explanatory material) 7 *b _ 1 ' <) '' N-c * Av 4 Ic l ' AV /v 3^' A^ A,' t t ( I ' c < k 4) L^ < s( C ) LI L < ( C L 3 < t 'd < 4 - * *tt ' X -e ^);' *t t t ~t'< ' * * * ttU:tt *' t; L ( *'; t; L) I>~ 3 37. 20. 24. 49. 54. 67. 51. 55. 67. 17. 34. 58. 67. 19. 23. 54. 55 52. 22. 23. 52. 23. 24. 34. 41. 42. 46. 60. 66. 10. 11. 12. 13. 21. 33. 37. 42. 45. 49. 52. 53. 60. 63. 64. 67. 69. 44. 48. 44. 48. 54. 57. 54. 69. 51. 16. 50. 44. 51. 37. 44. 50. 50. 55. 40. 44. 45. 53. 45. 46. 44. 51. 64. 34. 42. 52. 54. 68. 69. 19. 21. 33. 60. 64. 65. 21. 66. 67. 19. 20. 25. 22. 25. 40. 35. 40. 56. 8. 56. 17. 71. 5. 65. b 3 -t '.I C r.. t. I, -. C. C. W 4>. t _ fi t -t /V C s..' ~ h,; U: 4* 4) C.*1Z 21. 31. 35. 36. 22. 29. 30. 64. 70. 71. 12. 30. 61. 66. 71 30. 37. 43. 49. 71. 31. 34. 39. 46. 63. 64. 65. 39. 39. 61 13. 17. 21. 30. 36. 37. 38. 39. 42. 43. 46. 47. 52. 53. 54. 55. 60. 61. 62. 63. 67. 68. 69. 70. 42. 72. 51. 66. 47. 50. 32. 35. 40. 41.. 48. 49.. 56. 57.. 64. 65.. 71. 72..9j L 5 L -C h o LU' 5 L t tC / -f L b C&* T f L *b h 6 It 3 t$ t> L b* 0 L b&' 5 L - L tb b t 'Itt /% A L t 6 0 't L b* - tE 6 L t. b L C.. L tr L ts -r 26. 57. 60. 61. 63. 63. 37. 56. 57. 60. 71. 72. 30. 71. 60. 64. 61. 62. 60. 15 10. 57. 62. 70. 10. 43. 67 2. 12. 13. 18. 20. 21. 23. 24. 25. 28. 30. 32. 34. 38. 48. 49. 52. 53. 54. 57. 58. 60. 65. 66. 67. 67. 71. 13. 46. 41. 42. 43. 44. 50. 56. 31. 36. 18. 63. 76
Page 77 77 -t t6 it t + o t < tIC 1'> T t: t_ *- 4 0. 5 -^ - t 6 itr It It. IC ti- t - ht * t t; b3 1 '*.: < 1C. 33. 34. 36. 37. 38. 43. 46. 48. 49. 55. 56. 59. 60. 62. 63. 66. 71. 19. 20. 2. 15. 31. 46. 54. 55. 60. 70. 71. 43. 8. 63. 64. 63. 69. 2. 41. 46. 71. 12. 15. 31. 37. 48. 57. 20. 31. 34. 55. 71. 44. 46. 53. 68. 22. 68. 22. 25. 58. 38. 17. 18. 45. 49. 70. 14. 17. 23. 35. 38. 43. 8. 29. 72. 3. 33. 47. 37. 40. 52. 46. tx A, U) f. U*..B f. IC. tr & e t t, a & K * 6.1 0 it *a $ it < it..- tI.a. t C< t... 0.3%. 40. 41. 36. 37. 28. 47. 5. 6. 7. 9. 10. 36. 38. 54. 72. 68. 39. 39. 13. 14. 17. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 32. 34. 35. 36. 37. 39. 43. 45. 46. 4 47. 48. 49. 53. 54. 55. 60. 64. 67. 68. 33. 36. 53. 70. 33. 35. 67.,> it it t; tt t. U. t b. IC a..to. 9 h u t;, t -r 3. 4. 25. 32. 33. 71. 16. 15. 62. 69. 71. 63. 63. 22 25. 26. 27. 28. 52. 53. 54. 57. 64. 66. 68. 69. 70. 19. 25. 26. 27. 28. 35. 42.. 43. 48. 52. 53. 6. 15. 29. 60. 63. 15. *: II 3 t a It Ai t 0 -t II t L tr I,. cItc tz i - It. gfc A *tA- A,; 68 31. 38. 11. 12. 13. 26. 33. 39. 46. 52. 54. 55. 58. 60. 63. 66. 67. 68. 70. 71. 44. 46. 47. 53. 44. 49. 54. 72. 43. 64. 70. 12. 2. 3. 4. 17. 22. 23. 25. 26. 32. 33. 34. 35. 47. 60. 64. 66. 69. 70. 47. 44. 50. 55. 36. 37. 44. 47. 49. 54. 66. 71. 29. t t ~c"' t t t; * tt. I tr I ^ tc ts L 6 ti L 4> L < It 19. 28. 46. 70. 72. 19. 30. 37. 49. 68. 43. 46. 52. 53. 63. 64. 68. 52. 13. 34. 38. 13. 15. 27, 29. 61. 63. 67. 71. 72. 31. 10. 49. 66. 67. 18
Page 78 78 * " ts.E" e L') ( -a e t te-t L *^ -F <> - it 4 I -m^ ( 'a -t tL i -r t U j 11. 27. 28. 31. 33. 34. 37. 38. 43. 48. 53. 54. 55. 57. 60. 69. 70. 71. 9. 41. 62. 49. 66. 67. 25. 33. 36. 37. 41. 42. 47. 48. 49. 52. 54. 55. 64. 67. 69. 71. 43. 31. 34. 35. 29. 29. '>A < 71. 14. 13. 19. 24. 25. 43. 51. 57. 67. 68. 71. 71. 2. 5. 6. 50. 7. 8. 31. 46. 62. 30. 19. 30 j;5 L <*..6. rs, I1 5 L <.. < L 7 7. 71.